358:. Despite the plaintiff's claims that the Nigerian court system is corrupt and could not provide an adequate alternative forum, the court ultimately found that Nigeria did provide an adequate alternative forum and the "Gilbert factors" weighted in favor of transferring the case to Nigeria. Accordingly, the court granted the defendant's motion to dismiss this action on grounds of forum non conveniens, provided Pfizer consented to suit and acceptance of process in Nigeria; Pfizer waived possible statute of limitation problems; Pfizer made available documents and employees, and; Pfizer agreed to return to the United States if Nigeria declined to accept jurisdiction.
258:, traveled to Kano's IDH to treat the sick. (Compl. P 5.) The medical teams operated under squalid conditions in a hospital consisting of several single story cinder block buildings, some of which lacked electricity and running water. (Compl. P 110.) The beds were filled to capacity and patients seeking care overflowed on to the hospital's grounds. (Compl. P 110.) Plaintiffs allege that while MSF and other organizations offered safe and effective treatments for bacterial meningitis, Pfizer embarked on a medical experiment involving the "new, untested and unproven" antibiotic "Trovan". (Compl. PP 2-3, 6, 8, 95.)
265:'s (FDA) authorization to export Trovan. On 15 March 1996, Pfizer informed the FDA of its intent to conduct the Kano study. (Compl. P 108.) Thereafter, Pfizer obtained a 20 March letter from the Nigerian government and a 28 March letter from IDH's ethics committee permitting Pfizer to export Trovan to Kano. (Compl. P 108.) Although both letters predate Pfizer's departure for Kano, plaintiffs allege that no IDH ethics committee existed as of 28 March 1996 and that the 28 March letter was back-dated in response to a 1997 FDA audit. (Compl. PP 132-33.) Pfizer,
370:
292:. (Compl. P 127.) Plaintiffs claim that Pfizer failed to explain to the children's parents that the proposed treatment was experimental, that they could refuse it, or that other organizations offered more conventional treatments at the same site free of charge. (Compl. PP 3, 117-20, 128-30, 154-55, 157.) After two weeks, the Pfizer team left Kano and never returned for follow-up evaluations. (Compl. P 122.) Plaintiffs allege that five children who received Trovan and six children whom Pfizer "low-dosed" died. (Compl. P 120.) Others suffered
273:, joint stiffness, and high fevers with headaches. (Compl. P 3, 115.) Pfizer divided them into two groups and treated half with Trovan. (Compl. P 3.) The other half was "purposefully 'low-dosed'" with ceftriaxone, an FDA-approved drug shown to be effective in treating meningitis. (Compl. P 125.) In order to enhance the comparative results of Trovan, Pfizer administered only one-third of ceftriaxone's recommended dosage. (Compl. P 3, 124-25.)
504:
166:
181:
708:
Barrister Aliyu Umar, shortly after Umar confirmed that the state government had received $ 10 million from Pfizer as part of the $ 75 million settlement of the protracted dispute. The
Nigerian government conducted their own investigation, whose report was kept secret for five years with the only three printed copies being lost.
345:, because their actions did not fit the narrow exceptions when a private party will be held liable for the "law of nations". However, the court denied the motion to dismiss on the grounds, because the complaint sufficiently alleged that Pfizer had worked in concert with the Nigeria government, thereby Pfizer acted as a "de facto
285:
analyze the patients' blood samples and therefore could not determine if a patient had a negative reaction until the manifestation of a visible and permanent injury. (Compl. P 126.) Plaintiffs further allege that low-dosing ceftriaxone resulted in injuries and deaths among the control group. (Compl. P 3.)
487:
came in direct response to the Court of
Appeals holding, which questioned whether Nigeria was in fact an adequate alternative forum, because the "Zango litigation" had ended in dismissal. The District Court discussed the "Zango litigation"'s procedural history, concluding that the Plaintiffs’ filed a
276:
Meanwhile, MSF established their headquarters in tents beside the IDH due to space constraints. (Compl. P 111.) There, MSF admitted their sickest patients to hospital beds in the IDH and confined the less ill to floor mats in their tents. (Compl. P 112.) MSF treated pediatric meningitis patients with
226:
In the mid-1990s, Pfizer developed
Trovafloxacin Mesylate, an antibiotic that is also known by its brand name as "Trovan". Pfizer projected that its total annual sales could exceed $ 1 billion a year. (Compl. P 96.) Beginning in 1996, Pfizer conducted the largest drug testing program ever undertaken
533:
did leave the door open for courts, exercising a vigorous gatekeeping function, to recognized new actionable rules based on evolving principles of international law. However, "federal courts should require any claim based on the present-day law of nations to rest on a norm of international character
491:
Next, the court addressed the
Plaintiff's allegations of corruption within the Nigerian judiciary. Although Plaintiff's provided allegations of corruption and anecdotal evidence, the court ultimately held that Plaintiffs were unable to establish corruption and bias in the "Zango litigation". Finding
307:
On 30 December 1996, Pfizer applied for FDA approval to market Trovan in the United States for various uses including the treatment of pediatric infectious diseases. (Compl. P 216.) In June 1997, FDA inspectors discovered inconsistencies in the data resulting from Pfizer's Kano treatments. (Compl. P
324:
strongly associated with the drug. (Compl. P 224.) The FDA announced that it received reports of more than 100 cases where Trovan patients exhibited clinically symptomatic liver toxicity and advised physicians to use Trovan only for patients who met certain criteria. (Compl. P 224-25.) In addition,
707:
In
October 2009, the medical records of the victims of the 1996 Pfizer Trovan clinical trial could not be found at the Kano State Ministry of Health nor at the Infectious Diseases Hospital (IDH) where the trials were conducted, according to the state's Attorney General and Commissioner for Justice
686:
government which represented the plaintiffs. According to
Wikileaked US embassy cables, Pfizer's country manager admitted that "Pfizer had hired investigators to uncover corruption links to federal attorney general Michael Aondoakaa to expose him and put pressure on him to drop the federal cases".
