2651:"The issue of lineage is important because a critique of Chinese Judaism as not being authentically Jewish is based on the fact that the clan lineages were patrilineal..Since it is now assumed by many contemporary Jews that Judaism is matrilineal, Chinese Judaism was therefore spurious and the Chinese Jews cannot really be Jews..This criticism is absurd, because the practices of the Chinese Jews in this regard were and are no different from traditional Jewish practices elsewhere...The similarity of patrilineality in both Jewish and Chinese cultures is but another way in which the two cultures were compatible." (
1614:(1874). Finn relied on the accounts of the 17th century Jesuit missionaries. Zhou maintained that the community had no Torah scrolls until 1851, when they suddenly appeared to be sold to eager Western collectors. She also stated that drawings of the synagogue were doctored in the West because the original did not look like one, and that the Kaifeng community claimed to have kept some Jewish practices since before they are known to have begun. Xun Zhou posited that the Kaifeng community was not Jewish in any meaningful sense. Her hypothesis has not found any support within the scholarly community.
51:
1502:, matrilineal transmission of Jewishness is predominant, while Chinese Jews based their Jewishness on patrilineal descent. This has been attributed to the influence of Chinese cultural norms, where lines of descent are typically patrilineal). The Jewish sinologist Jordan Paper notes, however, that all genealogies in the Torah consist exclusively of male descent. The modern assumption that Judaism is matrilineal has been used, he adds, to deny the authenticity of Chinese Jews because their clan lineages were patrilineal.
981:
409:
1337:
992:
1574:. The codex is notable in that, while it ostensibly contains vowels, it was clearly copied by someone who did not understand them. While the symbols are accurate portrayals of Hebrew vowels, they appear to be placed randomly, thereby rendering the voweled text as gibberish. Since Modern Hebrew is generally written without vowels, a literate Hebrew speaker can disregard these markings, as the consonants are written correctly, with few scribal errors.
1316:
Kaifeng, including Ai's nephew, stopped by the
Jesuits' house while visiting Beijing on business, and got themselves baptized. They told Ricci that the old rabbi had died, and (since Ricci had not taken him up on his earlier offer), his position was inherited by his son, "quite unlearned in matters pertaining to his faith". Ricci's overall impression of the situation of China's Jewish community was that "they were well on the way to becoming
1547:
2677:"The Chinese Jews had not undergone the many centuries of suffering that European Jews had endured under Christianity, nor had they experienced the second-class citizenship of Jews in Muslim countries. Instead, for nearly a millennium they existed in an atmosphere of tolerance, indeed of complete acceptance, and they not only maintained a traditional Jewish life but adapted to a Chinese one as well."; "the Jews of Kaifeng and the
2586:"Later, in the 19th and 20th centuries, it is likely, as suggested by many scholars, that several of the Kaifeng Jews did convert to Islam rather than simply being swallowed up in the Buddhist or Confucian multitude. Today, a number of Muslims (and possibly non-Muslims) have discovered that their ancestors were Kaifeng Jews. ... (Jin Xiaojing 金效靜, 1981) discovered she was of Jewish descent when on the hajj to Mecca." (
1401:). The blue hat Hui also referred to Jews converting to Islam. Jin clan descendants also came to believe they were Muslims. Instead of being absorbed into Han, a portion of the Jews of China of Kaifeng became Hui Muslims. In 1948, Samuel Stupa Shih (Shi Hong Mo) (施洪模) said he saw a Hebrew language "Religion of Israel" Jewish inscription on a tombstone in a Qing dynasty Muslim cemetery to a place west of Hangzhou.
654:) who were captured during Mongol campaigns in the West and conveyed east to serve in the bureaucracy and assist the Mongols in administering China after its conquest. The two names associated in 1489 with the establishment of the synagogue in 1163, An-du-la and Lieh-wei (namely Abdullah and Levi), are in Yu's interpretation retrodated from later times. An-du-la, on the basis of the 1679 stele, he reads as the
764:. It would have been attractive to Persian Jewish merchants. The founding colony's members may have specialized in the manufacturing, dyeing, or pattern printing of cotton fabrics. By the early 16th century, an inscription mentions not only craftsmen, farmers and traders among them, but also scholars, physicians and officials, political and administrative, as well as military men in important posts.
2638:"this observer would hazard a guess that some of these 500 Kaifeng Jews will indeed become Jewish over the next several decades, because the Jews of the West will make them into Jews. Once discovered, they will be pursued in one way or another until they and their neighbors become so conscious of their 'Jewishness' that the deed will be done even if it will not be halakhically recognized." (
71:
2625:"It is clear from Shi's later descriptions that many of the tombstones he saw were Muslim rather than Jewish, though one, he claimed, read 'Religion of Israel' in Hebrew. In Hangzhou, according to Ricci in 1608, there had been a synagogue. We can only wonder whether the Jews there had a separate cemetery of their own or were accepted by the Muslims in their special cemetery." (
6102:
2599:"Islamic works translated into Chinese played a very important role in the popularization of Islam. At the same time, many Jews who did not like to abandon their tradition converted to Islam and were known as the 'Huihui with blue hats. The missionary work of Christians from the beginning of the 17th century and the Chinese Bible did not affect them'." (
315:. In all likelihood, all of the founders of the community were male Jewish merchants: the arduous, dangerous nature of the route, and the length of time which they needed to spend in order to travel on it, would have probably forced them to rule out bringing their wives, and after they settled in Kaifeng, they married Chinese women.
484:. The inscription states that the Jews came to China from Tiānzhú (天竺), a Han-Song term for India. It adds that they brought Western cloth as tribute for an emperor, unnamed, who welcomed them with the words: "You have come to Our China; reverence and preserve the customs of your ancestors, and hand them down at Bianliang (
1440:) out of official concerns that an ethnic status might lead them to seek privileges. What little remains of their material Jewish heritage has been locked away by Chinese authorities in a special room in the Kaifeng museum, ostensibly for the protection of their heritage or is conserved in the Dongda mosque (
2000:"It was only by way of exception that Jewish persons or activities were of interest to Chinese officials or men of letters. There are no specific Chinese monographs on the Jews, as there are, for example, about the Tibetan or Turkish groups with whom the imperial government perforce came into contact." (
1390:
Kaifeng Jewish ancestry has been found among their descendants living among the Hui
Muslims. Scholars have pointed out that Hui Muslims may have absorbed Kaifeng Jews instead of Han Confucians and Buddhists. Kaifeng Chinese had difficulty in distinguishing Jews and Muslims, and spoke of the former as
1386:
was reportedly seen in a mosque. The site itself was apparently bought by Bishop White in 1914, and in 1954, the
Chinese Communist government confiscated the property and built the Kaifeng Municipal Clinic on it. Some usages remained. Burial coffins maintained a distinctive shape from those customary
400:
recovered from
Kaifeng, and references in Chinese dynastic sources. The dates on the stelae range from 1489 through 1512 and 1663 to 1679. Chinese documents on Jews are rare compared to the voluminous records of other peoples. The first official documents referring to Jews as a distinct group date to
1537:
In the 21st century, both the Sino-Judaic
Institute and Shavei Israel sent teachers to Kaifeng to help interested community members learn about their Jewish heritage, building on the pioneering work of the American Judeo-Christian Timothy Lerner. Advocates for the descendants of the Kaifeng Jews are
1381:
The dismantlement of the synagogue sometime between 1850 and 1866 led to the community's demise. By the turn of the 19-20th century members of the community had fallen into dire poverty. The Zhang
Kaifeng Jewish family had largely converted to Islam by this time. The site of the synagogue had turned
2312:
reference="They were again deprived of their books by a fire, and the loss was in part supplied by the purchase of a roll of the Law from a
Mohammedan at Ning-keang-chow (ed. note =寧羌州: níng qiāng zhōu) in Shen-se, who had received it by legacy from a dying Israelite at Canton, and from this Hebrew
1692:
is a fictional tale which revolves around the
Kaifeng Jewish community. In the show, a group of European actors joins a troupe of Chinese performers in order to present the story of Chu Chem, a scholar who journeys to Kaifeng with his wife Rose and his daughter Lotte because he wants to learn about
923:
The
Persian rubrics of the Kaifeng Jewish liturgy are written in the Bukharan dialect and the Bukharan Jews believe that in the past, some of their kin migrated to China and ceased to have contact with their country of origin. Many of the known Hebrew names of the Kaifeng Jews were only found among
219:
The place of origin of these Jews and the date when they established their settlement in
Kaifeng are sources of intense debate among experts. While the descendants of the Kaifeng Jews are assimilated into mainstream Chinese culture, some of them are trying to revive the beliefs and customs of their
1777:
wrote in 1972 that the most detailed and convincing report about them, written in 1932 by an American Jew, David A. Brown, stated that: "They know they are Jews, but know nothing of Judaism. They realize they are Chinese, completely assimilated, yet there is pride in the knowledge that they spring
1625:
To survey the predicament of Jews in much of the rest of the world is to marvel at what the Kaifeng community escaped. In China, Jews were not subjected to violence and persecution, not demonized as God killers. Their synagogues were not invaded by conversionary harangues. They were not physically
1581:
from the 17th century and another from the 18th century, one written in Jewish-Persian hand, the other in Chinese Hebrew square script (like that of the Torah scrolls), using text primarily from an early stage of the Persian Jewish rite. A recent study of the text has a facsimile of one manuscript
1494:
It is difficult to estimate the number of Jews in China, population count often having to fluctuate constantly due to changes in official attitudes. A survey in the 80s suggested 140 families in China bore six of the traditional Jewish surnames, with 79 in Kaifeng amounting to 166 individuals. The
1486:
suggested it would be difficult to maintain that contemporary Kaifeng Chinese of Jewish descent are Jews. Proposals to establish a Museum commemorating their history despite the city's lack of Jewish artifacts and documents, have received enthusiastic local government backing, which considers that
1353:
of the 1850s led to the dispersal of the community, but it later returned to Kaifeng. To avoid the threat of becoming defunct, the Kaifeng community dispatched members to Shanghai in order to seek help from Sephardic European Jewish merchants active there. The funds that were collected to this end
730:
expressed in coercive decrees that enforced assimilation, and therefore, Yu infers, the Kaifeng Jews, under the Ming, claimed in their monumental stone inscriptions that their roots in China were ancient, going back at least to the nativist Song if not indeed to the Han period. The stele sought to
963:
brought about a precipitous drop in their population, to around 1,000 souls. The flood also destroyed the synagogue. Considerable efforts were made to save the scriptures. One man of the Gao clan, Gao Xuan, dove repeatedly into the flooded synagogue to rescue what he could and afterward all seven
943:
were issued that forbade members of such communities from marrying within their own groups. They were at liberty to marry only Han Chinese. Failure to do so would lead to enslavement. To what degree these measures were applied is unknown, but is evident from their Memorial Book that intermarriage
346:
in 878/9 in which not only Muslims and Christians but Jews were also killed, attesting to the latter group's presence in China. Trade with China was predominantly maritime, and dominated by Arabs, with many Jews also engaged in this network. By the 11th century, more than a million Arabs lived in
1469:
Rabbi Joshua Stampfer (1921–2019), on a visit to Kaifeng in 1983, estimated there were from 100 to 150 descendants of Kaifeng Jews, and provided the means for Jin Xiaojing's daughter, Qu Yinan, then a Beijing journalist, to study Judaism and Hebrew in California where she became the first of the
739:
Kaifeng was a cosmopolitan industrial metropolis with 600,000 to a million inhabitants in Northern Song times, which formed an intense hub for overland trade via the Silk Road and the commercial riverine networks connecting it to the eastern seabord. Through it vast amounts of grain tribute also
1373:
where they underwent circumcision. One died within two years but the other, Feba, was renamed Shalem Sholome David, and was employed by the Sassoons in their Shanghai office (1872–1882). In 1883 he married a Baghdadi Jewish woman, Habiba Reuben Moses, and became a respected member of the Jewish
1315:
wrote back, saying that the Messiah would not come for another ten thousand years. Nonetheless, apparently concerned with the lack of a trained successor, the old rabbi offered Ricci his position, if the Jesuit would join their faith and abstain from eating pork. Later, another three Jews from
32:
1323:
Father Joseph Brucker stated that Ricci's account of Chinese Jews indicated that there were only in the range of ten or twelve Jewish families in Kaifeng in the late 16th to early 17th centuries) In the Jesuits' manuscripts it was also stated that there was a greater number of Jews in
1285:, his eyes, and all his features". This has been taken to allow an inference that, up to that time, the Kaifeng Jews had still largely shunned intermixing and were thus physically distinguishable from the surrounding population. About three years after Ai's visit, Ricci sent a Chinese
1956:"In China, the merchant Jews who arrived around the eleventh century were, given the length, difficulties, and danger of the journey, unlikely to have brought wives with them. Those who elected to remain in China took Chinese wives, who, as is well documented, converted to Judaism." (
1670:
Peony, loves her master's son, David ben Ezra, but she cannot marry him due to her lowly status. He eventually marries a high-class Chinese woman, to the consternation of his mother, who is proud of her unmixed heritage. Descriptions of remnant names, such as a "Street of the
1626:
segregated from non-Jews nor forced to wear humiliating forms of identification on their dress. They were not forced into the most despised and vulnerable occupations, not stigmatized as grasping and vindictive, and portrayed neither as predatory monsters nor pathetic victims.
1478:
dietary law, which marked them off from most neighbouring Chinese. She had been under the impression her family was Muslim, who likewise abstain from pork, and her grandfather, like them, had worn a skullcap, only blue as opposed to the white cap worn donned by local Muslims.
