987:
embryo and diploid embryo, ES cell and tetraploid embryo, diploid embryo and tetraploid embryo, ES cells and ES cells. The combination of embryonic stem cell and diploid embryo is a common technique used for the making of chimeric mice, since gene targeting can be done in the embryonic stem cell. These kinds of chimeras can be made through either aggregation of stem cells and the diploid embryo or injection of the stem cells into the diploid embryo. If embryonic stem cells are to be used for gene targeting to make a chimera, the following procedure is common: a construct for homologous recombination for the gene targeted will be introduced into cultured mouse embryonic stem cells from the donor mouse, by way of electroporation; cells positive for the recombination event will have antibiotic resistance, provided by the insertion cassette used in the gene targeting; and be able to be positively selected for. ES cells with the correct targeted gene are then injected into a diploid host mouse blastocyst. Then, these injected blastocysts are implanted into a pseudo pregnant female surrogate mouse, which will bring the embryos to term and give birth to a mouse whose germline is derived from the donor mouse's ES cells. This same procedure can be achieved through aggregation of ES cells and diploid embryos, diploid embryos are cultured in aggregation plates in wells where single embryos can fit, to these wells ES cells are added the aggregates are cultured until a single embryo is formed and has progressed to the blastocyst stage, and can then be transferred to the surrogate mouse.
957:. Each of these parts of the blastocyst gives rise to different parts of the embryo; the inner cell mass gives rise to the embryo proper, while the trophectoderm and primitive endoderm give rise to extra embryonic structures that support growth of the embryo. Two- to eight-cell-stage embryos are competent for making chimeras, since at these stages of development, the cells in the embryos are not yet committed to give rise to any particular cell lineage, and could give rise to the inner cell mass or the trophectoderm. In the case where two diploid eight-cell-stage embryos are used to make a chimera, chimerism can be later found in the
785:
273:
334:
to be maternally-derived. However, his form of microchimerism was found to be due to a vanished twin, and it is unknown whether microchimerism from a vanished twin might predispose individuals to autoimmune diseases as well. Mothers often also have a few cells genetically identical to those of their children, and some people also have some cells genetically identical to those of their siblings (maternal siblings only, since these cells are passed to them because their mother retained them).
589:
289:
900:
45:
620:
928:(ES cells). Chimeras can be derived from mouse embryos that have not yet implanted in the uterus as well as from implanted embryos. ES cells from the inner cell mass of an implanted blastocyst can contribute to all cell lineages of a mouse including the germ line. ES cells are a useful tool in chimeras because genes can be mutated in them through the use of
3770:
330:
retain higher numbers of cells genetically identical to their mother's have been observed to have higher rates of some autoimmune diseases, presumably because the immune system is responsible for destroying these cells and a common immune defect prevents it from doing so and also causes autoimmune problems.
711:, plastids may sort-out from a mixed egg or mixed zygote respectively. This type of chimera is recognized at the time of origin by the sorting-out pattern in the leaves. After sorting-out is complete, periclinal chimeras are distinguished from similar looking nuclear gene-differential chimeras by their
333:
The higher rates of autoimmune diseases due to the presence of maternally-derived cells is why in a 2010 study of a 40-year-old man with scleroderma-like disease (an autoimmune rheumatic disease), the female cells detected in his blood stream via FISH (fluorescence in situ hybridization) were thought
222:
receptors, the male searches until it locates a female anglerfish. The male, less than an inch in length, bites into her skin and releases an enzyme that digests the skin of both his mouth and her body, fusing the pair down to the blood-vessel level. While this attachment has become necessary for the
977:
contributions to chimeras have been developed. ES cells can be used in combination with eight-cell-and two-cell-stage embryos to make chimeras and exclusively give rise to the embryo proper. Embryos that are to be used in chimeras can be further genetically altered to specifically contribute to only
244:
Chimerism has been found in some species of marine sponges. Four distinct genotypes have been found in a single individual, and there is potential for even greater genetic heterogeneity. Each genotype functions independently in terms of reproduction, but the different intra-organism genotypes behave
1001:
The US and
Western Europe have strict codes of ethics and regulations in place that expressly forbid certain subsets of experimentation using human cells, though there is a vast difference in the regulatory framework. Through the creation of human chimeras comes the question: where does society now
944:
The ability to make mouse chimeras comes from an understanding of early mouse development. Between the stages of fertilization of the egg and the implantation of a blastocyst into the uterus, different parts of the mouse embryo retain the ability to give rise to a variety of cell lineages. Once the
915:
Chimeric mice are important animals in biological research, as they allow for the investigation of a variety of biological questions in an animal that has two distinct genetic pools within it. These include insights into problems such as the tissue specific requirements of a gene, cell lineage, and
263:
are obligate chimeras, the first known such case. In this species, the queens have arisen from fertilized eggs with a genotype of RR (Reproductive x
Reproductive), the sterile female workers show a RW arrangement (Reproductive x Worker), and the males instead of being haploid as is usually the case
2149:
In the current embryological (which is also the classical) sense, a "chimaera" is an organism whose cells derive from two or more distinct zygote lineages, and this is the sense which the term "genetical chimaera" is here intended to convey. "Genetical mosaic" is less suitable, because a mosaic is
159:
Normally, genetic chimerism is not visible on casual inspection; however, it has been detected in the course of proving parentage. More practically, in agronomy
Chimera indicates a plant or portion of a plant whose tissues are made up of two or more types of cells with different genetic makeup; it
986:
There are a variety of combinations that can give rise to a successful chimera mouse and – according to the goal of the experiment – an appropriate cell and embryo combination can be picked; they are generally but not limited to diploid embryo and ES cells, diploid
568:
and a straight thumb, eyes of slightly different colors, differential hair growth on opposite sides of the body, etc.) or completely undetectable. Chimeras may also show, under a certain spectrum of UV light, distinctive marks on the back resembling that of arrow points pointing downward from the
329:
Microchimerism is the presence of a small number of cells that are genetically distinct from those of the host individual. Most people are born with a few cells genetically identical to their mothers' and the proportion of these cells goes down in healthy individuals as they get older. People who
1006:
if they pose a threat to humans. If a chimpanzee is genetically altered to be more similar to a human, it may blur the ethical line between animal and human. Legal debate would be the next step in the process to determine whether certain chimeras should be granted legal rights. Along with issues
972:
It is possible to dissect the embryo at other stages so as to accordingly give rise to one lineage of cells from an embryo selectively and not the other. For example, subsets of blastomeres can be used to give rise to chimera with specified cell lineage from one embryo. The Inner Cell Mass of a
864:
in the chick embryo stage, the neural tube and the neural crest cells of the chick were ablated, and replaced with the same parts from a quail. Once hatched, the quail feathers were visibly apparent around the wing area, whereas the rest of the chick's body was made of its own chicken cells.
978:
one part of chimera. An example is the chimera built off of ES cells and tetraploid embryos, which are artificially made by electrofusion of two two-cell diploid embryos. The tetraploid embryo will exclusively give rise to the trophectoderm and primitive endoderm in the chimera.
227:
individual. Sometimes in this process, more than one male will attach to a single female as a symbiote. In this case, they will all be consumed into the body of the larger female angler. Once fused to a female, the males will reach sexual maturity, developing large
973:
diploid blastocyst, for example, can be used to make a chimera with another blastocyst of eight-cell diploid embryo; the cells taken from the inner cell mass will give rise to the primitive endoderm and to the epiblast in the chimera mouse. From this knowledge,
3765:
730:
ability. This mutated tissue is unable to survive on its own, but it is kept alive by its partnership with normal photosynthetic tissue. Sometimes chimeras are also found with layers differing in respect of both their nuclear and their plastid genes.
923:
in the 1960s through the aggregation of eight-cell-stage embryos. Injection on the other hand was pioneered by
Richard Gardner and Ralph Brinster who injected cells into blastocysts to create chimeric mice with germ lines fully derived from injected
2203:
Mosaicism originates by intrinsic genetic variations caused, among other processes, by somatic mutations, while chimerism originates from allogenic fusion or grafting. As such, chimerism is much rarer and involves a much larger genetic change than
2736:
Rakosy-Tican, E.; Aurori, C.M.; Dijkstra, C.; Thieme, R.; Aurori, A. & Davey, M.R. (2007). "The usefulness of the gfp reporter gene for monitoring
Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of potato dihaploid and tetraploid genotypes".
557:, where they state, "... where a twin pregnancy evolves into one child, is currently believed to be one of the rarer forms. However, we know that 20 to 30% of singleton pregnancies were originally a twin or a multiple pregnancy".
837:
four-cell morulas; although the cells never fused, they worked together to form organs. It was discovered that one of these primates, Roku, was a sexual chimera; as four percent of Roku's blood cells contained two x chromosomes.
440:. Innate chimeras are formed from at least four parent cells (two fertilised eggs or early embryos fused together). Each population of cells keeps its own character and the resulting organism is a mixture of tissues. Cases of
489:. Specific types of transplants that could induce this condition include bone marrow transplants and organ transplants, as the recipient's body essentially works to permanently incorporate the new blood stem cells into it.
763:
Untransformed cells should be easy to detect and remove to avoid chimeras. This is because it is important to maintain the stable ability of the transgenic plants across different generations. Reporter genes such as
413:, tetragametic chimeras can be very conspicuous, as the resulting bird will have an obvious split between two colour types – often divided bilaterally down the centre. These individuals are known as
772:(GFP) are used in combination with plant selective markers (herbicide, antibody etc.) However, GUS expression depends on the plant development stage and GFP may be influenced by the green tissue autofluorescence.