284:
Pfizer's protocol also called for the children selected to have their blood tested on arrival and five days later. (Compl. P 126.) If a child was not responding well to Trovan, Pfizer switched his or her treatment to ceftriaxone. (Compl. P 126.) Plaintiffs allege, however, that Pfizer neglected to
389:
dismissal under the "clear abuse of discretion" standard. The Court of
Appeals, however, revisited the Court's analysis of the adequate alternative forum. While under normal circumstances Nigeria appeared to be an adequate forum, in rare cases this may not be enough. "If the plaintiff shows that
91:
was offering the standard treatment in another part of the same building. Pfizer acknowledged reducing the dose of the standard treatment, but said this was done to minimize injection-site pain and that the mortality rates in both the trovafloxin and ceftriaxone arms of its trial were lower than
269:
received it orally. (Compl. P 105-06.) According to plaintiffs, Nigerian officials allocated to Pfizer two of IDH's wards to conduct the testing. (Compl. P 113.) Pfizer selected, from lines of those awaiting treatment, children ranging in age from one to thirteen years who exhibited symptoms of
268:
Plaintiffs further contend that Pfizer's sole purpose for traveling to Kano was to expedite the FDA's approval of Trovan to treat pediatric victims. (Compl. P 7.) Prior to Kano, only one child had ever been treated with Trovan, and then only after all other antibiotics failed. No child had ever
661:
On 5 June 2007, the government of
Nigeria filed against Pfizer in the Nigerian Federal High Court, seeking US$ 6.95 billion in damages. Nigeria claimed that Pfizer "never obtained approval of the relevant regulatory agencies... nor did the defendant seek or receive approval to conduct any
534:
accepted by the civilized world and defined with a specificity comparable to the features of the 18th-century paradigms". Having set forth the relevant standard, the court evaluated whether Pfizer did in fact violate customary international law. First, the
District Court found that the
250:
besieged the impoverished
Nigerian city of Kano. (Compl. PP 2, 5, 101.) In April 1996, six weeks after it first learned of the epidemics, Pfizer dispatched a medical team to establish a treatment center at Kano's Infectious Disease Hospital (IDH). (Compl. PP 2, 8, 101-02, 101-07, 109.)
308:
217.) Thereafter, regulators informed Pfizer that they planned to deny its application to use the drug against epidemic meningitis and expressed several concerns including Pfizer's failure to conduct follow-up examinations. In response, Pfizer withdrew its application. (Compl. P 217.)
492:
instead, that dismissal was a result of the Plaintiff's waiting "endlessly for a new judge to replace Judge Hobon", who had recused himself for personal reasons. For these reasons, the District Court, again found that Nigeria provided an adequate alternative forum.
311:
On 18 February 1998, Pfizer launched Trovan after it received FDA authorization for treatment of a number of adult illnesses. (Compl. P 218.) Shortly thereafter, Pfizer and the FDA received reports regarding Trovan patients suffering liver damage. (Compl. P 219.)