1863:
language, a language which was only developed in the 8th century CE. Weisz ignores the anachronisms which are written on the stelae, such as the attribution of a grant of land to build a synagogue to a Ming dynasty emperor even though it dates back to the Song dynasty
1636:
639:
Recently, Peng Yu has challenged the Song-entry consensus, favouring instead a variant of the "second wave" theory of Kaifeng Jewish origins, one version of which holds that Jews probably figured among the large number of peoples collectively known as the
1495:
last official census revealed about 400 official Jews in Kaifeng, now estimated at some 100 families totalling approximately 500 people. Up to 1,000 residents have ties to Jewish ancestry, though only 40 to 50 individuals partake in Jewish activities.
1382:
into a fetid swamp. Much material belonging to it, even the roof tiles, was purchased by Muslims and others: two young Kaifeng Jews sold three Torahs to two Americans and an Austrian. Some property was also said to have been stolen. The Ark of the
1487:
such a centre would have positive effects on the local economy via Jewish tourism. Elazar opines that, over the ensuing decades, Western Jews will manage to encourage the growth of Chinese Jews among the descendant population The establishment of
1713:", that is, the alley of the Jews. He mentioned that there are still Jews in Kaifeng today, but they are reluctant to reveal themselves "in the current political climate". The documentary's companion book further states that one can still see a "
2572:
S.M. Perlmann, a Shanghai businessman and scholar, wrote in 1912 that "they bury their dead in coffins, but of a different shape than those of the Chinese are made, and do not attire the dead in secular clothes as the Chinese do, but in linen."
1348:
increased. With some Kaifeng families, Muslim men did marry their Jewish women, but the converse did not happen. In 1849, an observer who had contact with the Kaifeng Jewish community noted that "the Jews are quite Chinese in appearance." The
442:
provides a precise date for a large population of Jewish expatriates accompanying Ni-wei-ni from India who putatively arrived in Kaifeng on 20 February 998. These inferences contradict Buddhist records for Ni-wei-ni's visit. Both the
1859:, prayer books, etc.—in his thesis, he only quoted the stories which were recounted on the stelae. Berg also criticized Weisz's failure to study the implications of the fact that the Kaifeng liturgical documents were written in the
1791:"The debate about the origin, arrival and nature of the Kaifeng Jews is one of the most heated in the entire field of Sino-Judaica, arguably second only to that surrounding the history of the Jewish refugee community of Shanghai." (
2285:
whose court supposedly prized a small-footed dancer. When they were deported by the Northern Song to Kaifeng, the practice took root there. After the fall of Kaifeng, the Song continued the custom in their new capital at Hangzhou
2559:"Some of those who converted to Islam, like the Zhang family, still seem to cherish this past as well and consider themselves as 'fake Moslems'. This has been confirmed by Zhang Qianhong and Li Jingwen in 'Some Observations'." (
594:). By 1163, when the synagogue is thought to have been established, Kaifeng had been occupied by the Jurchen for 37/38 years: and had been their capital since 1161. The 1489 stele speaks of its establishment coinciding with the
371:
and then by barge to Kaifeng. The Jewish community that was eventually established in Kaifeng survived the collapse of these sister communities on the eastern seaboard, all of which disappeared in the 15-16th centuries when the
2163:), who was promoted within the same Embroidered Uniform Guard and had the same surname bestowed on him in 1421 in recognition for acting as an informer concerning the treasonous designs of the Prince of Zhou, namely
2612:"This also involves a difficult study of the relations that existed between the Kaifeng Jews and Muslims there. A number of Jewish descendants converted to Islam rather than melting into the general populations." (
2212:
actually has a broader, more general denotation, referring to several peoples from Central and Western Asia (西域: Xīyù). Orthodox Christians for example were called "green-eyed Huihui", and Huihui was also used of
1517:
requires proof of Jewish descent through at least one grandparent. Though such evidence is not available for the Kaifeng community, and strict Orthodox Jewish rabbis would question their authenticity as Jews,
2434:"The reasons for Ai Tian's journey are not stated; possibly his visit was connected with his official duties; possibly he may have undertaken it in the hope of securing promotion in the civil service." (
275:
as operating over a wide arc from Western Europe to China. It has been conjectured that this group constituted the first of two waves of Jewish settlement in China, the second being associated with the
2396:), identified or conflated with Adam in the 1489 inscription, was the mythical first being of Chinese cosmology. In the 1663 inscription, instead, Adam is depicted as a descendant of Pangu. Likewise,
1155:
in the Memorial Book suggests the prayer was recited at funerals. By sometime after the mid 19th century all of these practices appear to have been abandoned, including the observance of the Sabbath.
220:
ancestors. In the 21st century, efforts have been made to revive Kaifeng's Jewish heritage and encourage the descendants of its original population to convert back to Judaism. Via the offices of the
5690:
Silk Road Linguistics: The Birth of Yiddish and the Multiethnic Jewish Peoples on the Silk Road, 9-13th Centuries, the Indispensable Role of the Arabs, Chinese, Germans, Iranians, Slavs and Turks
1666:) in a Chinese Jewish community. The novel deals with the cultural forces which are gradually eroding the separate identity of the Jews, including intermarriage. The title character, the Chinese
944:
took place on a large scale among the Kaifeng Jews certainly from Ming and it may be assumed, in Qing times. From the 19th century onwards it became the norm. They followed the Chinese custom of
247:
The origin of the Kaifeng Jews and the date of their arrival is one of the most intensely debated topics in the field of Chinese-Jewish relations. Though some scholars date their arrival to the
2064:
Earlier scholarship transcribed 俺都喇 as "Yen-tu-la". In the 1489 and 1512 inscriptions, this 俺/Yen represents a family name which was later changed to Zhao by imperial favour. 俺 is to be read
1732:; upon learning about the Jews of Kaifeng, the members of the expatriate Jewish community decided to travel to Kaifeng in order to meet some of the descendants of the Kaifeng Jews and hold a
1906:
reverenced Moses, and kissed a volume of the Hebrew scriptures, often used as evidence for Jews in China in the 13th century, is regarded as a later interpolation, probably the handiwork of
2247:"Because the narratives in the various stelae differ, so we have the followers of the religion in Kaifeng having '70 surnames,' '73 surnames,' and 'Seven Surnames and Eight Families'." (
1851:, circulated a decree which stated that he was seeking the wisdom of foreign scholars. In his review of Weisz's book, Irvin Berg states that the author excluded many religious documents—
4749:
722:
The explanation for these contradictions within the various stelae must lie, Yu thinks, in the impact of Ming imperial policies aiming to constrain peoples such as the Semu, who came
2459:
1322-1403) noted down 31 ethnic groups as belonging to the second, Semu, rank of the four class Mongol classificatory system ((a) Mongols, (b) Semu, (c) Han (including Jin) and (d)
5653:
1248:) which, according to Zhang Ligang, first appeared in the 1820s when a German missionary used this translated name of "Jews Country" in a journal. When he saw a Christian image of
939:(1368–1644), in reaction to the foreign dynasty it replaced, laid down a policy of discrimination against foreigners, such as the resident Mongols and Semu. Laws regarding ethnic
572:, among others, assumes that this context suggests that the Kaifeng Jews must have settled in this Song capital, then known as Bianjing, no later than 1120, some years before the
1416:
which have been granted this official status in China. Their bid to be so listed in 1953 was turned down by the Chinese government. Their registration as "Jewish descendants" (
1509:. Some desire to reconnect with Judaism and some say their parents and grandparents told them that they were Jewish and would one day "return to their land". Under Israel's
1242:
decades earlier in 1573. Ai Tian explained that he was a member of a 1,000 strong Israelite congregation that worshipped one God. They were unfamiliar with the word "Jew" (
956:
was practiced: one Kaifeng Jew, the Zhang (張) clan's Zhang Mei, is recorded in the Memorial Book as having six wives, while Jin Rong-Zhang from the Jin clan (金) had five.
6128:
4935:
Laytner, Anson (2017). "Between Survival and Revival: The Impact of Western Jewish Interaction on Kaifeng-Jewish Identity". In Laytner, Anson H.; Paper, Jordan (eds.).
5900:
Yu, Peng (Autumn 2017). "Revising the date of Jewish arrival in Kaifeng, China, from the Song Dynasty (960–1279) to the Hung-wu period (1368–98) of the Ming Dynasty".
1292:
to visit Kaifeng; he copied the beginnings and ends of the holy books kept in the synagogue, which allowed Ricci to verify that they indeed were the same texts as the
1728:, covers the present-day Kaifeng Jewish community in China during a trip to Kaifeng which was taken by Jewish expatriates who met for weekly Friday night services in
2533:"Two families intermarry with Chinese Mohammedans only. The Jews give their daughters to the Mohammedans; the Mohammedans do not give their daughters to the Jews." (
959:
Towards the end of the Ming period, calculations based on the community's memorial book suggest that the Kaifeng Jewish community amounted to some 4,000 people. The
1804:
The self-published sinologist and independent researcher Tiberiu Weisz undertook a new translation of the stelae, and based on it, he theorizes that after the
1538:
exploring ways to convince the Chinese authorities to recognize the antiquity of the Kaifeng Jews and allow them to practice their Chinese Jewish way of life.
1344:
From the 17th century, further assimilation had begun to erode these traditions as the rate of intermarriage between Jews and other ethnic groups such as the
5599:
Urbach, Noam (2008). "What Prevented the Reconstruction of the Chinese Synagogue? Kaifeng Jews Between Revival and Reconstruction". In Kupfer, Peter (ed.).
5366:
Pollak, Michael (2017) . "The Manuscripts and Artifacts of the Synagogue of Kaifeng;: Their Peregrinations and Present Whereabouts". In Malek, Roman (ed.).
4825:"Delving into the Israelite Religion of Kaifeng: The Patriotic Scholar Shi Jingyun and his 'Study of the Origins of the Plucking the Sinews Sect of Henan'"
2268:
was used to refer to honoured members of the community by the Jews of eastern countries of the time concerned and meant 'the honourable, your highness'." (
264:
5554:
6168:
4192:
307:
by sea. Ibn Khordadbeh's Rhadanites used both routes. Some evidence has been interpreted to suggest that their ancestors may have mostly hailed from the
771:
upon the Jews. Other evidence points to 70-73 surnames. The late 1672 inscription states that at the synagogue's inception (1163) there were 73 clans (
351:, where they were allowed self-administration. At least 7 synagogue communities are attested for this period in all major Chinese port cities, such as
216:
neighbors advanced, until, by the 19th century, its Jewishness largely became extinct, apart from its retention of memories of its clan's Jewish past.
1281:), and possessed a great number of written materials and books. Ricci wrote that "his face was quite different to that of a Chinese in respect to his
4228:
1404:
By Ricci's time, it is said that the Nanjing and Beijing Jews had become Muslims, though a Jewish community and synagogue still existed in Hangzhou.
259:(960–1279). That prior to the Song, Jewish merchants were active in China appears probable from the fact that the Eastern Islamic Persian geographer
4990:
2017:
Ni-wei-ni (沙門你尾抳) and others came to China to meet Emperor Song Zhenzong with Buddhist relics, scriptures, banyan leafs and several banyan seeds." (
1526:
has sponsored for over a decade (2006–2016) the emigration of 19 descendants of Kaifeng Jews to Israel, where they have studied variously Hebrew in
470:
erected by the Kaifeng community bears the date 1489. This, it is affirmed, commemorates the construction in 1163 of a synagogue called Qingzhensi (
1078:), and grasping profound mysteries, founded Judaism. This is said to have occurred in the 146th year of the Zhou dynasty (i.e., 977 BCE). The
463:) in the Buddha Almanac of Zhi-pan mean "Buddhist monk", not rabbi. Furthermore, Ni-wei-ni did not bring Western cloth with him, but banyan seeds.
1474:
back to the religion of her ancestors. Qu Yinan's family abstained from certain foods, such as shellfish and pork, similar to the stipulations of
1595:
699:. The Jews themselves were defined as a Hui people, due to similarities between Jewish and Islamic traditions. They were called blue hat Hui (
6074:
6055:
6027:
6000:
5938:
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5840:
5815:
5764:
5742:
5702:
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5612:
5589:
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5211:
5101:
5071:
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4948:
4925:
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4598:
4541:
4516:
4493:
4479:
4452:
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province, China, where they were spotted by the Chinese general Li Guangli, who was sent to the region and ordered to expand the borders of
1168:) or "Hall of the Ancestors" where, according to the Portuguese Jesuit Jean-Paul Gozani (1647–1732) who lived in Kaifeng from 1698 to 1718,
338:
which was probably composed in the eighth or ninth century. A century later, the Arab geographer Abū Zayd Ḥasan al-Sīrāfī mentioned (910) a
6148:
5851:
5142:
2408:), the name for a Chinese goddess of creation remembered in myth for her intervention in staying a great flood that threatened mankind. (
1204:
4643:
636:), within whose territory Kaifeng lay. If the city was Jurchen, it is asked, why does the stele associate its foundation with the Song?
334:
with Hebrew characters, they wrote their documents on paper, something which was unavailable in the West, together with a fragment of a
193:. In the early centuries of their settlement, they may have numbered around 2,500 people. Despite their isolation from the rest of the
4244:
1365:
community made attempts to assist Kaifeng Jews in returning to Judaism, accepting them, despite their Asian features, as fellow Jews.
251:(618–907), or even earlier, Steven Sharot, reflecting the majority view, considers that the most probable date for the formation of a
5466:
Sharot, Stephen (Winter 2007). "The Kaifeng Jews: A Reconsideration of Acculturation and Assimilation in a Comparative Perspective".
1847:, which they were then living in. Weisz believes that they later returned to China during the Song dynasty, when its second emperor,
4655:
2463:
and Koreans). Jews do not figure there, but there are several names in the third class that look like a reference to them, such as
4585:
Eckstein, Matthew A. (2017). "Identity Discourse and the Chinese-Jewish Descendants". In Laytner, Anson H.; Paper, Jordan (eds.).