1665:
Hadjiathanasiou, C. G.; Brauner, R.; Lortat-Jacob, S.; Nivot, S.; Jaubert, F.; Fellous, M.; Nihoul-Fékété, C.; Rappaport, R. (November 1994). "True hermaphroditism: genetic variants and clinical management".
3022:
Cao, Jing; Li, Wenjuan; Li, Jie; Mazid, Md. Abdul; Li, Chunyang; Jiang, Yu; Jia, Wenqi; Wu, Liang; Liao, Zhaodi; Sun, Shiyu; Song, Weixiang; Fu, Jiqiang; Wang, Yan; Lu, Yong; Xu, Yuting (November 2023).
699:
These chimeras arise by spontaneous or induced mutation of a nuclear gene to a dominant or recessive allele. As a rule, one character is affected at a time in the leaf, flower, fruit, or other parts.
638:
to form a single growing organism that preserves both types of tissue in a single shoot. Just as the constituent species are likely to differ in a wide range of features, so the behavior of their
383:
composed of cells with a second set of chromosomes. This has occurred in humans, and at one time was thought to be extremely rare although more recent evidence suggests that this is not the case.
580:, who was also suspected (initially) of not being her children's biological mother, after DNA tests on her adult sons for a kidney transplant she needed, seemed to show she was not their mother.
160:
can derive from a bud mutation or, more rarely, at the grafting point, from the concrescence of cells of the two bionts; in this case it is improperly known with the name of "graft hybrid".
1360:
Schoenle, E.; Schmid, W.; Schinzel, A.; Mahler, M.; Ritter, M.; Schenker, T.; Metaxas, M.; Froesch, P.; Froesch, E. R. (1983-07-01). "46,XX/46,XY chimerism in a phenotypically normal man".
891:, an average of 67% and a highest of 92% of the cells across the 26 tested tissues were descendants of the donor stem cells against 0.1–4.5% from previous experiments on chimeric monkeys.
707:
These chimeras arise by spontaneous or induced mutation of a plastid gene, followed by the sorting-out of two kinds of plastid during vegetative growth. Alternatively, after selfing or
1570:
Shah, V. C.; Krishna Murthy, D. S.; Roy, S.; Contractor, P. M.; Shah, A. V. (November 1982). "True hermaphrodite: 46, XX/46, XY, clinical cytogenetic and histopathological studies".
1002:
draw the line of humanity? This question poses serious legal and moral issues, along with creating controversy. Chimpanzees, for example, are not offered any legal standing, and are
3650:
919:
The general methods for creating chimeric mice can be summarized either by injection or aggregation of embryonic cells from different origins. The first chimeric mouse was made by
264:
for ants also display a RW genotype, but for them the egg R and the sperm W do not fuse so they develop as a chimera with some cells carrying an R and others carrying a W genome.
691:. More commonly cytochimeras have simple multiple of the normal chromosome complement in the changed layer. There are various effects on cell size and growth characteristics.
887:
In 2023 a study reported the first chimeric monkey using embryonic stem cell lines, it was the only live birth from 12 pregnancies resulting from 40 implanted embryos of the
296:
Tetragametic chimerism is a form of congenital chimerism. This condition occurs through fertilizing two separate ova by two sperm, followed by aggregation of the two at the
3910:
2658:
Zhu, X.; Zhao, M.; Ma, S.; Ge, Y.; Zhang, M. & Chen, L. (2007). "Induction and origin of adventitious shoots from chimeras of
Brassica juncea and Brassica oleracea".
876:
ova to create the first human chimeric embryos. The embryos were allowed to develop for several days in a laboratory setting, and then destroyed to harvest the resulting
803:
671:, and "Family" trees, where multiple varieties of apple or pear are grafted onto the same tree. Many fruit trees are cultivated by grafting the body of a sapling onto a
354:
can carry the reproductive cells of their (fraternal) twin siblings due to placental fusion during development. (Marmosets almost always give birth to fraternal twins.)
3802:
L. M. Repas-Humpe; A. Humpe; R. Lynen; B. Glock; E. M. Dauber; G. Simson; W. R. Mayr; M. Köhler; S. Eber (1999). "A Dispermic
Chimerism in a 2-year-old Caucasian Boy".
236:. This process allows for sperm to be in constant supply when the female produces an egg, so that the chimeric fish is able to have a greater number of offspring.
466:
of the genetic material in a cell, giving rise to a subset of cells that are different from the rest. Natural chimerism is the fusion of more than one fertilized
2301:
2015:
1112:
755:(4) The observable characteristic of transgenic cells may be a transient expression of the marker gene. Or it may due to the presence of agrobacterium cells.
300:
or zygote stages. This results in the development of an organism with intermingled cell lines. Put another way, the chimera is formed from the merging of two
2107:
A chimera is an organism whose cells are derived from two or more zygotes as opposed to a mosaic whose different cell lines are derived from a single zygote
1880:
1007:
regarding the rights of chimeras, individuals have expressed concern about whether or not creating human chimeras diminishes the "dignity" of being human.
860:
To research the developmental biology of the bird embryo, researchers produced artificial quail-chick chimeras in 1987. By using transplantation and
203:
Some level of chimerism occurs naturally in the wild in many animal species, however in some cases may be a required (obligate) part of their life cycle.
3000:
1979:
Gengozian, N.; Batson, JS; Eide, P. (1964). "Hematologic and
Cytogenetic Evidence for Hematopoietic Chimerism in the Marmoset, Tamarinus Nigricollis".
3985:
2607:
Thompson, J.D.; Herre, E.A.; Hamrick, J.L. & Stone, J.L. (1991). "Genetic
Mosaics in strangler Fig Trees: Implication for Tropical Conservation".
163:
In contrast, an individual where each cell contains genetic material from two organisms of different breeds, varieties, species or genera is called a
546:. Chimeras can often breed, but the fertility and type of offspring depend on which cell line gave rise to the ovaries or testes; varying degrees of
3953:
718:
All plastid gene- and some nuclear gene-differential chimeras affect the color of the plasmids within the leaves, and these are grouped together as
218:
and is in fact a natural and essential part of their life cycle. Once the male achieves adulthood, it begins its search for a female. Using strong
822:, which infect plants. The study surprised scientists, because DNA and RNA viruses vary and the way the chimera came together was not understood.
481:
that was inherited genetically at the time of the formation of the human embryo and the other that was introduced through a procedure, including
2302:""Hybrids and Chimeras: A Consultation on the Ethical and Social Implications of Creating Human/Animal Embryos in Research" (2007), by the HFEA"
1113:""Hybrids and Chimeras: A Consultation on the Ethical and Social Implications of Creating Human/Animal Embryos in Research" (2007), by the HFEA"
495:
In contrast, a human where each cell contains genetic material from two organisms of different breeds, varieties, species or genera is called a
3918:
2383:
3603:
2943:
2559:
2470:
1095:
833:
The first known primate chimeras are the rhesus monkey twins, Roku and Hex, each having six genomes. They were created by mixing cells from
280:
Artificial chimerism refers to examples of chimerism that are accidentally produced by humans, either for research or commercial purposes.
3401:
Pappaioannou, V.; Johnson, R. (1993). Joyner, A. (ed.). "Production of chimeras and genetically defined offspring from targeted ES cells".
2401:
3658:
3940:
869:
4029:
3883:
2434:
127:
89:
2837:"A novel virus genome discovered in an extreme environment suggests recombination between unrelated groups of RNA and DNA viruses".
1085:
4034:
1854:
2582:
3681:
655:
1411:
Binkhorst, Mathijs; de Leeuw, Nicole; Otten, Barto J. (January 2009). "A healthy, female chimera with 46,XX/46,XY karyotype".
1132:"Temporal Change in Blood Group after Bone Marrow Transplant: A Case of Successful ABO-Incompatible Deceased Donor Transplant"
4124:
3715:
Yu N, Kruskall MS, Yunis JJ, Knoll JH, Uhl L, Alosco S, Ohashi M, Clavijo O, Husain Z, Yunis EJ, Yunis JJ, Yunis EJ (2002).
1087:
Phytohormones in Plant
Biotechnology and Agriculture: Proceedings of the NATO-Russia Workshop held in Moscow, 12–16 May 2002
2701:
Park SH, Rose SC, Zapata C, Srivatanakul M (1998). "Cross-protection and selectable marker genes in plant transformation".
2375:
3978:
3586:
Tanaka, M; Hadjantonakis, AK; Nagy, A (2001). "Aggregation Chimeras: Combining ES Cells, Diploid and Tetraploid Embryos".
807:
560:
Most human chimeras will go through life without realizing they are chimeras. The difference in phenotypes may be subtle (
2782:"Using quantitative real-time PCR to detect chimeras in transgenic tobacco and apricot and to monitor their dissociation"
2345:
1513:
Farag, T I; Al-Awadi, S A; Tippett, P; el-Sayed, M; Sundareshan, T S; Al-Othman, S A; el-Badramany, M H (December 1987).
752:(3) A self-protection mechanism (cross protection). Transformed cells serve as guards to protect the untransformed ones.
1021:
687:
constitution. Occasionally, chimeras arise from loss or gain of individual chromosomes or chromosome fragments owing to
1709:
Bellefon, L.; Heiman, P.; Kanaan, S.; Azzouz, D.; Rak, J.; Martin, M.; Roudier, J.; Roufosse, F.; Lambert, C. (2010).
