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moves down into small fissures in limestone. This carbonic acid gradually dissolves limestone thereby enlarging the fissures. The enlarged fissures allow a larger quantity of water to enter which leads to a progressive enlargement of openings. Abundant small openings store a large quantity of water.
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Groundwater flow rate in karst aquifers is much more rapid than in porous aquifers. For example, in the Barton
Springs Edwards aquifer, dye traces measured the karst groundwater flow rates from 0.5 to 7 miles per day (0.8 to 11.3 km/d). The rapid groundwater flow rates make karst aquifers much
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of recently formed limestones took place during periods of non-deposition within the early part of the period. Sedimentation resumed and further limestone strata were deposited on an irregular karst surface, the cycle recurring several times in connection with fluctuating sea levels over prolonged
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Karst areas tend to have unique types of forests. The karst terrain is difficult for humans to traverse, so that their ecosystems are often relatively undisturbed. The soil tends to have a high pH, which encourages growth of unusual species of orchids, palms, mangroves, and other plants.
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Farming in karst areas must take into account the lack of surface water. The soils may be fertile enough, and rainfall may be adequate, but rainwater quickly moves through the crevices into the ground, sometimes leaving the surface soil parched between rains.
515:, and where rainfall is moderate to heavy. This contributes to rapid downward movement of groundwater, which promotes dissolution of the bedrock, whereas standing groundwater becomes saturated with carbonate minerals and ceases to dissolve the bedrock.
1417:
1115:
Paleokarst or palaeokarst is a development of karst observed in geological history and preserved within the rock sequence, effectively a fossil karst. There are for example palaeokarst surfaces exposed within the
Clydach Valley Subgroup of the
1292:, measurement of spring discharges, and analysis of water chemistry. U.S. Geological Survey dye tracing has determined that conventional groundwater models that assume a uniform distribution of porosity are not applicable for karst aquifers.
1377:
is frequently unseen until the roof of a cavern suddenly collapses. Such events have swallowed homes, cattle, cars, and farm machinery. In the United States, sudden collapse of such a cavern-sinkhole swallowed part of the collection of the
1750:
Billi, Andrea; De
Filippis, Luigi; Poncia, Pier Paolo; et al. (February 2016). "Hidden sinkholes and karst cavities in the travertine plateau of a highly-populated geothermal seismic territory (Tivoli, central Italy)".
2587:
Renken, R.; Cunningham, K.; Zygnerski, M.; Wacker, M.; Shapiro, A.; Harvey, R.; Metge, D.; Osborn, C.; Ryan, J. (November 2005). "Assessing the
Vulnerability of a Municipal Well Field to Contamination in a Karst Aquifer".
511:, because chalk is highly porous rather than dense, so the flow of groundwater is not concentrated along fractures. Karst is also most strongly developed where the water table is relatively low, such as in uplands with
1322:. Locating a well in a fracture trace or intersection of fracture traces increases the likelihood to encounter good water production. Voids in karst aquifers can be large enough to cause destructive collapse or
2694:; Mace, Robert; Barrett, Michael; Smith, Brian (2003). "Can we simulate regional groundwater flow in a karst system using equivalent porous media models? Case study, Barton Springs Edwards aquifer, USA".
440:
greatly advanced the knowledge of karst regions to the point where he became known as the "father of karst geomorphology". Primarily discussing the karst regions of the
Balkans, Cvijić's 1893 publication
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is covered (perhaps by debris) or confined by one or more superimposed non-soluble rock strata, distinctive karst features may occur only at subsurface levels and can be totally missing above ground.
2132:
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and without strong fluvial erosion processes. This terrain is found in Cuba, Jamaica, Indonesia, Malaysia, the
Philippines, Puerto Rico, southern China, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam.
1288:. Conventional hydrogeologic methods such as aquifer tests and potentiometric mapping are insufficient to characterize the complexity of karst aquifers, and need to be supplemented with
1416:
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2357:
943:
The karstification of a landscape may result in a variety of large- or small-scale features both on the surface and beneath. On exposed surfaces, small features may include
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Geologists are concerned with these negative effects of human activity on karst hydrology which, as of 2007, supplied about 25% of the global demand for drinkable water.