5267:
2135:) conferred as an imperial memorial for his meritorious services, together with the rank of rank of Military Commissioner in the
4758:
4609:
4245:"Review: The Kaifeng Stone Inscriptions: The Legacy of the Jewish Community in Ancient China By Tiberiu Weisz (iUniverse, 2006)"
964:
clans helped restore and rewrite the 13 scrolls. They obtained some from Ningxia and Ningbo to replace them, and another Hebrew
6178:
4370:
1836:
928:. Jewish written sources do not mention how the Jews arrived in Kaifeng, though a legend says that they arrived by land on the
740:
passed. Its strategic importance and wealth were recognized by successive dynastic powers over the period 905–959, such as the
4690:
5948:
Zhang, Qianhong; Liu, Bailu (2006). "A Study on the Social Condition of Kaifeng Jews from the Remaining Stone Inscriptions".
5286:
1505:
Kaifeng Jews are not recognized as Jews by birth and are required to formally convert to Judaism in order to receive Israeli
1032:
609:
140:
4672:
4527:
6183:
5396:
1550:
Membership list in a prayer book, in Hebrew characters (without vowel pointing) and Chinese characters, circa 17th century
6106:
4792:
Katz, Nathan (May 1995). "The Judaisms of Kaifeng and Cochin: Parallel and Divergent Styles of Religious Acculturation".
999:
When Kaifeng Jews introduced themselves to the Jesuits in 1605, they called themselves members of the house of "Israel" (
757:
726:
with the Mongols peoples, to assimilate to the culture of the revived Han hegemony. The dynasty was marked by a distinct
6118:
5774:
5511:
5444:
4342:
4327:
1750:
1450:), where the relics are inaccessible. Family papers and heirlooms were reportedly discarded or burnt out of fear of the
741:
237:
178:
551:
6173:
2264:(ע) could easily have been converted into the Chinese nasal final n. Moreover, according to Professor Rabin, the term
1598:
expressed doubts about the authenticity of the Kaifeng community, arguing that it was a construct of Christian-driven
1455:
925:
5713:
1488:
494:)," i.e., Kaifeng. The same stone inscription also associates the building's establishment with two names: An-du-la (
4917:
4766:
1413:
749:
745:
2503:). Unfortunately there is no evidence that might allow one to assert that the three terms denote an ethnic group (
4686:
4668:
4533:
4421:
4198:
2299:"No one seems to have seriously questioned the permissibility of the Kaifeng Jews marrying more than one wife." (
1907:
1899:
1523:
1366:
985:
719:), who were Muslims. Chinese sources do not mention the existence of Chinese Jews until the Mongol Yuan dynasty.
573:
5875:"Between Disintegration and Expansion; A Comparative Retrospection of the Kaifeng Jewish and Muslim Communities"
731:
assert proof of a long accommodation by Jews to Chinese civilization in order to avoid discriminatory measures.
6163:
5782:
5752:
5564:
5327:
Pollak, Michael (Spring 2005). "Review: The Jews of Kaifeng, China: History, Culture, and Religion by Xu Xin".
5221:
Okuma, Taryn L. (Spring 2008). "Jews in China and American Discourses of Identity in Pearl S. Buck's "Peony"".
5111:
5081:
5053:
5019:
4985:
4691:"Stopping the crackdown on China's Jews: There is no excuse for Israel to be turning its back on Kaifeng Jewry"
2421:
The source for the data on current observances recorded by Aaron Halevi Fink, dated to 1850, is problematical (
1774:
1706:
622:), namely 1161, which sets the synagogue's establishment in the first year of the reign of the Jurchen Emperor
481:
277:
2179:) had identified in 1965 the Kaifeng Jewish physician with this An San, an identification endorsed by Leslie (
408:
4380:"'I thought we were Muslims because we never ate pork' - Qu Yinan: Chinese Jew Comes to U.S. to Trace Roots"
2546:"...religious strictures required anyone, whether man or woman, who married a Muslim to convert to Islam." (
2327:
1848:
1046:
The evidence on the stelae shows that they identified the emergence of Judaism as coinciding with the early
960:
761:
668:), said to be a Kaifeng Jewish physician, who "restored" the synagogue in 1421 (not 1163). According to the
1202:, then established in Beijing, was visited by a Chinese official from Kaifeng. According to the account in
1172:
were placed to commemorate the patriarchs and outstanding figures of the Law, as well as various holy men (
5930:
5882:
5684:
5604:
5559:
5550:
5203:
5093:
4859:
4318:
1249:
1148:
623:
167:
5962:
4379:
4314:
4194:
A Social and Religious History of the Jews: Late Middle Ages and the era of European expansion, 1200-1650
2076:. One suggestion is that rather than the Moslem "Abdullah", the Chinese may have represented an original
6153:
5832:
5468:
2281:
Kaifeng played a pivotal role in the diffusion of this often frowned-on practice, which arose among the
1531:
1471:
980:
2114:
It has been conjectured that the Chinese name may originally have transcribed the Arabic name Hassan (
6158:
5790:
5116:
4188:
1559:
1239:
1183:
396:
was established relies on two forms of evidence: the information surviving in inscriptions from four
287:
According to a scholarly consensus, the Jewish community of Kaifeng primarily consisted of people of
4529:
Cultural Centrality and Political Change in Chinese History: Northeast Henan in the Fall of the Ming
991:
430:) and others had spent seven years traveling from India to China in order to pay homage to the Song
5718:
5694:
5658:
5223:
4508:
2359:"The Jesuit Jean-Paul Gozani.. wrote in 1704 that the '...idolators first gave them this name '." (
1140:
1043:, marking them as distinct from Muslims who otherwise, like them, also refrained from eating pork.
760:
when they unified the empire, until the city was conquered by the Jurchen in 1127. Under siege, it
364:
348:
5668:
1369:
took two Kaifeng brothers in flight from the Taiping rebels under their wing and had them sent to
1336:
916:. It has been suggested however that it may well have been a phonetic transcription of the Hebrew
5493:
5485:
5354:
5346:
5309:
5248:
5240:
5182:
5151:
5125:
5041:
5007:
4811:
4709:
4695:
4677:
4573:
4426:
4332:
4170:
2488:
1304:
339:
577:
5438:
4704:
2234:. This arose as the result of a misreading of a mistranslation of the relevant stele by White (
2230:
It is occasionally repeated in the literature that the Kaifeng Jews dated their arrival to the
1709:
traveled to Kaifeng and walked down a small lane known as the "alley of the sect who teach the
330:, northwestern China, was a bill of sale for sheep which dated back to 718 CE, written in
6070:
6051:
6023:
5996:
5934:
5922:
5886:
5874:
5859:
5836:
5811:
5799:
5760:
5738:
5698:
5649:
5635:
5608:
5585:
5538:
5452:
5400:
5375:
5313:
5271:
5207:
5195:
5097:
5085:
5067:
5057:
4971:
4944:
4921:
4905:
4890:
4878:
4863:
4851:
4836:
4824:
4778:
4731:
4719:
4621:
4594:
4537:
4512:
4475:
4463:
4448:
4436:
4398:
4384:
4299:
4202:
4174:
1755:
1350:
1297:
802:
581:
31:
5984:
5826:
5778:
5623:
5390:
4261:
4164:
5909:
5734:
5728:
5528:
5520:
5477:
5418:
5338:
5329:
5261:
5232:
5174:
5165:
5063:
5033:
4999:
4909:
4803:
4770:
4635:
4565:
4556:
4295:
1978:
1805:
1683:
1657:
1621:
notes its exceptionality to the tragic diffidence of host societies to Jewish settlements:-
1499:
1483:
1466:
1257:
1169:
768:
595:
537:
431:
92:
4252:
2147:). This is almost identical to a passage in the Ming biography of the Emperor at that time
2034:
However the 1479 stone also uses a term "The Temple of Israel" for their synagogue.(一賜樂業業:
1546:
1340:
Earth Market Street, Kaifeng, 1910. The synagogue lay beyond the row of stores on the right
691:
Yu's Yuan-entry theory claims that the Kaifeng Jews entered China together with the Muslim
197:, their ancestors managed to practice Jewish traditions and customs for several centuries.
6019:
5581:
4967:
4940:
4832:
4590:
1936:
1924:
1745:
1617:
In an overview of the place of Kaifeng Jews within the broader context of Jewish history,
1555:
1375:
813:
655:
194:
158:
4366:
5533:
5506:
2500:
2338:
it would appear he preferred the alternative pronunciation for the character 賜, namely
2172:
2148:
2051:"Others have favoured an Indian origin, but their arguments do not appear convincing" (
1265:
1144:
681:
548:
260:
1465:
pilgrimage the Hui Muslim woman Jin Xiaojing (金效靜) realized she had Jewish roots. The
1378:
the Bombay community offered to subsidize the relocation of Kaifeng Jews to Shanghai.
6142:
6133:
5497:
5358:
5252:
5137:
5024:
4852:"The Perception and Self-Perception of Jewishness in Kaifeng in the Past and Present"
4362:
2282:
1928:
1860:
1662:
1653:
1583:
1519:
1510:
1362:
1310:
1136:
1112:
331:
308:
221:
201:
116:
1092:) in turn is set in the 613th year of the same dynasty, namely around 510 BCE.
5631:
5448:
5434:
5426:
5414:
5178:
4569:
4500:
4489:
4471:
4393:
Chen, Changqi (2001) . "Buddhist Monk or Jewish Rabbi?". In Shapiro, Sidney (ed.).
2460:
2231:
2214:
1903:
1844:
1618:
1199:
1182:). This was similar to Chinese rites regarding ancestors, with the difference that
1047:
1036:
965:
945:
936:
696:
685:
402:
373:
368:
312:
288:
281:
256:
248:
120:
5800:"On the Religious Life of the Kaifeng Jewish Community in the 15th-17th Centuries"
5296:
1878:
1635:
1303:
When Ricci wrote to the "ruler of the synagogue" in Kaifeng, telling him that the
544:, ("master", religious leader), and "rabbi" in a Jewish context in that language.
6011:
5688:
5573:
4959:
1827:. he further guesses that sometime prior to 108 BCE, these Jews migrated to
935:
Some Jesuit reports inaccurately stated the Kaifeng Jews did not intermarry. The
416:
Two Chinese scholars have argued that the Jews went to China in 998, because the
2678:
1970:
1832:
1718:
1599:
1506:
1427:
1383:
1345:
1289:
1282:
1271:
Ai said that many other Jews resided in Kaifeng; they had a splendid synagogue (
1099:
usage, celebrating all the Jewish festivals, observing the prayers, rituals and
319:
292:
209:
124:
4639:
1778:
from an ancient people who are different from the other Chinese in K'ai feng" (
676:
or synagogue leaders were drawn, only arrived in Kaifeng after relocating from
5481:
5306:
Mandarins, Jews, and Missionaries: The Jewish Experience in the Chinese Empire
4774:
4651:
4551:
1977:
with Hebraic characters. Jewish speakers of Persian also knew how to write in
1603:
1586:
haggadah (in Hebrew characters), as well as an annotated English translation.
1562:'s Klau Library in Cincinnati, Ohio. Among the works in that collection are a
1451:
1293:
1187:
1108:
1100:
753:
727:
692:
569:
224:
organization, a number of young Chinese descendants of Kaifeng Jews have made
213:
128:
5913:
5524:
5236:
4807:
5923:"The Understanding and Attitude of Chinese Society Towards the Kaifeng Jews"
5807:
5371:
5037:
4988:(July–September 1962). "Some Notes on the Jewish Inscriptions of K'aifeng".
4886:
4727:
4617:
4554:(1993). "K'aifeng Jews Revisited: Sinification as Affirmation of Identity".
4444:
4367:"Minyan in Kaifeng: A Modern Journey to an Ancient Chinese Jewish Community"
2681:
never experienced anti-Semitism, making them unique among the world's Jews."
1932:
1151:
were acclimatized to the respective Chinese customs, though the text of the
929:
343:
300:
296:
272:
5542:
5114:; Pollak, Michael (1998). "The Fink/Liebermann Visit to the Kaifeng Jews".
4219:
The Jewish People and Their Place in History - The Jews of China and Harbin
536:) of the community. This last term probably is a phonetic rendering of the
6101:
5342:
299:, or whether they travelled inland after they reached coastal cities like
200:
The distinctive customary life of the Kaifeng community slowly eroded, as
5978:(in Chinese). Vol. 44. Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association.
4346:
2496:
1856:
1688:
1667:
1578:
1571:
1325:
1198:
The existence of Jews in China was unknown to Europeans until 1605, when
1128:
1116:
1096:
953:
949:
940:
360:
352:
335:
323:
304:
5423:
China in the Sixteenth Century: The Journals of Matthew Ricci, 1583-1610
5350:
5244:
5186:
5155:
5129:
4577:
4166:
Material Culture in Europe and China, 1400–1800: The Rise of Consumerism
1973:. Technically, Judeo-Persian is a form of the Persian language which is
318:
With regard to this first wave, among the vast trove of documents which
5489:
5291:
5045:
4815:
4745:
4412:
Chen, Yuan (1981). "Study of the Israelite Religion". In Wu, Z. (ed.).