936:. Since this discovery occurred in 1988, ES cells have become a key tool in the generation of specific chimeric mice.
708:
31:
2040:
722:
chimeras, or preferably as variegated leaf chimeras. For most variegation, the mutation involved is the loss of the
4129:
2903:
2870:
2551:
881:
634:
or different species (which may belong to different genera). The tissues may be partially fused together following
410:
3958:
3635:
769:
2493:
Norris, R.; Smith, R.H. & Vaughn, K.C. (1983). "Plant chimeras used to establish de novo origin of shoots".
1462:
Gencík, A.; Genciková, A.; Hrubisko, M.; Mergancová, O. (1980). "Chimerism 46,XX/46,XY in a phenotypic female".
3971:
929:
798:
In 2012, the first example of a naturally-occurring RNA-DNA hybrid virus was unexpectedly discovered during a
496:
1913:
Boklage, C.E. How New Humans Are Made. Hackensack, NJ; London: World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd; 2010
4062:
3460:
3406:
3008:
2975:
2055:
Another form of chimera is the mosaic, which is a composite individual derived from a single fertilized egg.
825:
Other viral chimeras have also been found, and the group is known as the CHIV viruses ("chimeric viruses").
3638:
3374:
Rossant, J. (1976). "Postimplantation development of blastomeres isolated from 4- and 8-cell mouse eggs".
543:
4119:
2216:
Rinkevich, B. (June 2001). "Human natural chimerism: an acquired character or a vestige of evolution?".
1063:
712:
513:
in 1901, the genetic science took until the 1930s to approach a vocabulary for the phenomenon. The term
482:
414:
312:
272:
179:
3876:
Chimera's Children: Ethical, Philosophical and Religious Perspectives on Human-Nonhuman Experimentation
3787:
739:
There are multiple reasons to explain the occurrence of plant chimera during the plant recovery stage:
565:
3899:
2854:
784:
492:
Boklage argues that many human 'mosaic' cell lines will be "found to be chimeric if properly tested".
3487:
3331:
Tam, P.L.; Rossant, J. (2003). "Mouse embryonic chimeras: tools for studying mammalian development".
3242:
3160:
3077:
2616:
2502:
2319:
Belgovskii, ML (1944). "The Causes of Mosaicism Associated With Heterochromatic Chromosome Regions".
1774:
1267:
925:
471:
350:
cells) of an organism are not genetically identical to its own. It has been recently discovered that
3915:
4021:
3794:
3779:
3574:
1927:
888:
765:
570:
510:
433:
38:
2953:
4139:
4039:
3827:
3617:
3356:
3313:
3184:
3109:
2886:
2762:
2718:
2683:
2640:
2526:
1896:
1603:
1495:
1444:
1393:
1342:
1299:
954:
842:
520:
This condition is either innate or it is synthetic, acquired for example through the infusion of
2409:
1921:
1919:
550:
differences may result if one set of cells is genetically female and another genetically male.
3879:
3862:
3841:"A True Hermaphrodite Chimera Resulting from Embryo Amalgamation after in Vitro Fertilization"
3819:
3738:
3609:
3599:
3556:
3515:
3455:
Nagy, A.; Rossant, J. (1999). Joyner, A. (ed.). "Production of Es-cell aggregation chimeras".
3437:
3383:
3348:
3305:
3288:
Ralston, A; Rossant, J (2005). "Genetic regulation of stem cell origins in the mouse embryo".
3270:
3176:
3101:
3093:
3046:
2925:
2887:"Could a newly discovered viral genome change what we thought we knew about virus evolution?".
2813:
2754:
2675:
2632:
2583:"Growing Fruit: Grafting Fruit Trees in the Home Orchard [fact sheet] | UNH Extension"
2555:
2518:
2466:
2465:(873). Wageningen, Netherlands: Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation (PUDOC).
2430:
2405:
2282:
2241:
2233:
2194:
2186:
2140:
2098:
2090:
1996:
1961:
1810:
1792:
1740:
1691:
1683:
1647:
1626:"A True Hermaphrodite Chimera Resulting from Embryo Amalgamation after in Vitro Fertilization"
1595:
1587:
1552:
1534:
1487:
1479:
1436:
1428:
1385:
1377:
1334:
1291:
1283:
1236:
1228:
1163:
1091:
1003:
884:
School of Medicine created a sheep whose blood contained 15% human cells and 85% sheep cells.
788:
Boiling Springs Lake, California, is where the first natural chimeric virus was found in 2012.
647:
532:
486:
459:
437:
145:
3928:
3852:
3811:
3728:
3591:
3546:
3505:
3495:
3429:
3340:
3297:
3260:
3250:
3211:
3202:
Robertson, EJ (1986). "Pluripotential stem cell lines as a route into the mouse germ line".
3168:
3151:
Mintz, B.; Silvers, W. K. (1967). "'Intrinsic' Immunological Tolerance in Allophenic Mice".
3085:
3036:
2915:
2803:
2793:
2746:
2710:
2667:
2624:
2510:
2272:
2225:
2178:
2132:
2080:
1988:
1951:
1943:
1888:
1800:
1782:
1730:
1722:
1675:
1637:
1579:
1542:
1526:
1471:
1420:
1369:
1326:
1275:
1218:
1208:
1153:
1143:
810:, California. The virus was named BSL-RDHV (Boiling Springs Lake RNA DNA Hybrid Virus). Its
773:
528:
260:
254:
164:
101:
63:
2121:"The use of skin grafting to distinguish between monozygotic and dizygotic twins in cattle"
462:
to be a form of chimerism, while others consider them to be distinct. Mosaicism involves a
27:
Single organism composed of two or more different populations of genetically distinct cells
4049:
3944:
3922:
3907:, Genetic Home Reference, U.S. National Library of Medicine, National Institute of Health.
3774:
2948:
2260:
950:
793:
506:
368:
171:
3759:
2166:
1829:
148:
involves distinct types of tissue that originated from the same zygote but differ due to
3491:
3246:
3164:
3081:
2855:"Hot spring yields hybrid genome: Researchers discover natural chimaeric DNA-RNA virus".
2836:
2620:
2506:
1778:
1271:
1254:
Darras, H.; Berney, C.; Hasin, S.; Drescher, J.; Feldhaar, H.; Keller, L. (2023-04-07).
749:(2) The endogenous tolerance leads to the ineffectiveness of the weak selective agents.
588:
288:
4088:
4057:
2840:
2808:
2781:
1956:
1931:
1805:
1762:
1735:
1710:
1547:
1514:
1158:
1131:
1036:
1031:
933:
920:
727:
614:
425:
391:
324:
223:
male's survival, it will eventually consume him, as both anglerfish fuse into a single
3265:
3230:
2229:
1679:
899:
642:
chimeras is like to be highly variable. The first such known chimera was probably the
569:
shoulders down to the lower back; this is one expression of pigment unevenness called
44:
4134:
4113:
4067:
3933:
3510:
3475:
3433:
3301:
3215:
3113:
3065:
2182:
1859:
1346:
1318:
1303:
946:
945:
embryo has reached the blastocyst stage, it is composed of several parts, mainly the
743:
688:
668:
503:
453:
441:
436:. If the different cells have emerged from the same zygote, the organism is called a
399:
224:
153:
3831:
3689:
3621:
3360:
3317:
3188:
2766:
2722:
2687:
2644:
2530:
1900:
1607:
1397:
726:
in the mutated tissue, so that part of the plant tissue has no green pigment and no
553:
On January 22, 2019 the National Society of Genetic Counselors released an article:
3573:
Chimera Mouse production by blastocyst injection, Wellcome trust Sanger Institute,
3127:
1499:
1448:
577:
478:
3172:
2628:
2545:
2459:"Mutation Breeding Techniques and Behaviour of Irradiated Shoot Apices of Potato"
2458:
2424:
4098:
3857:
3840:
3595:
3025:"Live birth of chimeric monkey with high contribution from embryonic stem cells"
2514:
2387:
2167:"Mosaicism and chimerism as components of intraorganismal genetic heterogeneity"
1642:
1625:
1042:
1016:
908:
819:
799:
723:
719:
651:
542:. The likelihood of offspring being a chimera is increased if it is created via
183:
3839:
Strain, Lisa; Dean, John C.S.; Hamilton, Mark P.R.; Bonthron, David T. (1998).
3089:
3041:
3024:
2085:
2068:
1947:
1330:
174:
transplantation, giving one individual tissues that developed from a different
3551:
3534:
2920:
2750:
2671:
2119:
Anderson, D.; Billingham, R. E.; Lampkin, G. H.; Medawar, P. B. (1951-12-01).
1424:
1180:
966:
841:
A major milestone in chimera experimentation occurred in 1984 when a chimeric
834:
815:
684:
539:
524:
521:
424:
that is composed of two or more different populations of genetically distinct
406:
372:
297:
215:
212:
187:
3097:
2237:
2190:
2144:
2094:
1796:
1687:
1624:
Strain, Lisa; John C.S. Dean; Mark P. R. Hamilton; David T. Bonthron (1998).
1591:
1538:
1483:
1432:
1381:
1287:
1255:
1232:
1197:"'Living Together Apart': The Hidden Genetic Diversity of Sponge Populations"
3904:
3751:
3500:
3420:
Kubiak, J; Tarkowski, A. (1985). "Electrofusion of mouse blastomeres. Exp".