546:
guidelines does not contain a private cause of action. Instead, finding these guidelines are merely a "general statement of policy that is unlikely to give rise to obligations in any strict sense". Third, the District Court found that the
315:
In January 1999, the FDA recommended that Trovan be prescribed only for patients in nursing homes or hospitals suffering from life-threatening conditions. (Compl. P 223.) That following June, the FDA issued a public health advisory on
86:
that was found to be falsified. The Nigerian government called the trial "an illegal trial of an unregistered drug". It has been alleged that participants and their families were not told that they were part of a trial, and that
559:
does not impose obligations as a matter of international law. Instead, it is "merely aspirational". None of the sources of international law cited by the Plaintiffs were a proper predicate for jurisdiction under the
380:
The Nigerian Plaintiffs appealed from the District Court's order of final judgment to the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit. Pfizer cross-appealed denial of its motion to dismiss pursuant to
192:
69:-approved prescribing information. The allegation is that this was done to skew the test in favor of its own drug. Pfizer claimed that the dose used was sufficient even though a clinical trial performed by
2407:
2351:
115:, Pfizer argued that it was not required to obtain informed consent for experimental drug trials in Africa, and that any case should be heard in Nigeria. In May 2006, Representative
429:
had recently been dismissed in Nigeria. The court declined to take judicial notice of the "Zango litigation", instead opting to vacate the district court's dismissal on grounds of
1740:
128:
127:, described the findings of a report compiled about the case by the Nigerian government as "absolutely appalling" and called for Pfizer to open its records. In January 2009, the
417:
of facts contained within the record of a parallel proceeding, involving different plaintiffs, in a Nigerian Court. The Court of Appeals referred to the Nigerian litigation as
212:
847:
984:, the Abdullahi Court refers to the act consistently as the "Alien Tort Statute" "because the statute is purely jurisdictional in nature, and does not provide a private
2345:
288:
Although Pfizer's protocol called for its team to obtain consent from the parents of the children treated who were too young to sign, few parents could speak or read
529:
creates no new causes of action but confers on federal courts the power to hear a narrow set of alien tort claims for violations of international law. However, the
1964:
2459:
1151:
2260:
2207:
65:
antibiotic. Pfizer gave the children a substantially reduced dose of the ceftriaxone (specifically, 33 mg/kg) relative to that described on the US
2449:
1733:
1231:
933:
195:. Plaintiffs alleged that "they suffered grave injuries from an experimental antibiotic administered by defendant Pfizer Inc. (Pfizer) without their
1263:
2444:
124:
1001:
When confronted with evidence that the 28 March letter was in fact back-dated, Pfizer issued a public statement that the letter was "incorrect".
2371:
735:
1868:
816:
556:
538:, which governs scientific research on human subjects, does not contain a private cause of action. Second, the District Court found that the
329:'s Committee for Proprietary Medicinal Products suspended all sales of Trovan in part due to results from the Kano tests. (Compl. PP 221-22.)
2439:
2429:
1726:
507:
451:
After the Court of Appeals vacated and remanded, the District Court readdressed the dual grounds for dismissal, both dismissal pursuant to
662:
clinical trial at any time before their illegal conduct". After preliminary arguments, the case was adjourned until 26 June of that year.
633:
governs, and accordingly, both Connecticut law claims were dismissed. In addition to lack of subject matter jurisdiction, under both the
1671:
1957:
1014:, the District Court ultimately dismissed for lack of subject matter jurisdiction. Lack of subject matter jurisdiction is governed by
530:
513:
In finding that dismissal was also appropriate under for lack of subject matter jurisdiction, which the court mistakenly refers to as
1779:
1509:
921:
717:
854:
488:
Notice of Discontinuance, based upon the Federal High Court, "having declined jurisdiction in this matter for personal reasons".
135:. Pfizer subsequently settled the case out of court with a $ 75 million settlement that was subject to a confidentiality clause.
120:
103:
The survivors of the trial tried to bring a number of legal actions against Pfizer in the United States. These resulted in four
2127:
390:
conditions in the foreign forum plainly demonstrate that plaintiffs are highly unlikely to obtain basic justice, a defendant's
698:
373:
131:
ruled that the Nigerian victims and their families were entitled to bring suit against Pfizer in the United States under the
1127:
614:
610:
71:
848:"Application for addition of 1g form of ceftriaxone to the complementary list of the WHO model list of essential medicines"
2314:
1950:
1908:
325:
Pfizer agreed to limit distribution of Trovan to hospitals and long term nursing facilities. (Compl. P 224.) Further, the
57:(Trovan), Pfizer gave 100 children trovafloxacin, while another 100 received the gold-standard anti-meningitis treatment,
231:
indicated that Trovan might cause significant side effects in children such as joint disease, abnormal cartilage growth (
1973:
1876:
1661:
1256:
885:
728:
262:
66:
2324:
576:
216:
2434:
2381:
1921:
1702:
1332:
1174:
1159:
369:
2134:
1991:
1926:
1494:
278:
2464:
2454:
2401:
1931:
1853:
50:
254:
In addition to Pfizer team, humanitarian organizations such as Medecins Sans Frontieres (MSF), also known as
2396:
2339:
2106:
1886:
1423:
1249:
552:
539:
255:
208:
147:
433:
and remanding the case to the district court to consider the implications of the "Zango litigation" on its
2157:
1804:
1228:
940:
35:
479:
After setting forth the factual and procedural background the District Court turned its attention to the
2376:
2212:
2197:
1707:
1651:
1646:
1575:
1499:
981:
723:
634:
602:
572:
561:
526:
399:
200:
83:
2266:
1549:
78:
Five children given trovafloxacin died, as did six of those given ceftriaxone. The lead investigator,
1764:
1749:
1395:
1291:
1155:
354:
239:
79:
1524:
2391:
2217:
2140:
1774:
1461:
17:
2361:
2304:
2247:
2086:
1616:
184:
151:
132:
2356:
2309:
2167:
2162:
2096:
2016:
2011:
1812:
1789:
1784:
1611:
1296:
917:
812:
789:
342:
394:
motion must be denied". The Court of Appeals noted that plaintiffs had submitted a number of
2253:
2242:
2232:
2202:
2152:
2146:
1916:
1794:
1769:
1687:
1656:
1539:
1390:
779:
771:
671:
289:
196:
143:
104:
2334:
2319:
2187:
2177:
2076:
2001:
1838:
1822:
1692:
1631:
1456:
1347:
1322:
1235:
985:
630:
503:
414:
232:
93:
227:
by enrolling thousands of participants in clinical tests. (Compl. P 97.) However, prior
2329:
2294:
2289:
2091:
2081:
2066:
2021:
1892:
1881:
1858:
1843:
1428:
1337:
784:
759:
641:
statutory causes of action, the court also granted the motion to dismiss on grounds of
535:
403:
334:
326:
317:
228:
204:
108:
670:
In February 2009, Pfizer decided to settle its legal case with the 200 plaintiffs. An
2423:
2366:
2192:
2101:
2041:
2006:
1489:
1400:
1342:
695:
682:
in March 2009. The settlement followed months of negotiations between Pfizer and the
618:
321:
62:
54:
1146:
1144:
1142:
440:
For these reasons, the Court of Appeals vacated and remanded to the District Court.