2401:
1940:
1882:
1840:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1733:
1729:
1714:
1355:
1317:
1261:
1152:
1120:
1104:
1079:
969:
677:
565:
205:
182:
104:
6124:
5011:
2260:"This fits the Chinese pronunciation far better – the Hebrew gutteral
1939:
to Chang'an, whose re-opening coincided with the establishment of the
291:
origin. Uncertainty persists as to whether they came overland through
6016:
The Chinese Jews of Kaifeng: A Millennium of Adaptation and Endurance
5578:
The Chinese Jews of Kaifeng: A Millennium of Adaptation and Endurance
4964:
The Chinese Jews of Kaifeng: A Millennium of Adaptation and Endurance
4937:
The Chinese Jews of Kaifeng: A Millennium of Adaptation and Endurance
4829:
The Chinese Jews of Kaifeng: A Millennium of Adaptation and Endurance
4587:
The Chinese Jews of Kaifeng: A Millennium of Adaptation and Endurance
2164:
1723:
1710:
1675:", and descriptions of customs such as refraining from the eating of
1672:
1563:
1514:
1475:
1370:
1286:
1124:
1064:) was recorded as wakening as from sleep to the 19th generation from
1040:
1010:
913:
519:
356:
225:
148:
76:
5669:"From East To Farther East: The Jewish Experience in Kaifeng, China"
4287:
2495:
signifies "people", hence the suspicion by Yin Gang that this is an
1554:
Several Kaifeng Torah scrolls survive, housed in collections in the
5003:
4002:
1582:
and a sample of the other, the full text of the Hebrew/Aramaic and
363:. Goods from these coastal centres were transported inland via the
4794:
4441:
Trade, Travel, and Exploration in the Middle Ages: An Encyclopedia
4218:
2389:
2156:
2131:Ăn Chéng two years later, in 1423, received, the surname Zhao (趙:
1852:
1828:
1824:
1634:
1567:
1545:
1527:
1335:
1253:
1224:
1132:
1065:
1028:
990:
979:
467:
453:) used to describe Ni-wei-ni in the Song dynastic history and the
435:
407:
397:
389:
377:
327:
190:
186:
56:
5059:
The Survival of the Chinese Jews: The Jewish Community of Kaifeng
4610:"The Contemporary Condition of the Jewish descendants of Kaifeng"
2664:"it is impossible to deny that the Jewish community did exist." (
1558:
and elsewhere. A number of surviving written works are housed at
1491:
in 1992 rekindled interest in Judaism and the Jewish experience.
1095:
In their prayers and liturgy, the traditional community followed
5992:
4879:"The Judaism of the Kaifeng Jews and Liberal Judaism in America"
4271:
4266:
3695:
3693:
3680:
3678:
2397:
2372:
Löwenthal also notes the variants "Sinew-plucking Huihui" (挑筋回回:
2261:
1820:
1676:
1462:
641:
252:
5163:
Löwenthal, Rudolf (1947). "The Nomenclature of Jews in China".
5086:"Jews and Judaism in Traditional China: Prospects for Research"
4416:. Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House. pp. 84–85.
6112:
6012:"Eight Centuries in the Chinese Diaspora: The Jews of Kaifeng"
5852:"The Jews of Kaifeng: Their Origins, Routes, and Assimilation"
5624:"An investigation of the Date of Jewish Settlement in Kaifeng"
5392:
The Jews of China: History of a Community and its Perspectives
5927:
Youtai - Presence and Perception of Jews and Judaism in China
5879:
Youtai - Presence and Perception of Jews and Judaism in China
5601:
Youtai - Presence and Perception of Jews and Judaism in China
5200:
Youtai - Presence and Perception of Jews and Judaism in China
5090:
Youtai - Presence and Perception of Jews and Judaism in China
4856:
Youtai - Presence and Perception of Jews and Judaism in China
4222:(Report). Harbin Municipal Government; Harbin Tourism Bureau.
3617:
3615:
1190:
was divided into 53 sections according to the Persian style.
791:) in the Kaifeng Jewish community. The Hongzhi stele (1489) (
5987:. In Kalmar, Ivan Davidson; Penslar, Derek Jonathan (eds.).
5574:"Râdhânites, Chinese Jews, and the Silk Road of the Steppes"
5022:(1967). "The K'aifeng Jew Chao Ying-ch'eng and His Family".
4494:"Some Reflections on the Names of the Jews of Kaifeng China"
3866:
3864:
2744:
2742:
1412:
The Kaifeng Jews are not recognized as a minority among the
672:, the Kaifeng Jewish Li/Levi clan, from whose ranks some 14
412:
Ink rubbings of the 1489 stele (left) and 1512 stele (right)
5505:
Song, Xi; Campbell, Cameron D.; Lee, James Z. (June 2015).
3470:
3468:
1139:. Within a few centuries, nonetheless, practices regarding
5828:
The Jews of Kaifeng, China: History, Culture, and Religion
1566:(a Jewish prayer book) in Chinese characters and a Hebrew
1354:
were diverted to assist an influx of Russian Jews fleeing
480:; 'True and pure Temple'), the customary term for
420:
records that in the year 998, a monk (僧) named Ni-wei-ni (
5985:"The "Kaifeng Jew" Hoax: Constructing the "Chinese Jews""
4439:. In Friedman, John Block; Figg, Kristen Mossler (eds.).
2790:
2788:
2786:
6067:
Jewish Religious Observance by the Jews of Kaifeng China
3431:
3429:
3317:
3315:
3313:
3090:
3088:
1158:
Outside the synagogue was a large hall, the Tz'u t'ang (
388:
The point of departure for determining precisely when a
4236:
Judaism: A Quarterly Journal of Jewish Life and Thought
3344:
3342:
3063:
3061:
2884:
2882:
2880:
1238:) – someone who had passed the provincial level of the
5714:"5 Chinese women immigrate to Israel, plan conversion"
5507:"Ancestry Matters: Patrilineage Growth and Extinction"
4914:
The Cambridge Dictionary of Judaism and Jewish Culture
4673:"From Kaifeng to the Kotel: Chinese Jews in Jerusalem"
3300:
3298:
912:), a term usually explained as a loanword from Arabic
2947:
2945:
2705:
2703:
2701:
2699:
2697:
2072:, which may account for the earlier transcription as
1885:, where a community of Eastern Islamic Jews lived." (
1027:). This term arose from observing that, in memory of
4883:
The Jewish-Chinese Nexus: A Meeting of Civilizations
4614:
The Jewish-Chinese Nexus: A Meeting of Civilizations
3165:
3163:
2988:
2986:
2984:
2807:
2805:
2803:
172:
5654:"Judaism: Only a Dim Memory to Chinese Descendants"
4146:
2400:was rendered, in a similar assimilative manner, as
2155:(reigned 1402 to 1424), where mention is made of a
110:
98:
86:
66:
46:
41:
4328:"Jewish and Chinese: Explaining a Shared Identity"
4217:
6129:The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot
6048:East Gate of Kaifeng: a Jewish world inside China
5140:(1988). "The Jewish Presence in Imperial China".
4765:. The Cambridge History of Judaism. Vol. 5.
4505:These Are the Names: Studies in Jewish Onomastics
1296:known to Europeans, except that they did not use
5757:Legacy: A Search for the Origins of Civilization
5630:. A Sourcebook and Research Guide. Vol. 2.
4470:. A Sourcebook and Research Guide. Vol. 2.
2773:
2771:
2769:
1307:the Jews were waiting for had come already, the
438:. Others followed this up with a claim that the
376:'s ability to protect its coast was crippled by
36:Jews of Kaifeng, late 19th or early 20th century
4343:"Chinese Kaifeng Jews Seek New Lives in Israel"
3954:
995:Interior of the Kaifeng synagogue, 18th century
972:), who acquired it from a dying Jew at Canton.
6014:. In Laytner, Anson H.; Paper, Jordan (eds.).
5856:Jews in Old China: Studies by Chinese Scholars
5576:. In Laytner, Anson H.; Paper, Jordan (eds.).
4962:. In Laytner, Anson H.; Paper, Jordan (eds.).
4827:. In Laytner, Anson H.; Paper, Jordan (eds.).
4395:Jews in Old China: Studies by Chinese Scholars
4341:Burke, Sarah; Jabari, Lawahez (2 March 2016).
4026:
2963:
2313:roll they were able to make several copies." (
1035:, their butchers extracted the sciatic nerve (
968:was bought from a Muslim in Ningqiangzhou (in
3759:
3699:
3684:
3606:
2143:). Thereafter he was known as Zhao Cheng (趙誠:
1489:diplomatic relations between China and Israel
1300:(which were a comparatively late invention).
1054:1046–256 BCE, in modern reckoning). Abraham (
580:that Kaifeng was captured as a result of the
547:At this time northern China was ruled by the
458:
448:
434:. They identified this Ni-wei-ni as a Jewish
8:
4640:"Are There Really Jews in China?: An Update"
2975:
2422:
2068:. The character has a variant pronunciation
1693:his ancestors and find a husband for Lotte.
24:
5727:Wong, Fook-Kong; Yasharpour, Dalia (2011).
5263:The Theology of the Chinese Jews, 1000–1850
5196:"Baghdadi Jews, Chinese "Jews" and Chinese"
2794:
1969:The language which they spoke was probably
1721:in the living room". A recent documentary,
1308:
5440:Belonging: The Story of the Jews 1492–1900
3870:
3621:
1602:, powered by the evangelical interests of
756:who all made it their capital, as did the
564:(1115–1234)), while the area south of the
23:
5730:The Haggadah of the Kaifeng Jews of China
5532:
4958:Laytner, Anson H.; Paper, Jordan (2017).
4746:"Haggadah with Judeo-Persian translation"
4608:Ehrlich, M. Avrum; Pingan, Liang (2008).
4290:. In Kahn, Lily; Rubin, Aaron D. (eds.).
4229:"Among the Jewish Descendants of Kaifeng"
3645:
3498:
3474:
3360:
3333:
3052:
2924:
2409:
2347:
2102:
2039:
898:Leaders among this community were called
6121:from the papers of Charles Daniel Tenney
5425:. Translated by Louis Joseph Gallagher.
4991:Journal of the American Oriental Society
3894:
3819:
3028:
1009:) The Jesuits also noted that a Chinese
984:A model of the Kaifeng synagogue at the
5804:From Kaifeng to Shanghai: Jews in China
5368:From Kaifeng to Shanghai: Jews in China
4750:HUC Rare book and manuscript collection
4724:From Kaifeng to Shanghai: Jews in China
4414:Selected Historical Essays by Chen Yuan
4262:"Kaifeng Jews study in Israeli yeshiva"
4003:HUC Rare book and manuscript collection
3966:
3942:
3747:
3546:
3435:
3396:
3094:
2936:
2823:
2748:
2709:
2693:
2534:
2287:
2022:
1767:
1260:, he took it to be a representation of
576:. It was in 1127 during the subsequent
5858:. Hippocrene Books. pp. 217–238.
4397:. Hippocrene Books. pp. 139–142.
4086:
3990:
3978:
3918:
3855:
3831:
3771:
3669:
3594:
3570:
3558:
3534:
3522:
3510:
3486:
3420:
3384:
3372:
3321:
3193:
3142:
3118:
3106:
3079:
3067:
2912:
2900:
2888:
2871:
2859:
2811:
2760:
2733:
2639:
2626:
2613:
2560:
2269:
2235:
2184:
2119:
2085:
2052:
1944:
1923:There was also a northern branch, the
1911:
1886:
1839:(845–46), the Jews were expelled from
1779:
1679:, are prevalent throughout the novel.
378:constant raiding from Japanese pirates
4422:"Chinese Writer Studies Jewish Roots"
4122:
4098:
4014:
3783:
3723:
3711:
3657:
3633:
3459:
3348:
3289:
3241:
2951:
2721:
2652:
2574:
2455:), the Yuan scholar Tao Zongyi (陶宗儀:
2435:
2314:
2300:
2101:) in the 1489 and 1679 inscriptions (
2001:
1957:
1865:
1498:Within the framework of contemporary
1017:, "the sect that plucks the sinews" (
709:) as opposed to the "white cap Hui" (
568:was controlled by the Southern Song.
7:
4378:Chazanov, Mathis (8 December 1985).
4361:Calcote, Steven; Shulman, Jonathan;
4326:Buckley, Chris (25 September 2016).
4134:
4110:
4074:
4062:
4050:
4038:
3906:
3843:
3807:
3795:
3735:
3582:
3304:
3253:
3154:
3004:
2835:
2521:
2360:
2248:
2115:
1660:, set one of her historical novels (
1205:De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas
42:Regions with significant populations
5224:Tulsa Studies in Women's Literature
4644:Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs
4315:"China Virtual Jewish History Tour"
3882:
3169:
3016:
2600:
2587:
2547:
2516:Kaifeng Jews only adopted the term
2504:
2218:
1835:China. Centuries later, during the
1606:and his two works on the question:
311:of Persian Jews who had settled in
255:in Kaifeng was sometime during the
162:
6088:(2nd ed.). New York: Paragon.
5712:Winer, Stuart (29 February 2016).
4763:Jews in the Medieval Islamic World
4657:The Orphan Colony of Jews in China
4260:Bitton, Rebecca (24 August 2010).
3447:
3408:
3277:
3265:
3229:
3217:
3205:
3181:
3130:
3040:
2992:
2847:
2777:
2665:
2180:
2018:
1910:in his 1553 edition of that work (
1792:
1612:The Orphan Colony of Jews in China
762:surrendered to the Mongols in 1233
16:Jewish community in Kaifeng, China
14:
6169:Groups claiming Israelite descent
6050:. China Center, U. of Minnesota.
6046:Needle, Patricia M., ed. (1992).
5555:"Why Is This Haggadah Different?"
4761:. In Lieberman, Phillip I (ed.).
4147:Calcote, Shulman & Nimoy 2002
3930:
2097:Alternatively written Li wei(利未:
1530:and a yeshiva in preparation for
6100:
5626:. In Goldstein, Jonathan (ed.).
5285:Pfeffer, Anshel (13 June 2008).
5268:Wilfrid Laurier University Press
4663:. London: James Nisbet & Co.
4466:. In Goldstein, Jonathan (ed.).
1877:"Their name probably comes from
1656:, raised in China and fluent in
1374:community in Bombay. During the
744:(who gave it its present name),
69:
49:
30:
6125:The Jewish Community of Kaifeng
6084:White, William Charles (1966).