3255:
2798:
2353:
2277:
2120:
1787:
1279:
1213:
1196:
996:
904:
877:
672:
643:
639:
395:
390:. Recent research shows most marmosets are chimeras, sharing DNA with their
308:
219:
17:
3823:
3742:
3682:"S.659 – Human Chimera Prohibition Act of 2005 (Introduced in Senate - IS)"
3613:
3560:
3352:
3309:
3105:
3050:
2817:
2758:
2679:
2636:
2522:
2286:
2245:
2198:
2102:
2000:
1965:
1814:
1744:
1726:
1440:
1338:
1295:
1240:
1167:
1148:
619:
245:
as a single large individual in terms of ecological responses like growth.
3866:
3815:
3519:
3441:
3387:
3274:
3180:
2929:
2346:"Chimerism Explained: How One Person Can Unknowingly Have Two Sets of DNA"
1695:
1651:
1599:
1556:
1530:
1491:
1389:
30:
This article is about Chimera genetics. For DNA sequencing artifacts, see
4003:
3733:
3716:
2904:"Origins and evolution of viruses of eukaryotes: The ultimate modularity"
1711:"Cells from a vanished twin as a source of microchimerism 40 years later"
962:
958:
861:
663:
635:
631:
547:
463:
421:
387:
351:
229:
149:
137:
3717:"Disputed maternity leading to identification of tetragametic chimerism"
2136:
1763:"Germ-line chimerism and paternal care in marmosets (Callithrix kuhlii)"
1130:
Lam, Susanna; Hultin, Sebastian; Preston, John; Campbell, Scott (2020).
872:
in China reported that they had successfully fused human skin cells and
630:
These are produced by grafting genetically different parents, different
555:
Chimerism Explained: How One Person Can Unknowingly Have Two Sets of DNA
538:
In nonidentical twins, innate chimerism occurs by means of blood vessel
3948:
3128:"First live birth of a chimeric monkey using embryonic stem cell lines"
2714:
1892:
1583:
1475:
1373:
1223:
974:
233:
3344:
2323:. United States Department of Commerce - Office of Technical Services.
1992:
3651:"Defining Humanity: The Ethics of Chimeric Animals and Organ Growing"
1881:"Which Half Is Mommy?: Tetragametic Chimerism and Trans-Subjectivity"
1026:
873:
846:
811:
467:
429:
380:
175:
141:
136:) is a single organism composed of cells with more than one distinct
2902:
Koonina, Eugene V.; Doljab, Valerian V.; Krupovic, Mart (May 2015).
1830:"In the Marmoset Family, Things Really Do Appear to Be All Relative"
1515:"Unilateral true hermaphrodite with 46,XX/46,XY dispermic chimerism"
2261:"Embryogenesis of chimeras, twins and anterior midline asymmetries"
3963:
898:
854:
783:
623:
618:
587:
376:
343:
287:
271:
43:
3954:
Embryogenesis of chimeras, twins and anterior midline asymmetries
3911:
Chimera: Apical Origin, Ontogeny and Consideration in Propagation
2426:
The plastids, their chemistry, structure, growth, and inheritance
1064:"The Stranger-Than-Fiction Story Of A Woman Who Was Her Own Twin"
140:. Animal chimeras can be produced by the merger of two (or more)
4011:
3994:
3590:. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 158. pp. 135–54.
3575:
http://www.eucomm.org/docs/protocols/mouse_protocol_1_Sanger.pdf
3231:"Targeted mutation of the Hp gene in mouse embryonic stem cells"
2423:
Kirk, John Thomas Osmond; Tilney-Bassett, Richard A. E. (1978).
850:
347:
301:
3967:
307:
The tetragametic state has important implications for organ or
116:
78:
2429:(Rev. 2d ed.). Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical Press.
715:. The majority of variegated-leaf chimeras are of this kind.
601:
The distinction between sectorial, mericlinal and periclinal
517:
has been used at least since the 1944 article of Belgovskii.
342:
Germline chimerism occurs when the germ cells (for example,
3066:"This hybrid baby monkey is made of cells from two embryos"
119:
81:
69:
379:
composed of cells with one set of chromosomes and have a
107:
2333:
683:
These are chimeras in which the layers differ in their
776:
could be an alternative method for chimera detection.
394:. 95% of marmoset fraternal twins trade blood through
170:
Another way that chimerism can occur in animals is by
3758:
Nelson, J. Lee (Scientific American, February 2008).
2703:
In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology - Plant
2376:"Understanding Genetics: Human Health and the Genome"
128:
104:
90:
66:
3874:
Jones, David Albert; MacKellar, Calum, eds. (2012).
1319:"Crazy ants' strange genomes are a biological first"
1084:
Machácková, Ivana; Romanov, Georgy A. (2013-11-11).
4081:
4048:
4020:
4002:
1413:
Journal of Pediatric Endocrinology & Metabolism
304:. As such, they can be male, female, or intersex.
113:
110:
75:
72:
818:, which usually infect birds and pigs, and a RNA
367:As the organism develops, it can come to possess
3229:Doetschman, T.; Maeda, N.; Smithies, O. (1988).
2835:Diemer, Geoffrey S., Kenneth M. (11 June 2013).
2150:formed of the cells of a single zygote lineage.
2041:"Chimaera - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
1855:"Marmosets may carry their sibling's sex cells"
1767:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1195:Blanquer, Andrea; Uriz, Maria-J. (2011-04-15).
477:In artificial chimerism, an individual has one
3474:Jasin, M; Moynahan, ME; Richardson, C (1996).
2306:The Embryo Project at Arizona State University
1256:"Obligate chimerism in male yellow crazy ants"
1117:The Embryo Project at Arizona State University
3979:
654:. Well-known examples of a graft-chimera are
8:
2300:Sarah Taddeo, Jason S. Robert (2014-11-04).
1190:
1188:
1111:Sarah Taddeo, Jason S. Robert (2014-11-04).
2831:
2829:
2827:
1761:Ross, C. N.; J. A. French; G. Orti (2007).
1756:
1754:
802:study of the acidic extreme environment of
592:Ficus with chlorophyll-deficient cell zones
3986:
3972:
3964:
2976:"Developmental Biology Cinema, Le Douarin"
2402:"The Twin Inside Me: Extraordinary People"
3856:
3789:U.S. Denies Patent for a too-human hybrid
3767:Cloning yields human-rabbit hybrid embryo
3732:
3550:
3509:
3499:
3264:
3254:
3040:
2919:
2807:
2797:
2780:Faize, M.; Faize, L.; Burgos, L. (2010).
2276:
2084:
1955:
1926:Masahito Tachibana, Michelle Sparman and
1874:
1872:
1870:
1804:
1786:
1734:
1641:
1619:
1617:
1546:
1222:
1212:
1157:
1147:
1090:. Springer Science & Business Media.
311:transplantation. Chimeras typically have
276:Chimeric trait distribution by generation
186:often determines the recipient's ensuing
3755:, Volume 19, Number 2, March–April 2007.
3535:"Embryonic Stem Cell and Gene Targeting"
3001:"Animal-Human Hybrids Spark Controversy"
2885:BioMed Central Limited (18 April 2012).
3927:Ainsworth, Claire (November 15, 2003).
1932:"Generation of Chimeric Rhesus Monkeys"
1054:
2544:Tilney-Bassett, Richard A. E. (1991).
2384:Stanford University School of Medicine
2350:National Society of Genetic Counselors
746:starts from the multicellular origin.
375:. For example, the chimera may have a
144:. In plants and some animal chimeras,
3749:Appel, Jacob M. "The Monster's Law",
2160:
2158:
7:
3457:Gene Targeting: A Practical Approach
3403:Gene Targeting: A Practical Approach
2073:European Journal of Medical Genetics
2016:"Half-siders: A tale of two birdies"
1879:Norton, Aaron; Ozzie Zehner (2008).
292:African violets exhibiting chimerism
255:Yellow crazy ant § Reproduction
211:Chimerism occurs naturally in adult
2871:"Scientists discover hybrid virus".
1630:The New England Journal of Medicine
868:In August 2003, researchers at the
474:. It is much rarer than mosaicism.
3634:Futehally, Ilmas, Beyond Biology,
2999:Mott, Maryann (January 25, 2005).
2952:. 27 February 1984. Archived from
2374:Starr, Barry (November 30, 2004).
2069:"Natural human chimeras: A review"
870:Shanghai Second Medical University
703:Plastid gene-differential chimeras
695:Nuclear gene-differential chimeras
386:This is particularly true for the
25:
4030:Twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome
3786:Weiss, Rick (February 13, 2005).
2853:Thompson, Helen (20 April 2012).
965:, and trophectoderm of the mouse
207:Symbiotic chimerism in anglerfish
4035:Twin reversed arterial perfusion
3959:Natural human chimeras: A review
3916:Plant Chimeras in Tissue Culture
3905:Chimerism and cellular mosaicism
3680:Brownback, Samuel (2005-03-17).
3302:10.1111/j.1399-0004.2005.00478.x
2183:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2004.00813.x
100:
62:
3845:New England Journal of Medicine
3764:Weiss, Rick (August 14, 2003).
2171:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
1853:Hooper, Rowan (26 March 2007).
1201:Molecular Biology and Evolution
428:that originated from different
3686:The Library of Congress THOMAS
2874:Journal of Young Investigators
2869:Devor, Caitlin (12 July 2012).