480:
1036:
Calcium carbonate dissolved into water may precipitate out where the water discharges some of its dissolved carbon dioxide. Rivers which emerge from springs may produce
2999:
Vermeulen, J.J., Whitten, T., "Biodiversity and
Cultural Property in the Management of Limestone Resources in East Asia: Lessons from East Asia", The World Bank, 1999,
1009:, produces karst topography that includes a sharp makatea surface above the normal reach of the sea, and undercuts that are mostly the result of biological activity or
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165:
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in the late 19th century, which entered German usage much earlier, to describe a number of geological, geomorphological, and hydrological features found within the
4381:
2533:
Delineation of ground-water basins and recharge areas for municipal water-supply springs in a karst aquifer system in the
Elizabethtown area, Northern Kentucky
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1373:
The karst topography also poses peculiar difficulties for human inhabitants. Sinkholes can develop gradually as surface openings enlarge, but progressive
2389:
4128:
2140:
1235:
is a unique type of seasonal lake found in Irish karst areas which are formed through the annual welling-up of water from the underground water system.
1528:(also known as a "karst fenster"), a feature where a spring emerges briefly, with the water discharge then abruptly disappearing into a nearby sinkhole
4366:
4213:
4401:
1715:
Doerr, S. H. (18 March 1999). "Karst-like landforms and hydrology in quartzites of the
Venezuelan Guyana shield: Pseudokarst or "real" karst?".
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as surface streams, because Karst formations are cavernous and highly permeable, resulting in reduced opportunity for contaminant filtration.
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1592:, a collection of multiple smaller individual sinkholes that coalesce into a compound sinkhole. The term derives from South Slavic languages.
1199:
Rivers in karst areas may disappear underground a number of times and spring up again in different places, even under a different name, like
1346:
may also be unsafe as the water may have run unimpeded from a sinkhole in a cattle pasture, bypassing the normal filtering that occurs in a
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terraces, consisting of layers of calcite deposited over extended periods of time. In caves, a variety of features collectively called
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Interstratal karst is a karst landscape which is developed beneath a cover of insoluble rocks. Typically this will involve a cover of
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690:)-rich surface waters seep into deep anoxic karst systems, they bring oxygen, which reacts with sulfide present in the system (
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emerged as a discipline in the late 1950s and the early 1960s in France. Previously, the activities of cave explorers, called
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1506:, a deep sinkhole, characteristic of Mexico, resulting from collapse of limestone bedrock that exposes groundwater underneath
250:
4123:
1859:
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overlying limestone strata undergoing solution. In the United
Kingdom for example extensive doline fields have developed at
1137:
Pseudokarsts are similar in form or appearance to karst features but are created by different mechanisms. Examples include
4584:
3853:
4386:
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3043:– Citizens of the Karst, a non profit NGO dedicated to the protection of the Puerto Rican Karst (English site available)
415:
361:
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706:). Sulfuric acid then reacts with calcium carbonate, causing increased erosion within the limestone formation. This
551:. Some of the dissolved carbon dioxide reacts with the water to form a weak carbonic acid solution, which dissolves
4331:
4173:
4168:
4113:
3843:
1440:
1512:, also sink or sinkhole, is a closed depression draining underground in karst areas. The name "doline" comes from
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is undergoing solution underground. It can lead to surface depressions and collapses which present a geo-hazard.
956:
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986:, and karst valleys. Mature karst landscapes, where more bedrock has been removed than remains, may result in
645:
In very rare conditions, oxidation can play a role. Oxidation played a major role in the formation of ancient
145:
Subterranean drainage may limit surface water, with few to no rivers or lakes. In regions where the dissolved
1540:, a landform consisting of a flat, incised surface of exposed limestone that resembles an artificial pavement
1218:, the river flows into a cave in a formation known as the Madison Limestone and then rises again 800 m (
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1500:, a vertical shaft in karst that may be very deep and usually opens into a network of subterranean passages
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begins. The karst zone is at the northwesternmost section, described in early topographical research as a
31:
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to European scholars in 1689 to describe the phenomenon of underground flows of rivers in his account of
4541:
4148:
3523:
1621:
1443:, Northwest Territories contains areas of karst sinkholes. Mexico hosts important karst regions in the
528:
2892:"Unidades geomorfológicas de la cuenca del Río Grande de Comitán, Lagos de Montebello, Chiapas-México"
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1493:, entering scientific vocabulary through early research in the Western Balkan Dinaric Alpine karst.
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4118:
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2215:
Davis, D.G. (2000). "Extraordinary features of Lechuguilla Cave, Guadalupe Mountains, New Mexico".