2299:
2222:
2071:
2061:
1697:
1666:
1451:
1410:
907:
701:
691:
112:
1201:
2051:
1898:
1534:
1484:
1479:
1030:, 77 Fed. Appx. 48, 2003 U.S. App. LEXIS 20704 (2d Cir. N.Y., October 8, 2003) (
638:
626:
346:
320:
associated with oral and intravenous Trovan following post-marketing reports of
235:, a disease resulting in bone deformation) and liver damage. (Compl. PP 98-99.)
58:
42:
406:
officials to buttress their claims about corruption in the Nigerian judiciary.
222:
The District Court summarized the Nigerian plaintiffs’ allegations as follows:
2172:
2056:
2046:
1996:
1718:
1641:
1514:
1372:
1327:
912:
683:
203:, 28 U.S.C. § 1350, to recover damages for Pfizer's alleged violations of the
165:
116:
1175:"WikiLeaks cables: Pfizer 'used dirty tricks to avoid clinical trial payout'"
775:
567:
For the reasons discussed, the court granted Pfizer's motion to dismiss, for
2386:
1848:
1585:
1570:
1529:
1362:
1317:
1272:
395:
301:
293:
270:
793:
281:
to treat bacterial meningitis in epidemic situations. (Compl. PP 11, 111.)
191:
In 2002, a group of Nigerian minors and their guardians sued Pfizer in the
180:
1590:
1519:
1438:
1418:
1286:
704:. The lawyer representing the Nigerian government was Babatunde Irukera.
568:
297:
139:
1942:
1817:
1595:
1565:
1544:
1367:
1301:
1132:
247:
243:
169:
46:
2182:
1446:
1382:
410:
173:
38:
967:, 2002 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 17436 at *1 (S.D.N.Y. September 17, 2002) (
1504:
1352:
1098:, 2005 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 16126, at *23 (S.D.N.Y., August 9, 2003) (
679:
555:
should not be implied. Finally, the District Court found that the
548:
543:
502:
368:
193:
United States District Court for the Southern District of New York
179:
164:
625:
doctrine, the District Court concluded that Nigerian — not
459:. On remand, the District Court granted Pfizer's dismissal under
341:, alleging that the Plaintiffs' fail to plead a violation of the
1626:
1621:
1580:
1357:
675:
674:
was reached, and scheduled to be put in writing at a meeting in
1946:
1722:
1245:
690:
The talks were brokered by the former Nigerian military leader
199:". On 29 August 2001, plaintiffs brought this action under the
1636:
760:"Pfizer accused of testing new drug without ethical approval"
1241:
1055:, 2005 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 16126 (S.D.N.Y., August 9, 2005) (
2408:
Greenberg v. Miami Children's Hospital Research Institute
333:
In response to plaintiffs' allegations, Pfizer filed a
886:"Panel Faults Pfizer in '96 Clinical Trial In Nigeria"
1128:"Nigeria files suit against Pfizer, seeks $ 6.95 bln"
453:
Rule 12(b)(6) of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure
383:
Rule 12(b)(6) of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure
339:
Rule 12(b)(6) of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure
129:
United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit
1202:"Nigeria: Pfizer - Victims' Medical Records Missing"
213:
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
2275:
2231:
2115:
2030:
1980:
1907:
1867:
1831:
1803:
1757:
1680:
1604:
1558:
1470:
1437:
1409:
1381:
1310:
1279:
1152:"Pfizer settles multi-billion dollar Nigerian case"
146:killed about 12,000 people, during the worst known
903:
901:
899:
879:
877:
875:
645:, with the same additional conditions required by
597:The District Court recites the facts set forth in
1672:Termination of the patient-physician relationship
1077:542 U.S. 692, 124 S. Ct. 2739, 159 L. Ed. 2d 718.
2346:Moore v. Regents of the University of California
583:grounds (under the same conditions set forth in
409:Next, the Court of Appeals acknowledged that on
483:. The court's somewhat searching review of the
34:arose out of a clinical trial conducted by the
75:recommends a dose of 50–100 mg/kg.