2408:. 9 March 2006. Archived from
1887:. Fall/Winter (3–4): 106–127.
420:An animal chimera is a single
199:Natural and obligate chimerism
1:
3649:Bruch, Quinton (2014-02-20).
3173:10.1126/science.158.3807.1484
2629:10.1126/science.254.5035.1214
2463:Agricultural Research Reports
2230:10.1016/s0198-8859(01)00249-x
2165:Santelices, B. (2004-11-01).
2067:Madan, Kamlesh (2020-09-01).
1680:10.1016/s0022-3476(94)70067-2
1317:Callaway, Ewen (2023-04-06).
880:. In 2007, scientists at the
857:, and survived to adulthood.
808:Lassen Volcanic National Park
3434:10.1016/0014-4827(85)90143-0
3216:10.1016/0168-9525(86)90161-7
3064:Wong, Carissa (2023-11-16).
2259:Boklage, Charles E. (2006).
1572:Indian Journal of Pediatrics
1022:Genetic chimerism in fiction
371:that have different sets of
3878:. London: Continuum Books.
3858:10.1056/NEJM199801153380305
2892:. Retrieved March 31, 2020.
2515:10.1126/science.220.4592.75
1828:Zimmer, Carl (2007-03-27).
1643:10.1056/NEJM199801153380305
1519:Journal of Medical Genetics
709:nucleic acid thermodynamics
646:, which is a fusion of the
409:, due to the many existing
32:Chimera (molecular biology)
4156:
3090:10.1038/d41586-023-03473-w
3042:10.1016/j.cell.2023.10.005
2876:. Retrieved 31 March 2020.
2860:. Retrieved 27 March 2020.
2844:. Retrieved 29 March 2020.
2552:Cambridge University Press
2457:van Harten, A. M. (1978).
2086:10.1016/j.ejmg.2020.103971
1948:10.1016/j.cell.2011.12.007
1331:10.1038/d41586-023-01002-3
994:
903:A chimeric mouse with her
845:was produced by combining
791:
661:, caused by a fusion of a
612:
451:
322:
252:
36:
29:
3636:Strategic Foresight Group
3596:10.1385/1-59259-220-1:135
3552:10.1017/S0958067000021059
2921:10.2535/ofaj1936.41.5_285
2751:10.1007/s00299-006-0273-8
2672:10.1007/s00299-007-0398-4
1885:Women's Studies Quarterly
1668:The Journal of Pediatrics
1425:10.1515/jpem.2009.22.1.97
770:Green Fluorescent Protein
742:(1) The process of shoot
713:non-mendelian inheritance
576:Another case was that of
411:plumage colour variations
3376:J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol
3005:National Geographic News
930:homologous recombination
48:Two-colored rose chimera
37:Not to be confused with
4063:Craniopagus parasiticus
3938:(subscription required)
3760:Your Cells Are My Cells
3655:The Triple Helix Online
3588:Gene Knockout Protocols
3539:Experimental Physiology
3501:10.1073/pnas.93.17.8804
3476:"Targeted transgenesis"
3461:Oxford University Press
3407:Oxford University Press
3256:10.1073/pnas.85.22.8583
2799:10.1186/1472-6750-10-53
1788:10.1073/pnas.0607426104
1280:10.1126/science.adf0419
470:in the early stages of
259:It has been shown that
1727:10.4161/chim.1.2.14294
991:Ethics and legislation
912:
909:agouti coat color gene
789:
627:
593:
544:in vitro fertilisation
444:have been documented.
415:half-sider budgerigars
293:
284:Tetragametic chimerism
277:
232:as their other organs
49:
4125:Intersex and medicine
3929:"The Stranger Within"
3900:"Chimerism Explained"
3816:10.1007/s002770050543
3533:Ledermann, B (2000).
3235:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci
3035:(23): 4996–5014.e24.
2278:10.1093/humrep/dei370
2045:www.sciencedirect.com
1531:10.1136/jmg.24.12.784
1214:10.1093/molbev/msr096
982:Methods of production
902:
814:is related to a DNA
787:
622:
591:
483:organ transplantation
398:fusions, making them
313:immunologic tolerance
291:
275:
47:
3804:Annals of Hematology
3734:10.1056/NEJMoa013452
3011:on January 27, 2005.
2956:on February 16, 2008
1149:10.1155/2020/7461052
926:embryonic stem cells
882:University of Nevada
804:Boiling Springs Lake
679:Chromosomal chimeras
472:prenatal development
315:to both cell lines.
268:Artificial chimerism
220:olfactory (or smell)
4022:Monochorionic twins
3795:The Washington Post
3780:The Washington Post
3492:1996PNAS...93.8804J
3247:1988PNAS...85.8583D
3165:1967Sci...158.1484M
3082:2023Natur.623..468W
2621:1991Sci...254.1214T
2615:(5035): 1214–1216.
2507:1983Sci...220...75N
2137:10.1038/hdy.1951.38
1928:Shoukhrat Mitalipov
1779:2007PNAS..104.6278R
1674:(5 Pt 1): 738–744.
1272:2023Sci...380...55D
1136:Case Rep Transplant
911:; note her pink eye
889:crab-eating macaque
497:human–animal hybrid
448:Chimerism in humans
434:sexual reproduction
39:Chimera (mythology)
4040:Monoamniotic twins
3947:. (Reprinted here
3943:2008-10-22 at the
3921:2013-10-03 at the
3773:2012-10-25 at the
2715:10.1007/BF02822775
2265:Human Reproduction
1893:10.1353/wsq.0.0115
1834:The New York Times
1584:10.1007/bf02976984
1476:10.1007/bf00290226
1374:10.1007/BF00289485
1062:Friedman, Lauren.
955:primitive endoderm
940:Underlying biology
913:
907:, which carry the
790:
628:
594:
566:hitchhiker's thumb
338:Germline chimerism
302:nonidentical twins
294:
278:
50:
4130:Genetic anomalies
4107:
4106:
3605:978-1-59259-220-3
3486:(17): 8804–8808.
3345:10.1242/dev.00893
3339:(25): 6155–6163.
3241:(22): 8583–8587.
3076:(7987): 468–469.
2786:BMC Biotechnology
2666:(10): 1727–1732.
2589:. 17 January 2018
2587:extension.unh.edu
2561:978-0-521-42787-6
2472:978-90-220-0667-2
1993:10.1159/000129828
1773:(15): 6278–6282.
1097:978-94-017-2664-1
648:Florentine citron
605:are widely used.
487:blood transfusion
261:yellow crazy ants
54:genetic chimerism
16:(Redirected from
4147:
3988:
3981:
3974:
3965:
3939:
3889:
3870:
3860:
3835:
3746:
3736:
3702:
3701:
3699:
3697:
3688:. Archived from
3677:
3671:
3670:
3668:
3666:
3657:. Archived from
3646:
3640:
3632:
3626:
3625:
3583:
3577:
3571:
3565:
3564:
3554:
3530:
3524:
3523:
3513:
3503:
3471:
3465:
3464:
3452:
3446:
3445:
3417:
3411:
3410:
3398:
3392:
3391:
3371:
3365:
3364:
3328:
3322:
3321:
3285:
3279:
3278:
3268:
3258:
3226:
3220:
3219:
3199:
3193:
3192:
3159:(3807): 1484–6.
3148:
3142:
3141:
3139:
3138:
3124:
3118:
3117:
3061:
3055:
3054:
3044:
3019:
3013:
3012:
3007:. Archived from
2996:
2990:
2989:
2987:
2986:
2972:
2966:
2965:
2963:
2961:
2940:
2934:
2933:
2923:
2899:
2893:
2883:
2877:
2867:
2861:
2851:
2845:
2833:
2822:
2821:
2811:
2801:
2777:
2771:
2770:
2733:
2727:
2726:
2698:
2692:
2691:
2655:
2649:
2648:
2604:
2598:
2597:
2595:
2594:
2579:
2573:
2572:
2570:
2568:
2541:
2535:
2534:
2490:
2484:
2483:
2481:
2479:
2454:
2448:
2447:
2445:
2443:
2420:
2414:
2413:
2412:on May 26, 2006.
2406:Channel 5 TV, UK
2398:
2392:
2391:
2386:. Archived from
2380:Ask a Geneticist
2371:
2365:
2364:
2362:
2361:
2352:. Archived from
2342:
2336:
2331:
2325:
2324:
2316:
2310:
2309:
2297:
2291:
2290:
2280:
2256:
2250:
2249:
2218:Human Immunology
2213:
2207:
2206:
2177:(6): 1187–1188.
2162:
2153:
2152:
2116:
2110:
2109:
2088:
2064:
2058:
2057:
2052:
2051:
2037:
2031:
2030:
2028:
2026:
2011:
2005:
2004:
1976:
1970:
1969:
1959:
1930:(January 2012).
1923:
1914:
1911:
1905:
1904:
1876:
1865:
1864:
1850:
1844:
1843:
1841:
1840:
1825:
1819:
1818:
1808:
1790:
1758:
1749:
1748:
1738:
1706:
1700:
1699:
1662:
1656:
1655:
1645:
1621:
1612:
1611:
1578:(401): 885–890.
1567:
1561:
1560:
1550:
1510:
1504:
1503:
1459:
1453:
1452:
1408:
1402:
1401:
1357:
1351:
1350:
1314:
1308:
1307:
1251:
1245:
1244:
1226:
1216:
1207:(9): 2435–2438.