5787:Chinese and Japanese Repository
4371:National Center for Jewish Film
1837:Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution
1701:In his 1992 documentary series
1594:Xun Zhou, a research fellow at
976:Religious practices and beliefs
767:A Ming emperor conferred eight
384:The Song/Yuan period hypotheses
5825:Xu, Xin; Gonen, Rivka (2003).
5179:10.1080/02549948.1947.11744892
4881:. In Ehrlich, M. Avrum (ed.).
4612:. In Ehrlich, M. Avrum (ed.).
4570:10.1080/02549948.1993.11731245
4227:Berg, Irwin M. (Winter 2000).
1577:Also at the Klau Library is a
1446:
1436:
1422:
1397:
1277:
1244:
1234:
1218:
1178:
1164:
1103:variously associated with the
1088:
1074:
1060:
1023:
1005:
908:
797:
787:
777:
715:
705:
664:
650:
632:
618:
604:
590:
560:
532:
514:
500:
490:
476:
459:
426:
273:the Jewish Radhanite merchants
153:
144:
1:
5397:Cambridge Scholars Publishing
4526:Des Forges, Roger V. (2003).
3955:Song, Campbell & Lee 2015
1941:Jewish Khanate of the Khazars
1051:
280:and the establishment of the
267:Kitāb al-Masālik wa-l-Mamālik
6119:The Jewish Colony at Kaifeng
5854:. In Shapiro, Sidney (ed.).
5512:American Sociological Review
5287:"Taking the Silk Route Back"
4720:"Jewish Property in Kaifeng"
4292:Handbook of Jewish Languages
2449:Notes Taken in a Nan Village
2013:"In 998, the Central Indian
1823:and settled in Northwestern
1751:History of the Jews in China
801:) registers the names of 14
670:Diary of the Defence of Pien
574:Song-Jin alliance broke down
265:Book of Roads and Kingdoms (
238:History of the Jews in China
6149:Jews and Judaism in Kaifeng
5961:Zhi-pan (4 November 2002).
5950:Journal of Henan University
4705:"From Kaifeng to kibbutzim"
4430:. 18 June 1985. p. 12.
2183:, pp. 378–379, 383–384
1717:on the door frame, and the
1456:Chinese Cultural Revolution
952:marriage was retained, and
735:The early Kaifeng community
179:descendants of Chinese Jews
177:) are a small community of
173:
6200:
5976:(CBETA Electronic Version)
5925:. In Kupfer, Peter (ed.).
5877:. In Kupfer, Peter (ed.).
5198:. In Kupfer, Peter (ed.).
5088:. In Kupfer, Peter (ed.).
4918:Cambridge University Press
4854:. In Kupfer, Peter (ed.).
4767:Cambridge University Press
4507:. Vol. 4. Ramat Gan:
4027:Wong & Yasharpour 2011
2964:Wong & Yasharpour 2011
1141:the coming of age ceremony
961:catastrophic flood of 1642
608:) era of the Song emperor
596:first year of the Longxing
522:, who is described as the
508:) and a certain Lieh-wei (
235:
6069:. Sino-Judaic Institute.
5902:Journal of Jewish Studies
5802:. In Malek, Roman (ed.).
5482:10.2979/JSS.2007.13.2.179
5389:Rebouh, Caroline (2019).
5304:Pollak, Michael (1998) .
5194:Meyer, Maisie J. (2008).
5143:Jewish Historical Studies
5117:Bibliography and Booklore
4775:10.1017/9781139048873.014
4722:. In Malek, Roman (ed.).
4534:Stanford University Press
4509:Bar-Ilan University Press
4288:"Judeo-Iranian languages"
4199:Columbia University Press
3760:Ehrlich & Pingan 2008
3700:Ricci & Trigault 1953
3685:Ricci & Trigault 1953
3607:Ricci & Trigault 1953
2137:Embroidered Uniform Guard
1900:The Travels of Marco Polo
1441:
1431:
1417:
1392:
1367:The firm of S. H. Sassoon
1272:
1229:
1213:
1208:, Ricci's visitor, named
1173:
1159:
1083:
1069:
1055:
1018:
1000:
986:Diaspora Museum, Tel Aviv
920:(מעלה) "the honourable".
903:
792:
782:
772:
710:
700:
659:
645:
627:
613:
599:
585:
555:
527:
518:), probably transcribing
509:
495:
485:
471:
449:
421:
115:
103:
91:
29:
5989:Orientalism and the Jews
5966:
5525:10.1177/0003122415576516
5237:10.1353/tsw.2008.a246776
4808:10.1163/1568527952598594
4464:"From Berlin To Tianjin"
4435:Chong, Key Ray (2013) .
4216:Ben-Canaan, Dan (2009).
4163:Adshead, S.A.M. (1997).
4089:, pp. 139–148, 148.
3280:, pp. 375–376, 386.
3232:, pp. 373–374, 377.
3208:, pp. 369–386, 375.
2976:Laytner & Paper 2017
2423:Leslie & Pollak 1998
2272:, pp. 351–352, 352)
1925:Silk Road of the Steppes
1470:Kaifeng community to be
1033:wrestling with the angel
295:, via either of the two
5667:Weisz, Tiberiu (2014).
5038:10.1163/156853267X00025
4904:Laytner, Anson (2011).
4877:Laytner, Anson (2008).
4286:Borjian, Habib (2017).
4243:Berg, Irwin M. (2008).
3375:, pp. 91–108, 100.
2795:Burke & Jabari 2016
1408:Post World War II times
6179:Jewish Chinese history
6065:Simons, Chaim (2010).
6010:Zürcher, Eric (2017).
5921:Zhang, Ligang (2008).
5914:10.18647/3330/JJS-2017
5572:Thomas, Nigel (2017).
5560:Jewish Review of Books
5260:Paper, Jordan (2012).
4850:Kupfer, Peter (2008).
4319:Jewish Virtual Library
2874:, pp. 2–6, 11–13.
1652:The American novelist
1644:
1628:
1551:
1341:
1332:19th to 20th centuries
1309:
1184:no images were allowed
996:
988:
728:anti-foreign sentiment
413:
309:Bukharan Jewish branch
6113:Sino-Judaic Institute
5833:KTAV Publishing House
5791:W. H. Allen & Co.
5779:"Israelites in China"
5622:Wei, Qianzhi (1999).
5469:Jewish Social Studies
5445:The Story of the Jews
5343:10.1353/sho.2005.0118
5112:Leslie, Donald Daniel
4823:Kong, Xianyi (2017).
4462:Dawid, Heinz (1999).
4255:on 27 September 2011.
4189:Baron, Salo Wittmayer
2520:in the 20th century (
2217:, Greeks and others (
2159:soldier, An San (俺三:
1638:
1623:
1549:
1532:conversion to Judaism
1339:
994:
983:
411:
236:Further information:
111:Related ethnic groups
6184:Jewish ethnic groups
6109:at Wikimedia Commons
5933:. pp. 139–153.
5885:. pp. 185–200.
5810:. pp. 127–148.
5567:on 26 November 2019.
5206:. pp. 155–184.
4943:. pp. 213–245.
4920:. pp. 100–102.
4835:. pp. 165–178.
4769:. pp. 332–368.
4730:. pp. 117–124.
4718:Gabow, Leo (2017) .
4689:(8 September 2016).
4593:. pp. 179–200.
4474:. pp. 110–119.
4298:. pp. 234–297.
3268:, pp. 370, 378.
3029:Zhang & Liu 2006
2978:, pp. vii–viii.
2453:Nán Cūn Chuò Gēng Lù
2412:, pp. 100–101).
2342:, which would yield
2330:given by Löwenthal,
2088:, pp. 352–353).
2042:, p. 123,n.129)
1927:, which ran through
1908:Giambattista Ramusio
1560:Hebrew Union College
1240:imperial examination
948:. The custom of the
781:) and 500 families (
5850:Yin, Gang (2001) .
5719:The Times of Israel
5695:Harrassowitz Verlag
5659:The Washington Post
5607:. pp. 65–138.
5374:. pp. 81–109.
5299:on 24 January 2010.
4757:Haim, Ofir (2021).
4511:. pp. 91–108.
4137:, pp. 112–113.
4125:, pp. 115–139.
3969:, pp. 213–245.
3957:, pp. 574–602.
3786:, pp. 119–120.
3726:, pp. 159–156.
3672:, pp. 105–107.
3609:, pp. 107–111.
3585:, pp. 129–130.
3547:Xu & Gonen 2003
3436:Xu & Gonen 2003
3423:, pp. 105–106.
3397:Xu & Gonen 2003
3220:, pp. 385–386.
3157:, pp. 233–234.
3082:, pp. 98, 104.
3043:, pp. 372–373.
3007:, pp. 139–142.
2939:, pp. 239–240.
2927:, pp. 97, 100.
2862:, pp. 180–181.
2838:, pp. 100–102.
2826:, pp. 100–102.
2751:, pp. 227–228.
2736:, pp. 317–319.
2535:Xu & Gonen 2003
1648:Literary references
1641:National Geographic
1542:Kaifeng manuscripts
684:(1368–1398) of the
26:
6174:History of Kaifeng
6107:Judaism in Kaifeng
6022:. pp. 25–38.
5995:. pp. 68–80.
5983:Zhou, Xun (2005).
5873:Yin, Gang (2008).
5673:Sephardic Horizons
5650:Weisskopf, Michael
5634:. pp. 14–25.
5096:. pp. 23–54.
4970:. pp. i–xix.
4759:"The Islamic East"
4713:. 22 October 2009.
4710:The Jerusalem Post
4696:The Jerusalem Post
4678:The Jerusalem Post
4427:The New York Times
4333:The New York Times
4171:Palgrave Macmillan
4029:, pp. 77–148.
3993:, pp. 81–109.
3909:, p. 5, n.11.
2425:, pp. 54–81).
1645:
1552:
1342:
1264:with her children
997:
989:
695:during the Mongol
414:
342:which occurred in
271:ca. 870 describes
6105:Media related to
6076:978-1-105-51612-2
6057:978-0-9631087-0-8
6029:978-1-498-55027-7
6002:978-1-584-65411-7
5940:978-3-631-57533-8
5892:978-3-631-57533-8
5865:978-0-781-80833-0
5842:978-0-881-25791-5
5817:978-1-351-56628-5
5798:Xu, Xin (2017) .
5766:978-0-563-36429-0
5759:. Network Books.
5744:978-9-004-20810-0
5704:978-3-447-11573-5
5641:978-0-765-60105-6
5628:The Jews of China
5614:978-3-631-57533-8
5591:978-1-498-55027-7
5584:. pp. 3–24.
5458:978-1-448-19066-9
5419:Trigault, Nicolas
5406:978-1-527-52669-3
5381:978-1-351-56628-5
5319:978-0-834-80419-7
5277:978-1-554-58404-8
5213:978-3-631-57533-8
5103:978-3-631-57533-8
5073:978-9-004-03413-6
4977:978-1-498-55027-7
4950:978-1-498-55027-7
4927:978-0-521-82597-9
4910:Baskin, Judith R.
4896:978-0-415-45715-6
4869:978-3-631-57533-8
4862:. pp. 7–22.
4842:978-1-498-55027-7
4784:978-1-009-03859-1
4737:978-1-351-56628-5
4671:(8 August 2015).
4636:Elazar, Daniel J.
4627:978-0-415-45715-6
4600:978-1-498-55027-7
4543:978-0-804-74044-9
4518:978-965-226-267-7
4481:978-0-765-60105-6
4468:The Jews of China
4454:978-1-135-59094-9
4404:978-0-781-80833-0
4385:Los Angeles Times
4305:978-9-004-34577-5
4208:978-0-231-08838-1
4180:978-1-349-25762-1
4077:, pp. 73–75.
4041:, pp. 68–80.
3561:, pp. 88–89.
3399:, pp. 25–26.
3256:, pp. 84–85.
3019:, pp. 18–20.
2499:marker for Jews (
1889:, pp. 6, 12)
1868:, pp. 23–32;
1756:Israelis in China
1697:Documentary films
1608:The Jews in China
1461:In 1980 during a
1426:) was changed to
1391:"ancient Islam" (
1351:Taiping Rebellion
1298:Hebrew diacritics
1250:The Madonna, Mary
1039:) as required in
1013:labelled them as
658:of the An Cheng (
582:Jingkang incident
171:
154:Kāifēng Yóutàirén
134:
133:
6191:
6104:
6089:
6080:
6061:
6033:
6006:
5979:
5977:
5957:
5944:
5917:
5896:
5869:
5846:
5821:
5794:
5775:Wylie, Alexander
5770:
5748:
5723:
5708:
5680:
5663:
5652:(9 April 1982).
5645:
5618:
5595:
5568:
5563:. Archived from
5546:
5536:
5501:
5462:
5430:
5410:
5385:
5362:
5323:
5300:
5295:. Archived from
5281:
5256:
5217:
5190:
5166:Monumenta Serica
5159:
5133:
5107:
5077:
5049:
5032:(1–3): 147–179.