1395:
74:
3017:
Speleogenesis Network, a communication platform for physical speleology and karst science research
1924:
1318:
Linear alignment of surface features such as straight stream segments and sinkholes develop along
1192:(karst window) occurs when an underground stream emerges onto the surface between layers of rock,
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Kegelkarst is a type of tropical karst terrain with numerous cone-like hills, formed by cockpits,
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2818:"Austin Peay State University : Harned Bowl work not to blame for new sinkhole, say experts"
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1642: – Irregular land surface of marshy hollows and small hummocks formed when permafrost thaws
539:), which readily dissolves in the water. Once the rain reaches the ground, it may pass through
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1954:(Volume 9/1 ed.). Zagreb: JAZU Jugoslovenska Akademija Znanosti i Umjetnosti. p. 29.
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Scientific accounts of a vanishing lake: Janez Valvasor, Lake Cerknica and the New Philosophy
1570:, sink or sinkhole in South Slavic languages, where surface flow enters an underground system
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Water in karst aquifers flows through open conduits where water flows as underground streams
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2539:. Water-Resources Investigations Report 96-4254. Denver, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey.
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2560:"Hydrogeologic characterization and methods used in the investigation of karst hydrology."
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2169:. Indiana Department of Natural Resources, Division of Water, Resource Assessment Section
1612: – Natural karst landform consisting of a flat, incised surface of exposed limestone
437:
2754:
2707:
2601:
2498:. Springer Series in Physical Environment. Vol. 4. Berlin: Springer. pp. 2–3.
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Cvijić, Jovan (1918). "Hydrographie souterraine et évolution morphologique du Karst".
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2869:. Edmonton, Alberta: Alberta Remote Sensing Center. Alberta Environment. p. 81.
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1618: – Karst landscape that was glaciated during the cold periods of the Pleistocene
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landscapes. Beneath the surface, complex underground drainage systems (such as karst
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500:
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and their associated watercourses were, from a scientific perspective, understudied.
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Field Techniques for Estimating Water Fluxes Between Surface Water and Ground Water
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of the ground surface that can initiate a catastrophic release of contaminants.
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987:
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collectively called karren or lapiez. Medium-sized surface features may include
929:
1436:
in the eastern United States is at the second-highest risk of karst sinkholes.
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4321:
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The larger openings form a conduit system that drains the aquifer to springs.
1188:
Karst formations have unique hydrology, resulting in many unusual features. A
1125:
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650:
468:, had been dismissed as more of a sport than a science and so the underground
135:
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3244:
3219:
3054:- an open-access digital library linking scientists, managers, and explorers
1965:
1791:
Ford, Derek (2007). "Jovan Cvijić and the founding of karst geomorphology".
1567:
1556:(karst polje, karst field), a large flat specifically karst plain. The word
1547:
1358:
in karst landscapes may dump raw sewage directly into underground channels.
1261:
1249:
1193:
1157:
1053:
1044:
are formed by deposition of calcium carbonate and other dissolved minerals.
461:
189:
185:
139:
115:
1400:
555:. The primary reaction sequence in limestone dissolution is the following:
409:
2164:"Karst Features and the Dissolution of Carbonate Rocks in Crawford County"
2075:
1534:, a spring emerging from karst, originating a flow of water on the surface
971:(inverted funnel shaped sinkholes), disappearing streams, and reappearing
17:
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127:
54:
1694:(Fourth ed.). Alexandria, Virginia: American Geological Institute.
1432:. Slovenia has the world's highest risk of sinkholes, while the western
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Characterization of karst aquifers requires field exploration to locate
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222:
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2544:
2426:"Halite karst geohazards (natural and man-made) in the United Kingdom"
2133:"Karst Landscapes of Illinois: Dissolving Bedrock and Collapsing Soil"
4479:
4015:
4000:
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3254:
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2867:
Landforms of Alberta interpreted from airphotos and satellite imagery
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some distance, and then disappears back down, often into a sinkhole.
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origin. It has also been suggested that the word may derive from the
242:
234:
58:
2762:
2569:. Techniques and Methods 4–D2. U.S. Geological Survey. p. 107.
2739:"Natural and anthropogenic hazards in karst areas: an introduction"
1636: – River that runs wholly or partly beneath the ground surface
3965:
3271:
3224:
3051:
3034:
1609:
1603:
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more sensitive to groundwater contamination than porous aquifers.
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Galdenzi, S.; Cocchioni, M.; Morichetti, L.; et al. (2008).