1192:
1183:
1178:
1172:
1171:
1161:
1151:
1127:
1121:
1120:
1108:
1102:
1101:
1081:
1075:
1074:
1072:
1070:
1059:
932:, thus allowing
916:cell potential.
774:Quantitative PCR
571:Blaschko's lines
511:Blaschko's lines
152:during ordinary
132:
126:
125:
122:
121:
118:
115:
112:
109:
106:
94:
88:
87:
84:
83:
80:
77:
74:
71:
68:
21:
4155:
4154:
4150:
4149:
4148:
4146:
4145:
4144:
4110:
4109:
4108:
4103:
4077:
4050:Conjoined twins
4044:
4016:
3998:
3992:
3945:Wayback Machine
3937:
3923:Wayback Machine
3896:
3886:
3873:
3838:
3801:
3775:Wayback Machine
3727:(20): 1545–52.
3714:
3711:
3709:Further reading
3706:
3705:
3695:
3693:
3679:
3678:
3674:
3664:
3662:
3648:
3647:
3643:
3633:
3629:
3606:
3585:
3584:
3580:
3572:
3568:
3532:
3531:
3527:
3473:
3472:
3468:
3459:. IRL Press at
3454:
3453:
3449:
3419:
3418:
3414:
3405:. IRL Press at
3400:
3399:
3395:
3373:
3372:
3368:
3330:
3329:
3325:
3287:
3286:
3282:
3228:
3227:
3223:
3201:
3200:
3196:
3150:
3149:
3145:
3136:
3134:
3126:
3125:
3121:
3063:
3062:
3058:
3021:
3020:
3016:
2998:
2997:
2993:
2984:
2982:
2974:
2973:
2969:
2959:
2957:
2942:
2941:
2937:
2901:
2900:
2896:
2884:
2880:
2868:
2864:
2852:
2848:
2834:
2825:
2779:
2778:
2774:
2735:
2734:
2730:
2700:
2699:
2695:
2657:
2656:
2652:
2606:
2605:
2601:
2592:
2590:
2581:
2580:
2576:
2566:
2564:
2562:
2543:
2542:
2538:
2501:(4592): 75–76.
2492:
2491:
2487:
2477:
2475:
2473:
2456:
2455:
2451:
2441:
2439:
2437:
2422:
2421:
2417:
2400:
2399:
2395:
2373:
2372:
2368:
2359:
2357:
2344:
2343:
2339:
2332:
2328:
2318:
2317:
2313:
2299:
2298:
2294:
2258:
2257:
2253:
2215:
2214:
2210:
2164:
2163:
2156:
2118:
2117:
2113:
2066:
2065:
2061:
2049:
2047:
2039:
2038:
2034:
2024:
2022:
2014:GrrlScientist.
2013:
2012:
2008:
1978:
1977:
1973:
1942:(1–2): 285–95.
1925:
1924:
1917:
1912:
1908:
1878:
1877:
1868:
1852:
1851:
1847:
1838:
1836:
1827:
1826:
1822:
1760:
1759:
1752:
1708:
1707:
1703:
1664:
1663:
1659:
1623:
1622:
1615:
1569:
1568:
1564:
1525:(12): 784–786.
1512:
1511:
1507:
1461:
1460:
1456:
1410:
1409:
1405:
1359:
1358:
1354:
1316:
1315:
1311:
1266:(6640): 55–58.
1253:
1252:
1248:
1194:
1193:
1186:
1179:
1175:
1129:
1128:
1124:
1110:
1109:
1105:
1098:
1083:
1082:
1078:
1068:
1066:
1061:
1060:
1056:
1051:
1013:
999:
993:
984:
951:inner cell mass
942:
897:
831:
796:
794:Chimera (virus)
782:
761:
737:
705:
697:
681:
617:
611:
599:
586:
529:transplantation
515:genetic chimera
507:Alfred Blaschko
456:
450:
392:fraternal twins
365:
360:
340:
327:
321:
286:
270:
257:
251:
242:
209:
201:
196:
194:Classifications
180:transplantation
178:. For example,
130:
103:
99:
92:
65:
61:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4153:
4151:
4143:
4142:
4137:
4132:
4127:
4122:
4112:
4111:
4105:
4104:
4102:
4101:
4096:
4091:
4089:Vanishing twin
4085:
4083:
4079:
4078:
4076:
4075:
4074:
4073:
4065:
4058:Parasitic twin
4054:
4052:
4046:
4045:
4043:
4042:
4037:
4032:
4026:
4024:
4018:
4017:
4015:
4014:
4008:
4006:
4000:
3999:
3993:
3991:
3990:
3983:
3976:
3968:
3962:
3961:
3956:
3951:
3925:
3913:
3908:
3902:
3895:
3894:External links
3892:
3891:
3890:
3884:
3871:
3836:
3810:(9): 431–434.
3799:
3784:
3762:
3756:
3747:
3710:
3707:
3704:
3703:
3672:
3641:
3627:
3604:
3578:
3566:
3545:(6): 603–613.
3525:
3466:
3447:
3428:(2): 561–566.
3412:
3393:
3382:(2): 283–290.
3366:
3323:
3296:(2): 106–112.
3280:
3221:
3194:
3143:
3119:
3056:
3014:
2991:
2967:
2935:
2914:(5): 285–293.
2894:
2878:
2862:
2846:
2841:Biology Direct
2823:
2772:
2745:(5): 661–671.
2739:Plant Cell Rep
2728:
2709:(2): 117–121.
2693:
2660:Plant Cell Rep
2650:
2599:
2574:
2560:
2547:Plant Chimeras
2536:
2485:
2471:
2449:
2435:
2415:
2393:
2390:on 2011-07-24.
2366:
2337:
2326:
2311:
2292:
2271:(3): 579–591.
2251:
2224:(6): 651–657.
2208:
2154:
2131:(3): 379–397.
2111:
2059:
2032:
2006:
1987:(6): 384–393.
1971:
1915:
1906:
1866:
1845:
1820:
1750:
1701:
1657:
1636:(3): 166–169.
1613:
1562:
1505:
1470:(3): 407–408.
1464:Human Genetics
1454:
1403:
1362:Human Genetics
1352:
1309:
1246:
1184:
1173:
1122:
1103:
1096:
1076:
1053:
1052:
1050:
1047:
1046:
1045:
1040:
1037:X-inactivation
1034:
1032:Vanishing twin
1029:
1024:
1019:
1012:
1009:
992:
989:
983:
980:
941:
938:
934:gene targeting
921:Beatrice Mintz
896:
895:Work with mice
893:
830:
827:
792:Main article:
781:
778:
760:
757:
736:
733:
728:photosynthetic
704:
701:
696:
693:
680:
677:
657:Laburnocytisus
615:Graft-chimaera
613:Main article:
610:
609:Graft chimeras
607:
603:plant chimeras
598:
595:
585:
582:
458:Some consider
452:Main article:
449:
446:
442:human chimeras
364:
361:
359:
356:
339:
336:
325:Microchimerism
323:Main article:
320:
319:Microchimerism
317:
285:
282:
269:
266:
250:
247:
241:
238:
225:hermaphroditic
208:
205:
200:
197:
195:
192:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4152:
4141:
4138:
4136:
4133:
4131:
4128:
4126:
4123:
4121:
4118:
4117:
4115:
4100:
4097:
4095:
4092:
4090:
4087:
4086:
4084:
4080:
4072:
4071:
4066:
4064:
4061:
4060:
4059:
4056:
4055:
4053:
4051:
4047:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4027:
4025:
4023:
4019:
4013:
4010:
4009:
4007:
4005:
4001:
3996:
3989:
3984:
3982:
3977:
3975:
3970:
3969:
3966:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3952:
3949:
3946:
3942:
3936:
3935:
3934:New Scientist
3930:
3926:
3924:
3920:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3906:
3903:
3901:
3898:
3897:
3893:
3887:
3885:9781441195807
3881:
3877:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3859:
3854:
3850:
3846:
3842:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3805:
3800:
3797:
3796:
3791:
3790:
3785:
3782:
3781:
3776:
3772:
3769:
3768:
3763:
3761:
3757:
3754:
3753:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3713:
3712:
3708:
3692:on 2016-07-04
3691:
3687:
3683:
3676:
3673:
3661:on 2015-06-05
3660:
3656:
3652:
3645:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3631:
3628:
3623:
3619:
3615:
3611:
3607:
3601:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3582:
3579:
3576:
3570:
3567:
3562:
3558:
3553:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3536:
3529:
3526:
3521:
3517:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3493:
3489:
3485:
3481:
3477:
3470:
3467:
3462:
3458:
3451:
3448:
3443:
3439:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3423:
3416:
3413:
3408:
3404:
3397:
3394:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3377:
3370:
3367:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3327:
3324:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3284:
3281:
3276:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3225:
3222:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3198:
3195:
3190:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3147:
3144:
3133:
3129:
3123:
3120:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3060:
3057:
3052:
3048:
3043:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3018:
3015:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2995:
2992:
2981:
2980:sdbonline.org
2977:
2971:
2968:
2955:
2951:
2950:
2945:
2944:"It's a Geep"
2939:
2936:
2931:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2898:
2895:
2891:
2888:
2882:
2879:
2875:
2872:
2866:
2863:
2859:
2856:
2850:
2847:
2843:
2842:
2838:
2832:
2830:
2828:
2824:
2819:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2776:
2773:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2732:
2729:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2697:
2694:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2654:
2651:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2603:
2600:
2588:
2584:
2578:
2575:
2563:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2548:
2540:
2537:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2489:
2486:
2474:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2453:
2450:
2438:
2436:9780444800220
2432:
2428:
2427:
2419:
2416:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2397:
2394:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2370:
2367:
2356:on 2020-02-02
2355:
2351:
2347:
2341:
2338:
2335:
2330:
2327:
2322:
2315:
2312:
2307:
2303:
2296:
2293:
2288:
2284:
2279:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2255:
2252:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2212:
2209:
2205:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2161:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2115:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2087:
2082:
2079:(9): 103971.