5015:
4981:
4954:
4931:
4900:
4873:
4846:
4819:
4788:
4753:
4741:
4714:
4700:
4682:
4664:
4662:
4647:
4631:
4604:
4581:
4557:Monumenta Serica
4547:
4522:
4498:
4485:
4458:
4431:
4417:
4408:
4389:
4374:
4357:
4355:
4353:
4337:
4322:
4309:
4282:
4280:
4278:
4256:
4251:. Archived from
4239:
4233:
4223:
4221:
4212:
4184:
4150:
4144:
4138:
4132:
4126:
4120:
4114:
4108:
4102:
4096:
4090:
4084:
4078:
4072:
4066:
4060:
4054:
4048:
4042:
4036:
4030:
4024:
4018:
4012:
4006:
4000:
3994:
3988:
3982:
3976:
3970:
3964:
3958:
3952:
3946:
3940:
3934:
3928:
3922:
3916:
3910:
3904:
3898:
3892:
3886:
3880:
3874:
3868:
3859:
3853:
3847:
3841:
3835:
3829:
3823:
3817:
3811:
3805:
3799:
3793:
3787:
3781:
3775:
3769:
3763:
3757:
3751:
3745:
3739:
3733:
3727:
3721:
3715:
3709:
3703:
3697:
3688:
3682:
3673:
3667:
3661:
3655:
3649:
3643:
3637:
3631:
3625:
3619:
3610:
3604:
3598:
3592:
3586:
3580:
3574:
3568:
3562:
3556:
3550:
3544:
3538:
3532:
3526:
3520:
3514:
3508:
3502:
3496:
3490:
3484:
3478:
3472:
3463:
3457:
3451:
3445:
3439:
3433:
3424:
3418:
3412:
3406:
3400:
3394:
3388:
3382:
3376:
3370:
3364:
3358:
3352:
3346:
3337:
3331:
3325:
3319:
3308:
3302:
3293:
3287:
3281:
3275:
3269:
3263:
3257:
3251:
3245:
3239:
3233:
3227:
3221:
3215:
3209:
3203:
3197:
3191:
3185:
3179:
3173:
3167:
3158:
3152:
3146:
3140:
3134:
3128:
3122:
3116:
3110:
3104:
3098:
3092:
3083:
3077:
3071:
3065:
3056:
3050:
3044:
3038:
3032:
3026:
3020:
3014:
3008:
3002:
2996:
2990:
2979:
2973:
2967:
2961:
2955:
2949:
2940:
2934:
2928:
2922:
2916:
2910:
2904:
2898:
2892:
2886:
2875:
2869:
2863:
2857:
2851:
2845:
2839:
2833:
2827:
2821:
2815:
2809:
2798:
2792:
2781:
2775:
2764:
2758:
2752:
2746:
2737:
2731:
2725:
2719:
2713:
2707:
2682:
2675:
2669:
2662:
2656:
2649:
2643:
2636:
2630:
2623:
2617:
2610:
2604:
2597:
2591:
2584:
2578:
2570:
2564:
2557:
2551:
2544:
2538:
2531:
2525:
2514:
2508:
2445:
2439:
2432:
2426:
2419:
2413:
2387:
2381:
2370:
2364:
2357:
2351:
2324:
2318:
2310:
2304:
2297:
2291:
2279:
2273:
2258:
2252:
2245:
2239:
2228:
2222:
2206:
2200:
2194:
2188:
2129:
2123:
2112:
2106:
2095:
2089:
2062:
2056:
2049:
2043:
2032:
2026:
2011:
2005:
1998:
1992:
1967:
1961:
1954:
1948:
1921:
1915:
1896:
1890:
1875:
1869:
1843:, the region of
1806:Babylonian exile
1802:
1796:
1789:
1783:
1772:
1500:rabbinic Judaism
1482:Writing in 1987
1448:
1443:
1438:
1433:
1424:
1419:
1414:55 ethnic groups
1399:
1394:
1314:
1279:
1274:
1258:John the Baptist
1246:
1236:
1231:
1220:
1215:
1180:
1175:
1166:
1161:
1149:death and burial
1090:
1085:
1076:
1071:
1062:
1057:
1053:
1025:
1020:
1007:
1002:
910:
905:
799:
794:
789:
784:
779:
774:
717:
712:
707:
702:
666:
661:
652:
647:
634:
629:
620:
615:
606:
601:
592:
591:Jìngkāng shìbiàn
587:
562:
557:
534:
529:
516:
511:
502:
497:
492:
487:
482:mosques in China
478:
473:
462:
461:
452:
451:
432:Emperor Zhenzong
428:
423:
253:Jewish community
176:
174:Yahădūt Qāʾyfeng
166:
164:
155:
146:
93:Mandarin Chinese
79:
75:
73:
72:
59:
55:
53:
52:
34:
27:
6199:
6198:
6194:
6193:
6192:
6190:
6189:
6188:
6164:East Asian Jews
6139:
6138:
6097:
6092:
6083:
6077:
6064:
6058:
6045:
6041:
6039:Further reading
6036:
6030:
6020:Lexington Books
6009:
6003:
5982:
5975:
5968:
5960:
5947:
5941:
5920:
5899:
5893:
5872:
5866:
5849:
5843:
5824:
5818:
5797:
5793:pp. 43–52.
5789:. Vol. 1.
5773:
5767:
5751:
5745:
5726:
5711:
5705:
5683:
5666:
5648:
5642:
5621:
5615:
5598:
5592:
5582:Lexington Books
5571:
5553:(Spring 2013).
5549:
5504:
5465:
5459:
5447:. Vol. 2.
5433:
5413:
5407:
5388:
5382:
5365:
5326:
5320:
5303:
5284:
5278:
5259:
5220:
5214:
5193:
5162:
5136:
5110:
5104:
5080:
5074:
5052:
5018:
4984:
4978:
4968:Lexington Books
4957:
4951:
4941:Lexington Books
4934:
4928:
4903:
4897:
4876:
4870:
4849:
4843:
4833:Lexington Books
4822:
4791:
4785:
4756:
4744:
4738:
4717:
4703:
4687:Freund, Michael
4685:
4669:Freund, Michael
4667:
4660:
4650:
4634:
4628:
4607:
4601:
4591:Lexington Books
4584:
4550:
4544:
4525:
4519:
4496:
4488:
4482:
4461:
4455:
4447:. p. 315.
4434:
4420:
4411:
4405:
4392:
4377:
4360:
4351:
4349:
4340:
4325:
4312:
4306:
4285:
4276:
4274:
4259:
4242:
4231:
4226:
4215:
4209:
4187:
4181:
4162:
4158:
4153:
4145:
4141:
4133:
4129:
4121:
4117:
4109:
4105:
4097:
4093:
4085:
4081:
4073:
4069:
4061:
4057:
4049:
4045:
4037:
4033:
4025:
4021:
4013:
4009:
4001:
3997:
3989:
3985:
3977:
3973:
3965:
3961:
3953:
3949:
3941:
3937:
3929:
3925:
3917:
3913:
3905:
3901:
3893:
3889:
3881:
3877:
3871:Ben-Canaan 2009
3869:
3862:
3854:
3850:
3842:
3838:
3830:
3826:
3818:
3814:
3806:
3802:
3794:
3790:
3782:
3778:
3770:
3766:
3758:
3754:
3746:
3742:
3734:
3730:
3722:
3718:
3710:
3706:
3698:
3691:
3683:
3676:
3668:
3664:
3656:
3652:
3644:
3640:
3636:, pp. 3–4.
3632:
3628:
3622:Des Forges 2003
3620:
3613:
3605:
3601:
3593:
3589:
3581:
3577:
3569:
3565:
3557:
3553:
3545:
3541:
3533:
3529:
3521:
3517:
3509:
3505:
3497:
3493:
3485:
3481:
3473:
3466:
3458:
3454:
3446:
3442:
3434:
3427:
3419:
3415:
3407:
3403:
3395:
3391:
3383:
3379:
3371:
3367:
3359:
3355:
3347:
3340:
3332:
3328:
3320:
3311:
3303:
3296:
3288:
3284:
3276:
3272:
3264:
3260:
3252:
3248:
3240:
3236:
3228:
3224:
3216:
3212:
3204:
3200:
3192:
3188:
3180:
3176:
3168:
3161:
3153:
3149:
3141:
3137:
3129:
3125:
3117:
3113:
3105:
3101:
3093:
3086:
3078:
3074:
3066:
3059:
3051:
3047:
3039:
3035:
3027:
3023:
3015:
3011:
3003:
2999:
2991:
2982:
2974:
2970:
2962:
2958:
2950:
2943:
2935:
2931:
2923:
2919:
2915:, pp. 4–5.
2911:
2907:
2899:
2895:
2887:
2878:
2870:
2866:
2858:
2854:
2846:
2842:
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2728:
2720:
2716:
2708:
2695:
2691:
2686:
2685:
2676:
2672:
2663:
2659:
2655:, pp. 8–9)
2650:
2646:
2637:
2633:
2624:
2620:
2611:
2607:
2598:
2594:
2585:
2581:
2571:
2567:
2558:
2554:
2545:
2541:
2532:
2528:
2524:, p. 239).
2515:
2511:
2507:, p. 190).
2446:
2442:
2433:
2429:
2420:
2416:
2388:
2384:
2371:
2367:
2358:
2354:
2325:
2321:
2311:
2307:
2298:
2294:
2280:
2276:
2259:
2255:
2246:
2242:
2238:, p. 354).
2229:
2225:
2221:, p. 190).
2207:
2203:
2195:
2191:
2187:, p. 138).
2130:
2126:
2118:, p. 236;
2113:
2109:
2105:, p. 103).
2096:
2092:
2063:
2059:
2050:
2046:
2033:
2029:
2021:, p. 372;
2012:
2008:
1999:
1995:
1968:
1964:
1955:
1951:
1947:, pp. 8–9)
1937:the Alatau Pass
1922:
1918:
1914:, p. 207).
1897:
1893:
1881:, an area near
1876:
1872:
1816:broke with the
1808:, disenchanted
1803:
1799:
1790:
1786:
1773:
1769:
1764:
1746:East Asian Jews
1742:
1699:
1650:
1633:
1631:Books and films
1592:
1556:British Library
1544:
1410:
1376:Boxer rebellion
1363:Baghdadi Jewish
1334:
1196:
1101:days of fasting
978:
926:Babylonian Jews
737:
386:
305:Quanzhou/Zaitun
278:Mongol conquest
245:
240:
234:
195:Jewish diaspora
82:20 (as of 2016)
70:
68:
67:
50:
48:
47:
37:
22:
17:
12:
11:
5:
6197:
6195:
6187:
6186:
6181:
6176:
6171:
6166:
6161:
6156:
6151:
6141:
6140:
6137:
6136:
6131:
6122:
6115:
6110:
6096:
6095:External links
6093:
6091:
6090:
6081:
6075:
6062:
6056:
6042:
6040:
6037:
6035:
6034:
6028:
6007:
6001:
5980:
5964:Buddha Almanac
5958:
5945:
5939:
5918:
5908:(2): 369–386.
5897:
5891:
5870:
5864:
5847:
5841:
5822:
5816:
5795:
5783:Summers, James
5771:
5765:
5749:
5743:
5724:
5709:
5703:
5681:
5664:
5646:
5640:
5619:
5613:
5596:
5590:
5569:
5547:
5519:(2): 574–602.
5502:
5476:(2): 179–203.
5463:
5457:
5431:
5411:
5405:
5386:
5380:
5363:
5337:(3): 206–209.
5324:
5318:
5301:
5282:
5276:
5257:
5231:(1): 115–139.
5218:
5212:
5191:
5160:
5138:Loewe, Michael
5134:
5108:
5102:
5082:Leslie, Donald
5078:
5072:
5054:Leslie, Donald
5050:
5020:Leslie, Donald
5016:
5004:10.2307/597646
4998:(3): 346–361.
4986:Leslie, Donald
4982:
4976:
4960:"Introduction"
4955:
4949:
4932:
4926:
4901:
4895:
4874:
4868:
4847:
4841:
4820:
4802:(2): 118–140.
4789:
4783:
4754:
4742:
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4715:
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4683:
4665:
4648:
4632:
4626:
4605:
4599:
4582:
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4542:
4523:
4517:
4486:
4480:
4459:
4453:
4432:
4418:
4409:
4403:
4390:
4375:
4363:Nimoy, Leonard
4358:
4338:
4323:
4310:
4304:
4283:
4257:
4240:
4224:
4213:
4207:
4185:
4179:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4151:
4139:
4127:
4115:
4113:, p. 135.
4103:
4091:
4079:
4067:
4055:
4043:
4031:
4019:
4007:
3995:
3983:
3971:
3959:
3947:
3935:
3923:
3911:
3899:
3887:
3875:
3860:
3858:, p. 150.
3848:
3836:
3834:, p. 209.
3824:
3822:, p. 180.
3812:
3800:
3798:, p. 242.
3788:
3776:
3774:, p. 106.
3764:
3762:, p. 194.
3752:
3750:, p. 20?.
3740:
3738:, p. 235.
3728:
3716:
3704:
3702:, p. 108.
3689:
3687:, p. 109.
3674:
3662:
3660:, p. 148.
3650:
3648:, p. 101.
3646:Löwenthal 1947
3638:
3626:
3624:, p. 161.
3611:
3599:
3597:, p. 413.
3587:
3575:
3563:
3551:
3549:, p. 104.
3539:
3527:
3515:
3503:
3499:Löwenthal 1947
3491:
3479:
3477:, p. 119.
3475:Löwenthal 1947
3464:
3452:
3450:, p. 131.
3440:
3425:
3413:
3411:, p. 376.
3401:
3389:
3377:
3365:
3363:, p. 105.
3361:Löwenthal 1947
3353:
3351:, p. 139.
3338:
3336:, p. 107.
3334:Löwenthal 1947
3326:
3324:, p. 181.
3309:
3307:, p. 234.
3294:
3292:, p. 315.
3282:
3270:
3258:
3246:
3244:, p. 142.
3234:
3222:
3210:
3198:
3186:
3184:, p. 384.
3174:
3159:
3147:
3135:
3133:, p. 373.
3123:
3121:, p. 351.
3111:
3109:, p. 429.
3099:
3084:
3072:
3057:
3055:, p. 123.
3053:Löwenthal 1947
3045:
3033:
3021:
3009:
2997:
2995:, p. 370.
2980:
2968:
2956:
2941:
2929:
2925:Löwenthal 1947
2917:
2905:
2893:
2876:
2864:
2852:
2850:, p. 371.