1958:
1734:
1257:
617:. The court began by analyzing Connecticut's
579:were found, the action would be dismissed on
8:
2261:Schloendorff v. Society of New York Hospital
352:Next, Pfizer sought dismissal on grounds of
1118:, 399 F. Supp. 2d 495, 503 (N.Y.S.D. 2005).
1010:Despite the Court's consistent citation of
830:
828:
277:chloramphenicol, a drug recommended by the
219:(otherwise known as the "law of nations").
107:, the first three dismissing the claims on
2357:Medical Experimentation on Black Americans
1965:
1951:
1943:
1741:
1727:
1719:
1264:
1250:
1242:
992:, 2005 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 16126, at *1 n. 1.
621:principles. Under Connecticut's qualified
455:and dismissal pursuant to the doctrine of
261:To travel to Kano, Pfizer needed the U.S.
82:, later provided a letter of approval for
811:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
809:The politics of polio in northern Nigeria
783:
609:, before turning to the claims under the
2295:Albert Kligman's dermatology experiments
1016:Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 12(b)(1)
1012:Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 12(b)(6)
515:Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 12(b)(6)
2352:Surgery to try to improve mental health
747:
125:House International Relations Committee
837:, 2002 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 17436 at *4-7.
753:
751:
736:Teva Canada Ltd. v. Pfizer Canada Inc.
615:Connecticut Products Liability Statute
611:Connecticut Unfair Trade Practices Act
1869:Guidelines for human subject research
557:Universal Declaration of Human Rights
7:
916:. Fourth Estate, 2012, pp. 117–118.
551:was not "self executing" and that a
385:. The Court of Appeals reviewed the
1173:Boseley, Sarah (December 9, 2010).
1116:Ajudu Ismaila Adamu v. Pfizer, Inc.
592:Ajudu Ismaila Adamu v. Pfizer, Inc.
475:Adequate Alternative Forum Analysis
32:Kano trovafloxacin trial litigation
27:Kano trovafloxacin trial litigation
18:Kano Trovafloxacin trial litigation
25:
1780:Privacy for research participants
718:Medical experimentation in Africa
2450:Medical controversies in Nigeria
1238:on Trovan, Kano State Civil Case
1200:Umar, Auwalu (October 5, 2009).
517:, the court relied heavily upon
2460:Nigeria–United States relations
2128:Betancourt v. Trinitas Hospital
467:did not preclude dismissal for
2445:1996 in United States case law
2372:Radioactive iodine experiments
374:United States Court of Appeals
53:. To test its new antibiotic,
1:
2315:Guatemala syphilis experiment
1909:Monitoring in clinical trials
884:Stephens, Joe (May 7, 2006).
138:Overall, the 1996 meningitis
1877:List of medical ethics cases
263:Food and Drug Administration
2440:Fluoroquinolone antibiotics
2430:Alien Tort Statute case law
2325:Human radiation experiments
764:BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.)
657:Nigerian government lawsuit
577:subject matter jurisdiction
508:U.S. Supreme Court building
413:both parties had requested
217:customary international law
2481:
2382:Stanford prison experiment
1922:Institutional review board
1703:Institutional review board
601:, and the analysis of the
119:of California, the senior
2284:Abdullahi v. Pfizer, Inc.
2135:Commonwealth v. Twitchell
1992:Betty and George Coumbias
1927:Data monitoring committee
1333:Doctrine of double effect
1096:Abdullahi v. Pfizer, Inc.
1053:Abdullahi v. Pfizer, Inc.
1028:Abdullahi v. Pfizer, Inc.
807:Renne, Elisha P. (2010).
731:) inspired by the scandal
445:Abdullahi v. Pfizer, Inc.
363:Abdullahi v. Pfizer, Inc.
279:World Health Organization
159:Abdullahi v. Pfizer, Inc.
92:among those treated with
2402:Willowbrook State School
1932:Community advisory board
1854:Clinical research ethics
990:Abdullahi v. Pfizer, Inc
965:Abdullahi v. Pfizer, Inc
776:10.1136/bmj.322.7280.194
569:failure to state a claim
98:Médecins Sans Frontières
89:Médecins Sans Frontières
72:Médecins Sans Frontières
51:meningococcal meningitis
49:, during an epidemic of
2397:Tuskegee Syphilis Study
2340:Joseph Gilbert Hamilton
2119:parent/patient/guardian
2117:Medical opinion against
1887:Declaration of Helsinki
1424:Reproductive technology
672:out-of-court settlement
553:private right of action
540:Declaration of Helsinki
256:Doctors Without Borders
209:Declaration of Helsinki
2158:Archie Battersbee case
1805:Human subject research
510:
377:
331:
238:In 1996, epidemics of
188:
177:
36:pharmaceutical company
2377:Skid Row Cancer Study
2213:Spiro Nikolouzos case
2198:Joseph Maraachli case
1708:Human challenge study
1647:Scientific misconduct
1576:Jewish medical ethics
982:Alien Tort Claims Act
724:The Constant Gardener
635:Alien Tort Claims Act
603:Alien Tort Claims Act
573:Alien Tort Claims Act
562:Alien Tort Claims Act
527:Alien Tort Claims Act
506:
372:
304:. (Compl. PP 16-50.)