184:
Global distribution of major outcrops of carbonate rocks (mainly
134:
underground. There is some evidence that karst may occur in more
4040:
3745:
3668:
3088:
3037:– research papers and reviews in all the fields related to karst
2525:
2523:
2473:. Keyworth, Nottingham: British Geological Survey. p. 118.
2452:"Karst forests: the labyrinthian wildlands of green and bedrock"
1312:
1138:
1100:
1037:
999:
936:
682:
can also be one of the corrosion factors in karst formation. As
540:
489:
131:
3583:
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1017:. Some of the most dramatic of these formations can be seen in
3579:
3451:
3057:
2277:"Sulfidic ground water chemistry in the Frasassi Cave, Italy"
341:, first attested in the 18th century, and the adjective form
1828:
2002. Vol. 1, A–M. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 1481.
1516:, meaning "valley", and derives from South Slavic languages.
527:
that causes karst features is formed as rain passes through
92:
2496:
Processes in karst systems: physics, chemistry, and geology
1350:. Sinkholes have often been used as farmstead or community
1099:
Salt karst (or 'halite karst') is developed in areas where
2658:
Assaad, Fakhry; LaMoreaux, Philip; Hughes, Travis (2004).
1576:, porous irregular karst landscape in a region of England.
288:, all variations of the word are derived from a Romanized
2793:"Mood somber, repairs uncertain as Corvette museum opens"
1582:(turlach), a type of disappearing lake characteristic of
347:
in the 16th century. As a proper noun, the Slovene form
313:
2089:
Gilli, Éric; Mangan, Christian; Mudry, Jacques (2012).
2662:. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.
2246:"Gypsum deposits in the Frasassi Caves, central Italy"
2064:
Recueil des travaux de l'institut de géographie alpine
1624: – Links to Knowledge (XXG) articles on landforms
3040:
1844:
Kluge Etymologisches Wörterbuch der Deutschen Sprache
1424:
Drone video of Kostivere karst area in Estonia (2021)
172:, and much of this is found in porous karst systems.
95:
89:
2093:. Translated by Fandel, Choél. CRC Press. p. 7.
366:
336:
98:
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Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
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2844:"What is Karst topography and why should you care?"
1428:The world's largest limestone karst is Australia's
2890:Mora, L.; Bonifaz, R.; López-Martínez, R. (2016).
2139:. Illinois State Geological Survey. Archived from
2111:(2d ed.). New York: Wiley. pp. 303–344.
1848:, 23rd edition. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, p. 429.
2102:
2100:
1966:"karst | Search Online Etymology Dictionary"
1076:, the last-named locality having been declared a
2743:Geological Society, London, Special Publications
2660:Field methods for geologists and hydrogeologists
1671:. The University of Texas at Austin. 16 May 2006
1172:Features typical of well-developed karst terrain
712:
565:
2091:Hydrogeology: Objectives, Methods, Applications
1005:Erosion along limestone shores, notably in the
1925:"Veliki krš oko krša u jeziku - Geografija.hr"
1606: – Limestone-based biological environment
372:'rock'. The name may also be connected to the
3595:
3073:
2637:. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill. pp. 294–295.
2318:"A conceptual view of carbonate island karst"
2031:(Karst in Slovenia in space and time), 2003,
2026:
2011:
1311:in eastern France at the source of the river
348:
342:
217:, stretching from the northeastern corner of
8:
1837:
1228: mi) down the canyon in a placid pool.
204:
4409:Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining
1786:
1784:
1782:
1475:provinces is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
507:. Karst is not typically well developed in
453:. In a 1918 publication, Cvijić proposed a
384:
4382:History of hard rock miners' organizations
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3880:
3621:
3602:
3588:
3580:
3080:
3066:
3058:
3047:The Virtual Cave's page on karst landforms
2325:Karst Waters Institute Special Publication
2028:Kras v Sloveniji — v prostoru in casu
1864:(in Slovenian). Založba ZRC. p. 142.
495:Karst is most strongly developed in dense
3031:– a large glossary of Karst related terms
2907:
2896:Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana
2609:
2228:
2006:
2004:
1630: – Science of cave and karst systems
1084:Kegelkarst, salt karst, and karst forests
257:. Languages preserving this form include
4367:American Society of Reclamation Sciences
4214:North American Aerospace Defense Command
2590:Environmental and Engineering Geoscience
1690:Jackson, Julia A., ed. (1997). "Karst".
1479:List of terms for karst-related features
1214:, where, at a site named "The Sinks" in
2737:Parise, M.; Gunn, J. (1 January 2007).