2840:
2828:
2816:
2799:
2782:
2765:
2753:
2738:
2726:
2714:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2684:
2683:
2679:Jews of Cochin
2670:
2668:, p. 374)
2657:
2644:
2631:
2618:
2605:
2603:, p. 196)
2592:
2590:, p. 194)
2579:
2577:, p. 117)
2565:
2552:
2550:, p. 233)
2539:
2526:
2509:
2440:
2427:
2414:
2410:Löwenthal 1947
2382:
2374:Tiāojīn huíhuí
2365:
2363:, p. 239)
2352:
2350:, p. 101)
2348:Löwenthal 1947
2319:
2305:
2303:, p. 617)
2292:
2290:, p. 99).
2274:
2253:
2251:, p. 172)
2240:
2223:
2201:
2198:Shǒubiàn rìzhì
2189:
2177:Fáng Zhào-yíng
2173:Fang Chao-ying
2124:
2122:, p. 26).
2107:
2103:Löwenthal 1947
2090:
2057:
2044:
2040:Löwenthal 1947
2027:
2025:, p. 444)
2006:
1993:
1962:
1949:
1916:
1898:The report in
1891:
1870:
1797:
1795:, p. 369)
1784:
1782:, p. 71).
1766:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1759:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1741:
1738:
1698:
1695:
1649:
1646:
1639:Kaifeng Jews,
1632:
1629:
1591:
1588:
1543:
1540:
1524:Michael Freund
1409:
1406:
1333:
1330:
1320:or heathens."
1266:Jacob and Esau
1195:
1192:
1105:Jewish Sabbath
977:
974:
896:
895:
889:
883:
877:
871:
865:
859:
853:
852:(赵/趙) (Heb.שה)
847:
841:
835:
829:
823:
817:
736:
733:
693:Hui-hui people
682:Hung Wu period
656:religious name
385:
382:
322:discovered in
289:Persian Jewish
261:Ibn Khordadbeh
244:
241:
233:
230:
187:Henan province
132:
131:
113:
112:
108:
107:
101:
100:
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84:
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80:
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63:
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44:
43:
39:
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20:
15:
13:
10:
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3:
2:
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6135:
6134:Shavei Israel
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5776:
5772:
5768:
5762:
5758:
5754:
5753:Wood, Michael
5750:
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5442:
5441:
5436:
5435:Schama, Simon
5432:
5428:
5424:
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5416:
5415:Ricci, Matteo
5412:
5408:
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4563:
4559:
4558:
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4549:
4545:
4539:
4535:
4531:
4530:
4524:
4520:
4514:
4510:
4506:
4502:
4501:Demsky, Aaron
4495:
4491:
4490:Demsky, Aaron
4487:
4483:
4477:
4473:
4469:
4465:
4460:
4456:
4450:
4446:
4442:
4438:
4433:
4429:
4428:
4423:
4419:
4415:
4410:
4406:
4400:
4396:
4391:
4387:
4386:
4381:
4376:
4372:
4368:
4364:
4359:
4348:
4344:
4339:
4335:
4334:
4329:
4324:
4320:
4316:
4311:
4307:
4301:
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4293:
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4284:
4273:
4269:
4268:
4263:
4258:
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4250:
4246:
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4237:
4230:
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4176:
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4155:
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4143:
4140:
4136:
4131:
4128:
4124:
4119:
4116:
4112:
4107:
4104:
4101:, p. ix.
4100:
4095:
4092:
4088:
4083:
4080:
4076:
4071:
4068:
4064:
4059:
4056:
4052:
4047:
4044:
4040:
4035:
4032:
4028:
4023:
4020:
4016:
4011:
4008:
4004:
3999:
3996:
3992:
3987:
3984:
3981:, p. 80.
3980:
3975:
3972:
3968:
3963:
3960:
3956:
3951:
3948:
3944:
3939:
3936:
3932:
3927:
3924:
3920:
3915:
3912:
3908:
3903:
3900:
3896:
3895:Chazanov 1985
3891:
3888:
3885:, p. 12.
3884:
3879:
3876:
3873:, p. 21.
3872:
3867:
3865:
3861:
3857:
3852:
3849:
3845:
3840:
3837:
3833:
3828:
3825:
3821:
3820:Eckstein 2017
3816:
3813:
3809:
3804:
3801:
3797:
3792:
3789:
3785:
3780:
3777:
3773:
3768:
3765:
3761:
3756:
3753:
3749:
3744:
3741:
3737:
3732:
3729:
3725:
3720:
3717:
3713:
3708:
3705:
3701:
3696:
3694:
3690:
3686:
3681:
3679:
3675:
3671:
3666:
3663:
3659:
3654:
3651:
3647:
3642:
3639:
3635:
3630:
3627:
3623:
3618:
3616:
3612:
3608:
3603:
3600:
3596:
3591:
3588:
3584:
3579:
3576:
3573:, p. 88.
3572:
3567:
3564:
3560:
3555:
3552:
3548:
3543:
3540:
3537:, p. 87.
3536:
3531:
3528:
3525:, p. 86.
3524:
3519:
3516:
3513:, p. 99.
3512:
3507:
3504:
3501:, p. 98.
3500:
3495:
3492:
3489:, p. 98.
3488:
3483:
3480:
3476:
3471:
3469:
3465:
3461:
3456:
3453:
3449:
3444:
3441:
3438:, p. 97.
3437:
3432:
3430:
3426:
3422:
3417:
3414:
3410:
3405:
3402:
3398:
3393:
3390:
3387:, p. 94.
3386:
3381:
3378:
3374:
3369:
3366:
3362:
3357:
3354:
3350:
3345:
3343:
3339:
3335:
3330:
3327:
3323:
3318:
3316:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3301:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3286:
3283:
3279:
3274:
3271:
3267:
3262:
3259:
3255:
3250:
3247:
3243:
3238:
3235:
3231:
3226:
3223:
3219:
3214:
3211:
3207:
3202:
3199:
3196:, p. 79.
3195:
3190:
3187:
3183:
3178:
3175:
3172:, p. 23.
3171:
3166:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3151:
3148:
3145:, p. 16.
3144:
3139:
3136:
3132:
3127:
3124:
3120:
3115:
3112:
3108:
3103:
3100:
3097:, p. 30.
3096:
3091:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3076:
3073:
3070:, p. 93.
3069:
3064:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3049:
3046:
3042:
3037:
3034:
3031:, p. 97.
3030:
3025:
3022:
3018:
3013:
3010:
3006:
3001:
2998:
2994:
2989:
2987:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2972:
2969:
2965:
2960:
2957:
2953:
2948:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2933:
2930:
2926:
2921:
2918:
2914:
2909:
2906:
2903:, p. 42.
2902:
2897:
2894:
2891:, p. 17.
2890:
2885:
2883:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2868:
2865:
2861:
2856:
2853:
2849:
2844:
2841:
2837:
2832:
2829:
2825:
2820:
2817:
2813:
2808:
2806:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2791:
2789:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2774:
2772:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2757:
2754:
2750:
2745:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2730:
2727:
2723:
2718:
2715:
2711:
2706:
2704:
2702:
2700:
2698:
2694:
2688:
2680:
2674:
2671:
2667:
2661:
2658:
2654:
2648:
2645:
2641:
2635:
2632:
2629:, p. 50)
2628:
2622:
2619:
2616:, p. 48)
2615:
2609:
2606:
2602:
2596:
2593:
2589:
2583:
2580:
2576:
2569:
2566:
2563:, p. 18)
2562:
2556:
2553:
2549:
2543:
2540:
2537:, p. 55)
2536:
2530:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2513:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2444:
2441:
2437:
2431:
2428:
2424:
2418:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2386:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2369:
2366:
2362:
2356:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2335:
2329:
2323:
2320:
2317:, p. 48)
2316:
2309:
2306:
2302:
2296:
2293:
2289:
2284:
2283:Southern Tang
2278:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2257:
2254:
2250:
2244:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2227:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2211:
2205:
2202:
2199:
2193:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2128:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2111:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2094:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2061:
2058:
2055:, p. 3).
2054:
2048:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2031:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2010:
2007:
2003:
1997:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1981:
1976:
1972:
1966:
1963:
1959:
1953:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1920:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1895:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1874:
1871:
1867:
1862:
1861:Judeo-Persian
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1801:
1798:
1794:
1788:
1785:
1781:
1776:
1775:Donald Leslie
1771:
1768:
1761:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1743:
1739:
1737:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1725:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1690:
1685:
1680:
1678:
1674:
1673:Plucked Sinew
1669:
1665:
1664:
1659:
1655:
1654:Pearl S. Buck
1647:
1642:
1637:
1630:
1627:
1622:
1620:
1615:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1589:
1587:
1585:
1584:Judeo-Persian
1580:
1575:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1548:
1541:
1539:
1535:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1520:Shavei Israel
1516:
1512:
1511:Law of Return
1508:
1503:
1501:
1496:
1492:
1490:
1485:
1484:Daniel Elazar
1480:
1477:
1473:
1468:
1464:
1459:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1439:
1429:
1425:
1415:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1400:
1398:huíhuí gǔjiào
1388:
1387:for Chinese.
1385:
1379:
1377:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1359:
1357:
1352:
1347:
1338:
1331:
1329:
1327:
1321:
1319:
1313:
1312:
1311:archsynagogus
1306:
1301:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1269:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1241:
1237:
1227:
1226:
1221:
1211:
1207:
1206:
1201:
1193:
1191:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1171:
1170:incense bowls
1167:
1156:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1113:Rosh Hashanah
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1093:
1091:
1081:
1077:
1067:
1063:
1049:
1044:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1016:
1015:Tiao jin jiao
1012:
1008:
993:
987:
982:
975:
973:
971:
967:
962:
957:
955:
951:
947:
942:
938:
933:
931:
927:
921:
919:
915:
911:
901:
893:
890:
887:
884:
881:
878:
876:(金) (Heb.גין)
875:
872:
869:
866:
863:
860:
857:
854:
851:
848:
845:
842:
839:
836:
833:
830:
827:
824:
821:
818:
815:
811:
808:
807:
806:
804:
800:
790:
780:
770:
765:
763:
759:
758:Northern Song
755:
751:
747:
743:
734:
732:
729:
725:
720:
718:
716:báimào huíhuí
708:
706:lánmào huíhuí
698:
694:
689:
687:
683:
679:
675:
671:
667:
657:
653:
643:
637:
635:
625:
621:
611:
607:
597:
593:
583:
579:
578:Jin–Song Wars
575:
571:
567:
566:Yangtze river
563:
553:
550:
545:
543:
539:
535:
525:
521:
517:
507:
503:
493:
483:
479:
469:
466:The earliest
464:
456:
446:
441:
437:
433:
429:
419:
410:
406:
404:
399:
395:
393:
383:
381:
379:
375:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
349:port enclaves
345:
341:
337:
333:
332:Judeo-Persian
329:
325:
321:
316:
314:
310:
306:
302:
301:Canton/Khānfū
298:
294:
290:
285:
283:
279:
274:
270:
268:
262:
258:
254:
250:
242:
239:
231:
229:
227:
223:
222:Shavei Israel
217:
215:
211:
207:
206:intermarriage
203:
198:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
175:
169:
160:
156:
150:
142:
138:
130:
126:
122:
118:
117:Bukharan Jews
114:
109:
106:
102:
97:
94:
90:
85:
81:
78:
65:
61:
58:
45:
40:
33:
28:
19:
6154:Chinese Jews
6086:Chinese Jews
6085:
6066:
6047:
6015:
5988:
5971:
5963:
5956:(6): 97–100.
5953:
5949:
5926:
5905:
5901:
5878:
5855:
5827:
5803:
5786:
5756:
5729:
5717:
5689:
5685:Wexler, Paul
5676:
5672:
5657:
5632:M. E. Sharpe
5627:
5600:
5577:
5565:the original
5558:
5551:Stern, David
5516:
5510:
5473:
5467:
5449:Random House
5439:
5427:Random House
5422:
5391:
5367:
5334:
5328:
5305:
5297:the original
5290:
5262:
5228:
5222:
5199:
5170:
5164:
5147:
5141:
5121:
5115:
5089:
5058:
5029:
5023:
4995:
4989:
4963:
4936:
4913:
4882:
4855:
4828:
4799:
4793:
4762:
4723:
4708:
4694:
4676:
4656:
4613:
4586:
4561:
4555:
4528:
4504:
4472:M. E. Sharpe
4467:
4440:
4425:
4413:
4394:
4383:
4350:. Retrieved
4331:
4313:Braun, Eli.
4291:
4275:. Retrieved
4265:
4253:the original
4248:
4235:
4193:
4165:
4142:
4130:
4118:
4106:
4094:
4082:
4070:
4058:
4053:, p. 2.
4046:
4034:
4022:
4010:
3998:
3986:
3974:
3967:Laytner 2017
3962:
3950:
3943:Buckley 2016
3938:
3926:
3914:
3902:
3890:
3878:
3851:
3846:, p. 5.
3839:
3827:
3815:
3803:
3791:
3779:
3767:
3755:
3748:Laytner 2008
3743:
3731:
3719:
3714:, p. 4.
3707:
3665:
3653:
3641:
3629:
3602:
3590:
3578:
3566:
3554:
3542:
3530:
3518:
3506:
3494:
3482:
3462:, p. 4.
3455:
3443:
3416:
3404:
3392:
3380:
3368:
3356:
3329:
3285:
3273:
3261:
3249:
3237:
3225:
3213:
3201:
3189:
3177:
3150:
3138:
3126:
3114:
3102:
3095:Zürcher 2017
3075:
3048:
3036:
3024:
3012:
3000:
2971:
2966:, p. 3.
2959:
2954:, p. 2.