224:
201:Alien Tort Claims Act
183:
168:
2392:Plutonium injections
1974:Medical ethics cases
1750:Research participant
1559:Cultural differences
1462:Genetic modification
1229:Statement of Defense
980:Although titled the
946:on November 21, 2010
643:forum non conveniens
581:forum non conveniens
469:forum non conveniens
457:forum non conveniens
435:forum non conveniens
431:forum non conveniens
392:forum non conveniens
387:forum non conveniens
355:forum non conveniens
240:bacterial meningitis
80:Abdulhamid Isa Dutse
2218:Aruna Shanbaug case
2141:Mordechai Dov Brody
1775:Respect for persons
1473:emergent situations
890:The Washington Post
463:and found that the
322:acute liver failure
172:'s position on the
148:meningitis outbreak
2362:Milgram experiment
2305:Deep sleep therapy
2267:Christiane Völling
2248:Gillick competence
1652:Medical misconduct
1617:Continuity of care
1500:Court intervention
1471:Death, dying, and
1280:Classic principles
1234:2010-11-21 at the
1106:, 124 S. Ct. at ).
934:"media.pfizer.com"
511:
378:
189:
185:Chemical structure
178:
152:Sub-Saharan Africa
133:Alien Tort Statute
109:procedural grounds
2435:Pfizer litigation
2417:
2416:
2168:Tirhas Habtegiris
2163:Charlie Gard case
2097:Karen Ann Quinlan
2017:Piergiorgio Welby
1940:
1939:
1813:Clinical research
1790:Return of results
1785:Right to withdraw
1716:
1715:
1550:Transplant ethics
1540:Health care proxy
1429:Gender assignment
1162:on March 5, 2009.
818:978-0-253-35515-7
758:Wise, J. (2001).
335:motion to dismiss
105:judicial opinions
16:(Redirected from
2472:
2243:Ashley Treatment
2233:Informed consent
2203:Jahi McMath case
2153:Alfie Evans case
2147:Lantz v. Coleman
1967:
1960:
1953:
1944:
1917:Ethics committee
1795:Informed consent
1743:
1736:
1729:
1720:
1688:Informed consent
1657:Competence (law)
1605:Personal conduct
1510:Ethics committee
1391:Consequentialism
1311:Other principles
1266:
1259:
1252:
1243:
1217:
1216:
1214:
1212:
1197:
1191:
1190:
1188:
1186:
1170:
1164:
1163:
1158:. Archived from
1148:
1137:
1125:
1119:
1113:
1107:
1093:
1087:
1084:
1078:
1075:
1069:
1066:
1060:
1050:
1044:
1041:
1035:
1025:
1019:
1008:
1002:
999:
993:
978:
972:
962:
956:
955:
953:
951:
945:
939:. Archived from
938:
930:
924:
905:
894:
893:
881:
870:
869:
867:
865:
860:on July 17, 2010
859:
853:. Archived from
852:
844:
838:
832:
823:
822:
804:
798:
797:
787:
755:
623:lex loci delicti
485:Zango litigation
481:Zango litigation
465:Zango litigation
427:Zango litigation
423:Zango litigation
400:State Department
197:informed consent
187:of trovafloxacin
144:northern Nigeria
21:
2480:
2479:
2475:
2474:
2473:
2471:
2470:
2469:
2465:1996 in Nigeria
2455:Clinical trials
2420:
2419:
2418:
2413:
2335:Jesse Gelsinger
2320:Henrietta Lacks
2271:
2235:
2227:
2208:Sarah Murnaghan
2188:Ashya King case
2178:Sun Hudson case
2120:
2118:
2111:
2077:Vincent Lambert
2034:
2032:
2026:
2002:Giovanni Nuvoli
1985:
1983:
1976:
1971:
1941:
1936:
1903:
1863:
1839:Research ethics
1832:Ethical systems
1827:
1823:Social research
1799:
1753:
1747:
1717:
1712:
1693:Informed assent
1681:Research ethics
1676:
1600:
1554:
1472:
1466:
1457:Genetic testing
1433:
1405:
1377:
1323:Confidentiality
1306:
1297:Non-maleficence
1275:
1270:
1236:Wayback Machine
1225:
1220:
1210:
1208:
1199:
1198:
1194:
1184:
1182:
1172:
1171:
1167:
1150:
1149:
1140:
1126:
1122:
1114:
1110:
1094:
1090:
1085:
1081:
1076:
1072:
1067:
1063:
1051:
1047:
1042:
1038:
1026:
1022:
1009:
1005:
1000:
996:
986:cause of action
979:
975:
963:
959:
949:
947:
943:
936:
932:
931:
927:
906:
897:
883:
882:
873:
863:
861:
857:
850:
846:
845:
841:
833:
826:
819:
806:
805:
801:
757:
756:
749:
745:
714:
694:and the former
668:
666:2009 settlement
659:
631:substantive law
595:
501:
477:
449:
419:Zango v. Pfizer
415:judicial notice
367:
233:osteochondrosis
163:
111:. According to
94:chloramphenicol
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2478:
2476:
2468:
2467:
2462:
2457:
2452:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2422:
2421:
2415:
2414:
2412:
2411:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2330:J. Marion Sims
2327:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2310:Doctors' Trial
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2290:Albert Stevens
2287:
2279:
2277:
2273:
2272:
2270:
2269:
2264:
2257:
2250:
2245:
2239:
2237:
2229:
2228:
2226:
2225:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2143:
2138:
2131:
2123:
2121:
2116:
2113:
2112:
2110:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2094:
2092:Haleigh Poutre
2089:
2084:
2082:Robert Latimer
2079:
2074:
2069:
2067:Eluana Englaro
2064:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2038:
2036:
2028:
2027:
2025:
2024:
2022:Jack Kevorkian
2019:
2014:
2012:RamĂłn Sampedro
2009:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1988:
1986:
1981:
1978:
1977:
1972:
1970:
1969:
1962:
1955:
1947:
1938:
1937:
1935:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1913:
1911:
1905:
1904:
1902:
1901:
1896:
1893:Belmont Report
1889:
1884:
1882:Nuremberg Code