2078:
2074:
2070:
2063:
2060:
2056:
2046:
2042:
2036:
2033:
2021:
2017:
2010:
2007:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1975:
1972:
1967:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1922:
1920:
1916:
1910:
1907:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1875:
1873:
1871:
1867:
1862:
1861:
1860:New Scientist
1856:
1849:
1846:
1835:
1831:
1824:
1821:
1816:
1812:
1807:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1789:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1757:
1755:
1751:
1746:
1742:
1737:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1705:
1702:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1661:
1658:
1653:
1649:
1644:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1620:
1618:
1614:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1566:
1563:
1558:
1554:
1549:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1509:
1506:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1458:
1455:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1419:(1): 97–102.
1418:
1414:
1407:
1404:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1356:
1353:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1313:
1310:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1250:
1247:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1191:
1189:
1185:
1182:
1177:
1174:
1169:
1165:
1160:
1155:
1150:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1126:
1123:
1118:
1114:
1107:
1104:
1099:
1093:
1089:
1088:
1080:
1077:
1065:
1058:
1055:
1048:
1044:
1041:
1039:(lyonization)
1038:
1035:
1033:
1030:
1028:
1025:
1023:
1020:
1018:
1015:
1014:
1010:
1008:
1005:
998:
990:
988:
981:
979:
976:
970:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
947:trophectoderm
939:
937:
935:
931:
927:
922:
917:
910:
906:
901:
894:
892:
890:
885:
883:
879:
875:
871:
866:
863:
858:
856:
852:
848:
844:
839:
836:
828:
826:
823:
821:
817:
813:
809:
805:
801:
795:
786:
779:
777:
775:
771:
767:
758:
756:
753:
750:
747:
745:
744:organogenesis
740:
734:
732:
729:
725:
721:
716:
714:
710:
702:
700:
694:
692:
690:
686:
678:
676:
674:
670:
666:
665:
660:
658:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
625:
621:
616:
608:
606:
604:
596:
590:
583:
581:
579:
574:
572:
567:
563:
558:
556:
551:
549:
545:
541:
536:
534:
530:
526:
523:
518:
516:
512:
508:
505:
504:dermatologist
502:While German
500:
498:
493:
490:
488:
484:
480:
475:
473:
469:
465:
461:
455:
454:Human chimera
447:
445:
443:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
418:
416:
412:
408:
403:
401:
400:hematopoietic
397:
393:
389:
384:
382:
378:
374:
370:
362:
357:
355:
353:
349:
345:
337:
335:
331:
326:
318:
316:
314:
310:
305:
303:
299:
290:
283:
281:
274:
267:
265:
262:
256:
248:
246:
239:
237:
235:
231:
226:
221:
217:
214:
206:
204:
198:
193:
191:
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
168:
166:
161:
157:
155:
154:cell division
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
134:
124:
97:
96:
86:
59:
55:
46:
40:
33:
19:
4120:Reproduction
4093:
4069:
3932:
3875:
3851:(3): 166–9.
3848:
3844:
3807:
3803:
3793:
3788:
3778:
3766:
3750:
3724:
3721:N Engl J Med
3720:
3694:. Retrieved
3690:the original
3685:
3675:
3663:. Retrieved
3659:the original
3654:
3644:
3630:
3587:
3581:
3569:
3542:
3538:
3528:
3483:
3479:
3469:
3456:
3450:
3425:
3421:
3415:
3402:
3396:
3379:
3375:
3369:
3336:
3332:
3326:
3293:
3289:
3283:
3238:
3234:
3224:
3207:
3204:Trends Genet
3203:
3197:
3156:
3152:
3146:
3135:. Retrieved
3131:
3122:
3073:
3069:
3059:
3032:
3028:
3017:
3009:the original
3004:
2994:
2983:. Retrieved
2979:
2970:
2958:. Retrieved
2954:the original
2947:
2938:
2911:
2907:
2897:
2890:ScienceDaily
2889:
2881:
2873:
2865:
2857:
2849:
2839:
2789:
2785:
2775:
2742:
2738:
2731:
2706:
2702:
2696:
2663:
2659:
2653:
2612:
2608:
2602:
2591:. Retrieved
2586:
2577:
2565:. Retrieved
2546:
2539:
2498:
2494:
2488:
2476:. Retrieved
2462:
2452:
2440:. Retrieved
2425:
2418:
2410:the original
2396:
2388:the original
2379:
2369:
2358:. Retrieved
2354:the original
2349:
2340:
2329:
2321:OTS 61-11476
2320:
2314:
2305:
2295:
2268:
2264:
2254:
2221:
2217:
2211:
2202:
2174:
2170:
2148:
2128:
2124:
2114:
2106:
2076:
2072:
2062:
2054:
2048:. Retrieved
2044:
2035:
2023:. Retrieved
2020:The Guardian
2019:
2009:
1984:
1981:Cytogenetics
1980:
1974:
1939:
1935:
1909:
1884:
1858:
1848:
1837:. Retrieved
1833:
1823:
1770:
1766:
1721:(2): 56–60.
1718:
1714:
1704:
1671:
1667:
1660:
1633:
1629:
1575:
1571:
1565:
1522:
1518:
1508:
1467:
1463:
1457:
1416:
1412:
1406:
1368:(1): 86–89.
1365:
1361:
1355:
1322:
1312:
1263:
1259:
1249:
1204:
1200:
1176:
1139:
1135:
1125:
1116:
1106:
1086:
1079:
1067:. Retrieved
1057:
1000:
985:
971:
961:, primitive
943:
918:
914:
886:
867:
859:
840:
832:
824:
797:
762:
754:
751:
748:
741:
738:
724:chloroplasts
717:
706:
698:
682:
662:
656:
629:
602:
600:
578:Karen Keegan
575:
561:
559:
554:
552:
537:
519:
514:
501:
494:
491:
479:cell lineage
476:
457:
432:involved in
419:
404:
385:
366:
341:
332:
328:
306:
295:
279:
258:
249:In obligates
243:
210:
202:
169:
162:
158:
57:
53:
51:
18:Karen Keegan
4099:Mixed twins
3333:Development
3132:EurekAlert!
1224:10261/46231
1043:Polycephaly
1017:46,XX/46,XY
820:tombusvirus
806:that is in
800:metagenomic
720:chlorophyll
689:misdivision
652:sour orange
564:, having a
540:anastomoses
533:transfusion
525:blood cells
373:chromosomes
184:bone marrow
4114:Categories
3997:conditions
3463:: 107–205.
3409:: 107–146.
3290:Clin Genet
3137:2023-11-16
2985:2020-04-10
2593:2020-02-23
2567:9 February
2478:9 February
2442:9 February
2360:2020-02-02
2204:mosaicism.
2050:2024-01-20
1839:2010-04-01
1181:Ceratiidae
1049:References
995:See also:
967:blastocyst
953:, and the
878:stem cells
843:sheep–goat
835:totipotent
816:circovirus
685:chromosome
640:periclinal
522:allogeneic
509:described
407:budgerigar
402:chimeras.
298:blastocyst
253:See also:
216:anglerfish
188:blood type
4140:Chimerism
4094:Chimerism
3752:Genewatch
3114:265103379
3098:0028-0836
2960:4 January
2792:(1): 53.
2238:0198-8859
2191:1010-061X
2145:1365-2540
2095:1769-7212
1797:0027-8424
1715:Chimerism
1688:0022-3476
1592:0019-5456
1539:0022-2593
1484:0340-6717
1433:0334-018X
1382:1432-1203
1347:258007429
1304:257985666
1288:0036-8075
1233:1537-1719
997:Bioethics
905:offspring
759:Detection
673:rootstock
644:Bizzarria
632:cultivars
597:Structure
460:mosaicism
396:chorionic
352:marmosets
309:stem cell
230:testicles
213:Ceratioid
146:mosaicism
4004:Zygosity
3941:Archived
3919:Archived
3832:24655050
3824:10525832
3771:Archived
3743:12015394
3622:10865103
3614:11236654
3561:11187956
3422:Cell Res
3361:17534775
3353:14623817
3318:25979571
3310:15996204
3210:: 9–13.