2194:Encyclopedia of Caves and Karst Science
1988:
1986:
1653:
122:. It is characterized by features like
110:formed from the dissolution of soluble
27:Topography from dissolved soluble rocks
2558:Taylor, Charles; Greene, Earl (2008).
2388:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
2381:
2016:, vol. 2, K–O. Ljubljana: SAZU, p. 82.
1336:in karst areas is also just as easily
164:because as much as 50% of the world's
2576:from the original on 2 November 2008.
1489:Many karst-related terms derive from
418:, a pioneer of the study of karst in
7:
2928:Karst Hydrogeology and Geomorphology
2791:Patterson, Thom (13 February 2014).
2316:Mylroie, J.E.; Vacher, H.L. (1999).
2013:Etimološki slovar slovenskega jezika
1894:"Krš ili kras? Krš! - Geografija.hr"
1892:Šegota, Tomislav (25 January 2009).
1560:derives from South Slavic languages.
1522:, an inverted funnel-shaped sinkhole
499:, such as limestone, that is thinly
445:describes landforms such as karren,
1997:. Ljubljana: Modrijan. p. 318.
1264:. Surface water containing natural
1078:site of special scientific interest
4307:Journey to the Center of the Earth
4209:Naples underground geothermal zone
2958:, 2nd Printing, Cave Books, 2009,
2930:, John Wiley and Sons Ltd., 2007,
2338:from the original on 29 April 2021
2244:Galdenzi, S.; Maruoka, T. (2003).
2162:Grove, Glenn E. (September 2003).
1148:—for example, Labertouche Cave in
967:(closed basins), vertical shafts,
25:
4424:Research Centre for Deep Drilling
4419:International Union of Speleology
3099:Glossary of caving and speleology
2284:Journal of Cave and Karst Studies
2250:Journal of Cave and Karst Studies
2217:Journal of Cave and Karst Studies
1826:Shorter Oxford English Dictionary
1182:Puerto Princesa Underground River
1068:in South Wales across a cover of
978:Large-scale features may include
457:for karst landscape development.
3022:Speleogenesis and Karst Aquifers
2406:. London: Penguin, 1984, p 292.
2404:Dictionary of Physical Geography
846:(calcium carbonate dissolution)
126:above and drainage systems with
85:
4414:Institution of Mining Engineers
4179:Underground Great Wall of China
3488:Nok and Mamproug Cave Dwellings
2450:Evans, Monica (15 April 2020).
1669:Environmental Science Institute
1354:. Overloaded or malfunctioning
1206:Another example of this is the
1160:are an example of pseudokarst.
876:(formation of calcium sulfate)
653:and is presently active in the
562:Kostivere karst area in Estonia
229:along the coast of the eastern
4429:Society of Economic Geologists
4397:National Speleological Society
4347:Wonderland (fictional country)
2702:(1–4). Elsevier Science: 142.
2471:British Regional Geology:Wales
2190:"Dissolution: Carbonate rocks"
2107:Thornbury, William D. (1969).
1773:10.1016/j.geomorph.2015.12.011
1717:Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie
1459:, a karst limestone area. The
1260:aquifers typically develop in
1203:, the "river of seven names".
1124:which developed as sub-aerial
426:, London, introduced the word
1:
3854:Subterranean rivers of London
2820:. 22 May 2014. Archived from
2716:10.1016/S0022-1694(03)00064-7
1900:(in Croatian). Archived from
1002:and cavern systems may form.
796:(sulfuric acid dissociation)
4387:National Mine Map Repository
3829:Jewel Cave National Monument
3541:List of UK caving fatalities
2944:, 2nd ed., Blackwell, 1985,
2494:Dreybrodt, Wolfgang (1988).
2188:Wolfgang, Dreybrodt (2004).
2010:Bezlaj, France (ed.). 1982.
1861:Geološki terminološki slovar
678:leading to the formation of
416:Johann Weikhard von Valvasor
383:, and perhaps also to Latin
353:was first attested in 1177.
312:from the reconstructed form
142:given the right conditions.
4392:National Mining Association
4219:Raven Rock Mountain Complex
2596:(4). GeoScienceWorld: 320.
2290:(2): 94–107. Archived from
2109:Principles of geomorphology
1995:Slovenski etimološki slovar
1923:Matas, Mate (7 June 2004).