1879:
1873:
1871:
1865:
1864:
1862:
1861:
1859:Biobank ethics
1856:
1851:
1846:
1844:Medical ethics
1841:
1835:
1833:
1829:
1828:
1826:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1809:
1807:
1801:
1800:
1798:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1782:
1777:
1772:
1767:
1761:
1759:
1755:
1754:
1748:
1746:
1745:
1738:
1731:
1723:
1714:
1713:
1711:
1710:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1684:
1682:
1678:
1677:
1675:
1674:
1669:
1664:
1659:
1654:
1649:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1629:
1624:
1619:
1614:
1612:Abuse of trust
1608:
1606:
1602:
1601:
1599:
1598:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1578:
1573:
1568:
1562:
1560:
1556:
1555:
1553:
1552:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1532:
1527:
1525:Family meeting
1522:
1517:
1512:
1507:
1502:
1497:
1492:
1487:
1482:
1476:
1474:
1468:
1467:
1465:
1464:
1459:
1454:
1449:
1443:
1441:
1435:
1434:
1432:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1415:
1413:
1407:
1406:
1404:
1403:
1398:
1393:
1387:
1385:
1379:
1378:
1376:
1375:
1370:
1365:
1360:
1355:
1350:
1345:
1340:
1335:
1330:
1325:
1320:
1314:
1312:
1308:
1307:
1305:
1304:
1299:
1294:
1289:
1283:
1281:
1277:
1276:
1271:
1269:
1268:
1261:
1254:
1246:
1240:
1239:
1224:
1223:External links
1221:
1219:
1218:
1192:
1165:
1138:
1120:
1108:
1088:
1079:
1070:
1061:
1045:
1036:
1020:
1003:
994:
973:
957:
925:
895:
892:. p. A01.
871:
839:
824:
817:
799:
746:
744:
741:
740:
739:
732:
720:
713:
710:
667:
664:
658:
655:
594:
589:
536:Nuremberg Code
500:
494:
476:
473:
448:
442:
404:United Nations
366:
360:
343:law of nations
337:, pursuant to
327:European Union
318:liver toxicity
271:neck stiffness
229:animal testing
205:Nuremberg Code
162:
156:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2477:
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2373:
2370:
2368:
2367:Monster Study
2365:
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2281:
2280:
2278:
2274:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2262:
2258:
2256:
2255:
2254:Marion's Case
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2240:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2193:Jesse Koochin
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2148:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2136:
2132:
2130:
2129:
2125:
2124:
2122:
2114:
2108:
2107:Gloria Taylor
2105:
2103:
2102:Terri Schiavo
2100:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2053:
2050:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2042:Andrew Bedner
2040:
2039:
2037:
2029:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2007:Sue Rodriguez
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1989:
1987:
1979:
1975:
1968:
1963:
1961:
1956:
1954:
1949:
1948:
1945:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1914:
1912:
1910:
1906:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1894:
1890:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1874:
1872:
1870:
1866:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1840:
1837:
1836:
1834:
1830:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1810:
1808:
1806:
1802:
1796:
1793:
1791:
1788:
1786:
1783:
1781:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1771:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1762:
1760:
1756:
1751:
1744:
1739:
1737:
1732:
1730:
1725:
1724:
1721:
1709:
1706:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1685:
1683:
1679:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1645:
1643:
1640:
1638:
1635:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1623:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1613:
1610:
1609:
1607:
1603:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1579:
1577:
1574:
1572:
1569:
1567:
1564:
1563:
1561:
1557:
1551:
1548:
1546:
1543:
1541:
1538:
1536:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1526:
1523:
1521:
1518:
1516:
1513:
1511:
1508:
1506:
1503:
1501:
1498:
1496:
1493:
1491:
1490:Cardiac death
1488:
1486:
1483:
1481:
1478:
1477:
1475:
1469:
1463:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1444:
1442:
1440:
1436:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1416:
1414:
1412:
1408:
1402:
1401:Virtue ethics
1399:
1397:
1394:
1392:
1389:
1388:
1386:
1384:
1380:
1374:
1371:
1369:
1366:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1344:
1341:
1339:
1336:
1334:
1331:
1329:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1316:
1315:
1313:
1309:
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1300:
1298:
1295:
1293:
1290:
1288:
1285:
1284:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1267:
1262:
1260:
1255:
1253:
1248:
1247:
1244:
1237:
1233:
1230:
1227:
1226:
1222:
1207:
1206:allafrica.com
1203:
1196:
1193:
1180:
1176:
1169:
1166:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1147:
1145:
1143:
1139:
1136:, 4 June 2007
1135:
1134:
1129:
1124:
1121:
1117:
1112:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1100:Abdullahi III
1097:
1092:
1089:
1086:Id. at 22-23.