3189:23824274
3106:37945704
3051:37949056
2908:Virology
2818:20637070
2767:30548375
2759:17165042
2723:30883689
2688:23069396
2680:17622536
2645:40335585
2637:17776412
2531:38143321
2523:17736164
2334:nsgc.org
2287:16253966
2246:11390041
2199:15525401
2125:Heredity
2103:32565253
2001:14267132
1966:22225614
1901:55282978
1815:17389380
1745:21327048
1608:41204037
1441:19344081
1398:25946104
1339:37024590
1296:37023182
1241:21498599
1168:32774979
1069:4 August
1011:See also
1004:put down
963:endoderm
959:epiblast
862:ablation
829:Research
664:Laburnum
659:'Adamii'
650:and the
636:grafting
548:intersex
464:mutation
422:organism
388:marmoset
150:mutation
138:genotype
4070:in fetu
3867:9428825
3520:8799106
3488:Bibcode
3442:3884349
3388:1033982
3275:3186749
3243:Bibcode
3181:6058691
3161:Bibcode
3153:Science
3078:Bibcode
2930:5898234
2809:2912785
2617:Bibcode
2609:Science
2503:Bibcode
2495:Science
2025:30 July
1957:3264685
1806:1851065
1775:Bibcode
1736:3023624
1696:7965425
1652:9428825
1600:7182365
1557:3430558
1548:1050410
1500:9117759
1492:7203474
1449:6074854
1390:6575956
1268:Bibcode
1260:Science
1159:7396079
1142:: 1–4.
975:ES cell
849:from a
847:embryos
780:Viruses
735:Origins
527:during
430:zygotes
405:In the
363:Animals
240:Sponges
234:atrophy
142:embryos
58:chimera
4068:Fetus
3882:
3865:
3830:
3822:
3741:
3696:20 May
3665:21 May
3620:
3612:
3602:
3559:
3518:
3508:
3440:
3386:
3359:
3351:
3316:
3308:
3273:
3266:282503
3263:
3187:
3179:
3112:
3104:
3096:
3070:Nature
3049:
2928:
2858:Nature
2816:
2806:
2765:
2757:
2721:
2686:
2678:
2643:
2635:
2558:
2529:
2521:
2469:
2433:
2285:
2244:
2236:
2197:
2189:
2143:
2101:
2093:
1999:
1964:
1954:
1899:
1813:
1803:
1795:
1743:
1733:
1694:
1686:
1650:
1606:
1598:
1590:
1555:
1545:
1537:
1498:
1490:
1482:
1447:
1439:
1431:
1396:
1388:
1380:
1345:
1337:
1323:Nature
1302:
1294:
1286:
1239:
1231:
1166:
1156:
1094:
1027:Retron
949:, the
874:rabbit
853:and a
812:genome
667:and a
626:mosaic
584:Plants
468:zygote
438:mosaic
381:kidney
369:organs
176:genome
165:hybrid
4082:Other
3828:S2CID
3618:S2CID
3511:38547
3357:S2CID
3314:S2CID
3185:S2CID
3110:S2CID
2763:S2CID
2719:S2CID
2684:S2CID
2641:S2CID
2527:S2CID
1897:S2CID
1604:S2CID
1496:S2CID
1445:S2CID
1394:S2CID
1343:S2CID
1300:S2CID
855:sheep
669:broom
624:Taxus
426:cells
377:liver
358:Types
344:sperm
172:organ
4135:Twin
4012:Twin
3995:Twin
3880:ISBN
3863:PMID
3820:PMID
3739:PMID
3698:2015
3667:2015
3610:PMID
3600:ISBN
3557:PMID
3516:PMID
3480:PNAS
3438:PMID
3384:PMID
3349:PMID
3306:PMID
3271:PMID
3177:PMID
3102:PMID
3094:ISSN
3047:PMID
3029:Cell
2962:2012
2949:Time
2926:PMID
2814:PMID
2755:PMID
2676:PMID
2633:PMID
2569:2020
2556:ISBN
2519:PMID
2480:2020
2467:ISBN
2444:2020
2431:ISBN
2283:PMID
2242:PMID
2234:ISSN
2195:PMID
2187:ISSN
2141:ISSN
2099:PMID
2091:ISSN
2027:2023
1997:PMID
1962:PMID
1936:Cell
1811:PMID
1793:ISSN
1741:PMID
1692:PMID
1684:ISSN
1648:PMID
1596:PMID
1588:ISSN
1553:PMID
1535:ISSN
1488:PMID
1480:ISSN
1437:PMID
1429:ISSN
1386:PMID
1378:ISSN
1335:PMID
1292:PMID
1284:ISSN
1237:PMID
1229:ISSN
1164:PMID
1140:2020
1092:ISBN
1071:2014
851:goat
768:and
562:e.g.
346:and
129:kim-
93:MEER
3853:doi
3849:338
3812:doi
3729:doi
3725:346
3592:doi
3547:doi
3506:PMC
3496:doi
3430:doi
3426:157
3341:doi
3337:130
3298:doi
3261:PMC
3251:doi
3212:doi
3169:doi
3157:158
3086:doi
3074:623
3037:doi
3033:186
2916:doi
2804:PMC
2794:doi
2747:doi
2711:doi
2668:doi
2625:doi
2613:254
2511:doi
2499:220
2273:doi
2226:doi
2179:doi
2133:doi
2081:doi
1989:doi
1952:PMC
1944:doi
1940:148
1889:doi
1801:PMC
1783:doi
1771:104
1731:PMC
1723:doi
1676:doi
1672:125
1638:doi
1634:338
1580:doi
1543:PMC
1527:doi
1472:doi
1421:doi
1370:doi
1327:doi
1276:doi
1264:380
1219:hdl
1209:doi
1154:PMC
1144:doi
766:GUS
531:or
485:or
348:egg
182:of
131:EER
117:ɪər
98:or
91:ky-
79:ɪər
56:or
4116::
3931:.
3861:.
3847:.
3843:.
3826:.
3818:.
3808:78
3806:.
3792:.
3777:.
3737:.
3723:.
3719:.
3684:.
3653:.
3616:.
3608:.
3598:.
3555:.
3543:85
3541:.
3537:.
3514:.
3504:.
3494:.
3484:93
3482:.
3478:.
3436:.
3424:.
3380:36
3378:.
3355:.
3347:.
3335:.
3312:.
3304:.
3294:68
3292:.
3269:.
3259:.
3249:.
3239:85
3237:.
3233:.
3206:.
3183:.
3175:.
3167:.
3155:.
3130:.
3108:.
3100:.
3092:.
3084:.
3072:.
3068:.
3045:.
3031:.
3027:.
3003:.
2978:.
2946:.
2924:.
2912:41
2910:.
2906:.
2826:^
2812:.
2802:.
2790:10
2788:.
2784:.
2761:.
2753:.
2743:26
2741:.
2717:.
2707:34
2705:.
2682:.
2674:.
2664:26
2662:.
2639:.
2631:.
2623:.
2611:.
2585:.
2554:.
2550:.
2525:.
2517:.
2509:.
2497:.
2461:.
2404:.
2382:.
2378:.
2348:.
2304:.
2281:.
2269:21
2267:.
2263:.
2240:.
2232:.
2222:62
2220:.
2201:.
2193:.
2185:.
2175:17
2173:.
2169:.
2157:^
2147:.
2139:.
2127:.
2123:.
2105:.
2097:.
2089:.
2077:63
2075:.
2071:.
2053:.
2043:.
2018:.
1995:.
1985:10
1983:.
1960:.
1950:.
1938:.
1934:.
1918:^
1895:.
1883:.
1869:^
1857:.
1832:.
1809:.
1799:.
1791:.
1781:.
1769:.
1765:.
1753:^
1739:.
1729:.
1717:.
1713:.
1690:.
1682:.
1670:.
1646:.
1632:.
1628:.
1616:^
1602:.
1594:.
1586:.
1576:49
1574:.
1551:.
1541:.
1533:.
1523:24
1521:.
1517:.
1494:.
1486:.
1478:.
1468:55
1466:.
1443:.
1435:.
1427:.
1417:22
1415:.
1392:.
1384:.
1376:.
1366:64
1364:.
1341:.
1333:.
1325:.
1321:.
1298:.
1290:.
1282:.
1274:.
1262:.
1258:.
1235:.
1227:.
1217:.
1205:28
1203:.
1199:.
1187:^
1162:.
1152:.
1138:.
1134:.
1115:.
969:.
675:.
573:.
535:.
499:.
417:.
190:.
167:.
156:.
133:-ə
95:-ə
70:aɪ
52:A
3987:e
3980:t
3973:v
3950:)
3888:.
3869:.
3855::
3834:.
3814::
3798:.
3783:.
3745:.
3731::
3700:.
3669:.
3624:.
3594::
3563:.
3549::
3522:.
3498::
3490::
3444:.
3432::
3390:.
3363:.
3343::
3320:.
3300::
3277:.
3253::
3245::
3218:.
3214::
3208:2
3191:.
3171::
3163::
3140:.
3116:.
3088::
3080::
3053:.
3039::
2988:.
2964:.
2932:.
2918::
2820:.
2796::
2769:.
2749::
2725:.
2713::
2690:.
2670::
2647:.
2627::
2619::
2596:.
2571:.
2533:.
2513::
2505::
2482:.
2446:.
2363:.
2308:.
2289:.
2275::
2248:.
2228::
2181::
2135::
2129:5
2083::
2029:.
2003:.
1991::
1968:.
1946::
1903:.
1891::
1863:.
1842:.
1817:.
1785::
1777::
1747:.
1725::
1719:1
1698:.
1678::
1654:.
1640::
1610:.
1582::
1559:.
1529::
1502:.
1474::
1451:.
1423::
1400:.
1372::
1349:.
1329::
1306:.
1278::
1270::
1243:.
1221::
1211::
1170:.
1146::
1119:.
1100:.
1073:.
123:/
120:ə
114:m
111:ˈ
108:ɪ
105:k
102:/
85:/
82:ə
76:m
73:ˈ
67:k
64:/
60:(
41:.
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.