2937:Borjian 2017
2932:
2920:
2908:
2896:
2867:
2855:
2843:
2831:
2824:Laytner 2011
2819:
2756:
2749:Laytner 2017
2729:
2717:
2710:Pfeffer 2008
2673:
2660:
2647:
2634:
2621:
2608:
2595:
2582:
2568:
2555:
2542:
2529:
2517:
2512:
2492:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2443:
2438:, p. 3)
2430:
2417:
2405:
2393:
2385:
2378:Diāojīn jiào
2377:
2373:
2368:
2355:
2343:
2339:
2333:
2331:
2328:romanization
2322:
2308:
2295:
2288:Adshead 1997
2277:
2265:
2256:
2243:
2232:Zhou dynasty
2226:
2209:
2204:
2197:
2192:
2176:
2168:
2160:
2152:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2127:
2110:
2098:
2093:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2060:
2047:
2036:Yīsìlèyèdiàn
2035:
2030:
2023:Zhi-pan 2002
2014:
2009:
2004:, p. 1)
1996:
1988:
1985:lafẓ-e fārsi
1984:
1979:
1974:
1965:
1960:, p. 9)
1952:
1919:
1904:Kubilai Khan
1894:
1873:
1845:China proper
1800:
1787:
1770:
1722:
1707:Michael Wood
1702:
1700:
1687:
1681:
1661:
1651:
1640:
1624:
1619:Simon Schama
1616:
1611:
1610:(1843)) and
1607:
1593:
1576:
1553:
1536:
1504:
1497:
1493:
1481:
1460:
1445:
1435:
1423:Yóutàihòudài
1421:
1411:
1403:
1396:
1389:
1380:
1360:
1343:
1322:
1302:
1276:
1270:
1243:
1233:
1223:
1217:
1209:
1203:
1200:Matteo Ricci
1197:
1177:
1163:
1157:
1094:
1087:
1073:
1059:
1048:Zhou dynasty
1045:
1037:Gid hanasheh
1024:Tiāojīn jiào
1022:
1014:
1004:
998:
966:Torah scroll
958:
946:foot binding
937:Ming dynasty
934:
924:Persian and
922:
917:
907:
899:
897:
894:(張) (Heb.גן)
891:
885:
882:(李) (Heb.לי)
879:
873:
867:
861:
855:
849:
843:
837:
831:
825:
822:(石) (Heb.שי)
819:
809:
796:
786:
776:
766:
738:
723:
721:
714:
704:
697:Yuan dynasty
690:
686:Ming dynasty
673:
669:
663:
649:
638:
631:
617:
603:
589:
559:
546:
541:
531:
523:
513:
505:
499:
489:
475:
465:
454:
444:
440:Song History
439:
425:
418:Song History
417:
415:
403:Yuan dynasty
391:
387:
374:Ming dynasty
369:Yellow River
317:
313:Central Asia
286:
282:Yuan dynasty
266:
257:Song dynasty
249:Tang dynasty
246:
218:
202:assimilation
199:
163:יהדות קאיפנג
152:
137:Kaifeng Jews
136:
135:
121:Persian Jews
25:Kaifeng Jews
21:Ethnic group
18:
6159:Crypto-Jews
5972:Fózǔ Tǒngjì
5679:(3): 23–32.
5310:Weatherhill
4652:Finn, James
4564:: 231–247.
4552:Eber, Irene
4087:Schama 2017
3991:Pollak 2017
3979:Pollak 2017
3919:Elazar 1987
3856:Rebouh 2019
3832:Pollak 2005
3772:Urbach 2008
3670:Leslie 1972
3595:Pollak 1998
3571:Leslie 1972
3559:Leslie 1972
3535:Leslie 1972
3523:Leslie 1972
3511:Leslie 1972
3487:Demsky 2003
3421:Leslie 1972
3385:Leslie 1972
3373:Demsky 2003
3322:Sharot 2007
3194:Leslie 1972
3143:Thomas 2017
3119:Leslie 1962
3107:Wexler 2021
3080:Demsky 2003
3068:Leslie 1972
2913:Thomas 2017
2901:Leslie 2008
2889:Thomas 2017
2872:Thomas 2017
2860:Sharot 2007
2812:Bitton 2010
2761:Freund 2015
2734:Pollak 1998
2640:Elazar 1987
2627:Leslie 2008
2614:Leslie 2008
2561:Kupfer 2008
2469:Zhúyīn- dǎi
2270:Leslie 1962
2236:Leslie 1962
2185:Leslie 1967
2120:Leslie 1972
2086:Leslie 1962
2053:Thomas 2017
1989:lašon fārsi
1980:pārsi/fārsi
1971:New Persian
1945:Thomas 2017
1912:Pollak 2005
1887:Thomas 2017
1833:Han dynasty
1780:Leslie 1972
1719:candelabrum
1600:Orientalism
1590:Assessments
1507:citizenship
1472:reconverted
1454:during the
1428:Han Chinese
1384:Sefer Torah
1361:Shanghai's
1346:Han Chinese
1290:lay brother
1194:The Jesuits
680:during the
633:Jīn Shìzōng
624:Jin Shizong
552:Jin dynasty
390:community (
365:Grand Canal
320:Aurel Stein
210:Han Chinese
125:Han Chinese
6143:Categories
5931:Peter Lang
5883:Peter Lang
5605:Peter Lang
5204:Peter Lang
5173:: 97–126.
5094:Peter Lang
5025:T'oung Pao
4860:Peter Lang
4123:Okuma 2008
4099:Paper 2012
4015:Stern 2013
3784:Gabow 2017
3724:Meyer 2008
3712:Paper 2012
3658:Zhang 2008
3634:Loewe 1988
3460:Loewe 1988
3349:Zhang 2008
3290:Chong 2013
3242:Zhang 2008
2952:Loewe 1988
2722:Winer 2016
2653:Paper 2012
2575:Dawid 1999
2465:Zhuyin-dai
2457:Táo Zōngyí
2436:Loewe 1988
2315:Wylie 1864
2301:Baron 1952
2215:Nestorians
2145:Zhào Chéng
2002:Loewe 1988
1958:Paper 2012
1866:Weisz 2014
1726:in Kaifeng
1711:Scriptures
1604:James Finn
1452:Red Guards
1294:Pentateuch
1188:Pentateuch
1137:Tisha B'Av
1109:Yom Kippur
1082:of Moses (
798:hóngzhìbēi
754:Later Zhou
570:Irene Eber
477:qīngzhēnsì
297:Silk Roads
243:Background
129:Hui people
6117:Notes on
5808:Routledge
5498:144204664
5372:Routledge
5359:143183748
5253:154044502
5124:: 54–81.
4887:Routledge
4728:Routledge
4618:Routledge
4445:Routledge
4437:"Kaifeng"
4135:Wood 1992
4111:Katz 1995
4075:Zhou 2005
4063:Finn 1872
4051:Finn 1872
4039:Zhou 2005
3907:Berg 2000
3844:Berg 2000
3808:Haim 2021
3796:Eber 1993
3736:Eber 1993
3583:Katz 1995
3305:Eber 1993
3254:Chen 1981
3155:Eber 1993
3005:Chen 2001
2836:Berg 2008
2689:Citations
2522:Eber 1993
2518:Yóutàirén
2489:Mongolian
2477:zhúyì-dǎi
2473:Zhuyi-dai
2361:Eber 1993
2344:Yīsìlèyè.
2326:From the
2249:Kong 2017
2208:The term
2141:Jǐnyīgōng
2116:Eber 1993
2078:Hamdullah
1933:Tian Shan
1736:service.
1705:, writer
1222:), was a
1061:Āwúluóhàn
930:Silk Road
750:Later Han
524:Wu-ssu-ta
491:Biànliáng
427:Nǐ wěi ní
185:, in the
168:romanized
87:Languages
62:600–1,000
5777:(1864).
5755:(1992).
5687:(2021).
5543:27041745
5437:(2017).
5421:(1953).
5351:42943875
5245:20455354
5187:40726671
5156:29779835
5150:: 1–20.
5130:27943552
5084:(2008).
5056:(1972).
4654:(1872).
4638:(1987).
4578:40726975
4492:(2003).
4365:(2002).
4347:NBC News
4267:Ynetnews
4191:(1952).
3883:NYT 1985
3170:Wei 1999
3017:Wei 1999
2601:Yin 2008
2588:Yin 2008
2548:Yin 2001
2505:Yin 2008
2497:ethnonym
2467:, (竹因歹:
2376:and 刁筋教:
2219:Yin 2008
1857:Haggadah
1740:See also
1689:Chu Chem
1686:musical
1684:Broadway
1668:bondmaid
1579:haggadah
1572:Haggadah
1467:Portland
1447:Dōngdàsì
1326:Hangzhou
1318:Saracens
1186:. Their
1179:shèngrén
1129:Hanukkah
1117:Passover
1097:Talmudic
1006:Yīcìlèyè
954:polygamy
950:levirate
941:endogamy
769:surnames
724:en masse
665:Ăn Chéng
619:Xiàozōng
610:Xiaozong
605:Lóngxīng
506:Abdullah
504:perhaps
392:kehillah
361:Hangzhou
353:Yangzhou
340:massacre
336:Seliḥoth
324:Dunhuang
293:Chang'an
99:Religion
5785:(ed.).
5534:4813328
5490:4467770
5292:Haaretz
5046:4527667
4912:(ed.).
4906:"China"
4816:3270171
4503:(ed.).
4156:Sources
3448:Xu 2017
3409:Yu 2017
3278:Yu 2017
3266:Yu 2017
3230:Yu 2017
3218:Yu 2017
3206:Yu 2017
3182:Yu 2017
3131:Yu 2017
3041:Yu 2017
2993:Yu 2017
2848:Yu 2017
2778:JP 2009
2666:Yu 2017
2485:Zhú wēn
2475:, (竹亦歹:
2451:(南村輟耕錄:
2447:In his
2181:Yu 2017
2149:Yong-le
2019:Yu 2017
1975:written
1883:Baghdad
1849:Taizong
1841:Ningxia
1818:Prophet
1814:Kohanim
1810:Levites
1793:Yu 2017
1734:Shabbat
1730:Beijing
1715:mezuzah
1658:Chinese
1570:of the
1528:ulpanim
1356:pogroms
1305:Messiah
1278:Lǐbàisì
1262:Rebecca
1219:Ài Tián
1210:Ai Tian
1165:zǔ táng
1153:Kaddish
1145:wedding
1121:Shavuot
1080:floruit
1068:-Adam (
970:Shaanxi
678:Beijing
651:sèmùrén
561:Jīncháo
549:Jurchen
538:Persian
515:Liè wēi
367:to the
263:in his
232:History
183:Kaifeng
170::
141:Chinese
105:Judaism
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2161:Ăn Sān
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2099:Lì-wèi
1929:Xorazm
1879:Rādhān
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1703:Legacy
1643:, 1907
1564:siddur
1515:aliyah
1476:kosher
1371:Bombay
1287:Jesuit
1245:yóutài
1225:chüren
1125:Sukkot
1089:Miēshè
1041:Nikkur
1011:exonym
914:mullah
533:Wǔsīdá
501:Ăndūlǎ
455:shāmén
398:stelae
357:Ningbo
344:Canton
226:aliyah
159:Hebrew
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149:pinyin
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5781:. In
5735:BRILL
5494:S2CID
5486:JSTOR
5355:S2CID
5347:JSTOR
5249:S2CID
5241:JSTOR
5183:JSTOR
5152:JSTOR
5126:JSTOR
5064:BRILL
5042:JSTOR
5008:JSTOR
4908:. In
4812:JSTOR
4795:Numen
4661:(PDF)
4574:JSTOR
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4497:(PDF)
4296:BRILL
4232:(PDF)
3931:Braun
2501:Judah
2394:Pángǔ
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2336:loye,
2266:ma'lā
2167:(朱橚:
2157:Henan
2151:(永樂:
1902:that
1853:Torah
1829:Gansu
1825:India
1762:Notes
1663:Peony
1568:codex
1254:Jesus
1252:with
1235:jǔrén
1133:Purim
1066:Pangu
1029:Jacob
918:ma'lā
909:mánlǎ
900:manla
892:Zhāng
870:(聂/聶)
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812:(艾) (
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742:Liang
674:manla
542:ustad
540:word
468:stele
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328:Gansu
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191:China
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6071:ISBN
6052:ISBN
6024:ISBN
5997:ISBN
5993:UPNE
5967:佛祖統紀
5935:ISBN
5887:ISBN
5860:ISBN
5837:ISBN
5812:ISBN
5761:ISBN
5739:ISBN
5699:ISBN
5636:ISBN
5609:ISBN
5586:ISBN
5539:PMID
5453:ISBN
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5376:ISBN
5314:ISBN
5272:ISBN
5208:ISBN
5098:ISBN
5068:ISBN
4972:ISBN
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4922:ISBN
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4622:ISBN
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4354:2021
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4279:2021
4272:Ynet
4203:ISBN
4175:ISBN
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2461:Dali
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1682:The
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1418:猶太後代
1393:回回古教
1283:nose
1256:and
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1135:and
1075:Ādān
1056:阿無羅漢
1001:一賜樂業
856:Zhōu
850:Zhào
816:.עי)
778:xìng
752:and
711:白帽回回
701:藍帽回回
642:Semu
586:靖康事變
520:Levi
445:sēng
401:the
359:and
212:and
204:and
5910:doi
5529:PMC
5521:doi
5478:doi
5339:doi
5233:doi
5175:doi
5034:doi
5000:doi
4804:doi
4771:doi
4566:doi
2493:dai
2471:);
2340:sì,
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2070:yàn
1983:or
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1273:礼拜寺
1031:'s
1019:挑筋教
888:(俺)
874:Jin
868:Niè
864:(左)
862:Zuǒ
858:(周)
846:(黄)
840:(白)
838:Bái
834:(穆)
828:(高)
826:Gāo
820:Shí
814:Heb
793:弘治碑
788:jiā
746:Jin
646:色目人
628:金世宗
528:五思達
496:俺都喇
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422:你尾尼
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