1083:
1080:
1074:
1071:
1065:
1062:
1058:
1057:Abdullahi III
1054:
1049:
1046:
1040:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1024:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1007:
1004:
998:
995:
991:
987:
983:
977:
974:
970:
966:
961:
958:
942:
935:
929:
926:
923:
922:9780007498086
919:
915:
914:
909:
908:Goldacre, Ben
904:
902:
900:
896:
891:
887:
880:
878:
876:
872:
864:September 14,
856:
849:
843:
840:
836:
831:
829:
825:
820:
814:
810:
803:
800:
795:
791:
786:
781:
777:
773:
770:(7280): 194.
769:
765:
761:
754:
752:
748:
742:
738:
737:
733:
730:
726:
725:
721:
719:
716:
715:
711:
709:
705:
703:
700:
697:
693:
688:
685:
681:
677:
673:
665:
663:
656:
654:
652:
651:Abdullahi III
648:
644:
640:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
619:choice of law
616:
612:
608:
607:Abdullahi III
605:set forth in
604:
600:
593:
590:
588:
586:
582:
578:
575:and, even if
574:
570:
565:
563:
558:
554:
550:
545:
541:
537:
532:
531:Supreme Court
528:
524:
520:
516:
509:
505:
499:
495:
493:
489:
486:
482:
474:
472:
470:
466:
462:
461:Rule 12(b)(6)
458:
454:
446:
443:
441:
438:
436:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
407:
405:
401:
397:
393:
388:
384:
375:
371:
364:
361:
359:
357:
356:
350:
348:
344:
340:
336:
330:
328:
323:
319:
313:
309:
305:
303:
299:
295:
291:
286:
282:
280:
274:
272:
266:
264:
259:
257:
252:
249:
245:
241:
236:
234:
230:
223:
220:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
186:
182:
175:
171:
167:
160:
157:
155:
153:
149:
145:
141:
136:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
101:
99:
95:
90:
85:
81:
76:
74:
73:
68:
64:
63:cephalosporin
60:
56:
55:trovafloxacin
52:
48:
44:
40:
37:
33:
19:
2406:
2344:
2300:David Reimer
2283:
2282:
2259:
2252:
2236:to treatment
2223:David Vetter
2145:
2133:
2126:
2072:June Hartley
2062:Baby Doe Law
1891:
1698:Human rights
1667:Incompetency
1452:Gene therapy
1411:Reproduction
1209:. Retrieved
1205:
1195:
1183:. Retrieved
1179:The Guardian
1178:
1168:
1160:the original
1131:
1123:
1115:
1111:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1082:
1073:
1064:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1039:
1032:Abdullahi II
1031:
1027:
1023:
1015:
1011:
1006:
997:
989:
976:
968:
964:
960:
948:. Retrieved
941:the original
928:
911:
889:
862:. Retrieved
855:the original
842:
834:
808:
802:
767:
763:
734:
722:
706:
702:Jimmy Carter
692:Yakubu Gowon
689:
669:
660:
650:
646:
642:
622:
606:
598:
596:
591:
584:
580:
566:
522:
518:
514:
512:
497:
490:
484:
480:
478:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
450:
444:
439:
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
408:
391:
386:
382:
379:
362:
353:
351:
338:
332:
314:
310:
306:
287:
283:
275:
267:
260:
253:
237:
225:
221:
190:
158:
137:
113:Ben Goldacre
102:
97:
88:
84:human trials
77:
70:
31:
29:
2052:Paul Brophy
2033:Withholding
2031:Euthanasia/
1899:Common Rule
1765:Beneficence
1535:Next of kin
1485:Brain death
1480:Arbitration
1292:Beneficence
969:Abdullahi I
835:Abdullahi I
647:Abdullahi I
639:Connecticut
627:Connecticut
599:Abdullahi I
585:Abdullahi I
347:state actor
59:ceftriaxone
41:in 1996 in
2424:Categories
2173:Rom Houben
2057:Carol Carr
2047:Tony Bland
1997:Dax Cowart
1662:Competency
1642:Misconduct
1515:Euthanasia
1396:Deontology
1373:Persuasion
1328:Conscience
1211:October 8,
1185:October 8,
1102:) (citing
1043:Id. at 52.
913:Bad Pharma
743:References
727:, a book (
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571:under the
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396:affidavits
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