543:that provides additional CO
484:A limestone deposit in the
356:Ultimately, the word is of
332:
4611:
4332:Tunnels in popular culture
4174:Underground City, Montreal
4169:Underground City (Beijing)
4114:816 Nuclear Military Plant
3844:Mammoth Cave National Park
2926:Ford, D.C., Williams, P.,
2137:Prairie Research Institute
1550:in South Slavic languages.
1482:
1441:Wood Buffalo National Park
1393:
1365:Effects of karst hydrology
917:This reaction chain forms
698:) to form sulfuric acid (H
367:
29:
4139:Cheyenne Mountain Complex
3564:
3096:
3041:CDK Citizens of the Karst
2668:10.1007/978-3-662-05438-3
2504:10.1007/978-3-642-83352-6
1838:
1805:10.1007/s00254-006-0379-x
1072:which overlies concealed
899:
873:
788:
734:
587:
138:-resistant rocks such as
57:fengcong (cone karst) in
4595:Dinaric karst formations
4505:Underground construction
4377:Cave Research Foundation
3517:Cave of Forgotten Dreams
3052:Karst Information Portal
2909:10.18268/BSGM2016v68n3a1
2633:Fetter, Charles (1988).
2530:Taylor, Charles (1997).
1380:National Corvette Museum
1284:in addition to studying
519:Chemistry of dissolution
3991:Missile launch facility
3864:Wind Cave National Park
3510:Diving into the Unknown
2456:Global Landscapes Forum
1384:Bowling Green, Kentucky
1216:Sinks Canyon State Park
1212:Fremont County, Wyoming
1118:Carboniferous Limestone
1074:Carboniferous Limestone
669:Dent de Crolles, France
315:
305:
73:Karst formation of the
4144:Chicago Tunnel Company
3783:Subterranean waterfall
3556:Tham Luang cave rescue
3551:Riesending cave rescue
2985:van Beynen, P. (Ed.),
2402:Whittow, John (1984).
2027:
2012:
1950:Roglić, Josip (1974).
1858:Jernej Pavšič (2006).
1491:South Slavic languages
1425:
1408:
1315:
1254:
1185:
1173:
940:
911:(formation of gypsum)
671:
563:
492:
412:
385:
349:
343:
337:
324:
297:
286:South Slavic languages
278:
270:
262:
205:
193:
77:
66:
47:
32:Karst (disambiguation)
4159:Kőbánya cellar system
4149:Houston tunnel system
4129:Almadén Mercury Mines
4124:The Caves of Ægissíða
3524:The Underground Eiger
2469:Howells, M.F (2007).
2076:10.3406/rga.1918.4727
1793:Environmental Geology
1737:10.1127/zfg/43/1999/1
1622:Glossary of landforms
1423:
1403:
1298:
1252:
1179:
1171:
1013:at or a little above
955:(clints and grikes),
932:
663:
561:
483:
400:
183:
156:(buried karst in the
72:
53:
42:
4585:Limestone formations
4554:Subterranean warfare
4327:Subterranea (comics)
4312:Moria (Middle-earth)
4292:Allegory of the cave
4276:Subterranean fiction
2865:Smith, D.G. (1987).
2696:Journal of Hydrology
1993:Snoj, Marko (2003).
1463:in the provinces of
745:(sulfide oxidation)
422:and a fellow of the
166:hydrocarbon reserves
158:stratigraphic column
30:For other uses, see
4510:Tunnel construction
4234:Subterranean Toledo
4229:Subterranean London
4119:Caves of Maastricht
3546:Alpazat cave rescue
3191:Types and formation
2975:, Macmillan, 1973,
2942:Karst Geomorphology
2755:2007GSLSP.279....1P
2708:2003JHyd..276..137S
2602:2005EEGeo..11..319R
2424:Cooper, Anthony H.
2370:on 20 November 2015
1765:2016Geomo.255...63B
1729:1999ZGm....43....1D
1692:Glossary of geology
1546:, sinking river or
1396:List of karst areas
1274:sinkholes, swallets
1150:Victoria, Australia
980:limestone pavements
947:(or rillenkarren),
649:in the US state of
362:Proto-Indo-European
319:into forms such as
75:Serra de Tramuntana
4532:Mining engineering
4517:Underground living
4342:Underland (Narnia)
4257:Fictional features
4036:Underground hangar
3778:Subterranean river
3773:Subterranean fauna
3473:Cave-dwelling Jews
3220:Estavelle/Inversac
3027:2010-04-23 at the
2989:, Springer, 2011,
2846:. 25 February 2009
2196:. pp. 295–298
2143:on 2 December 2020
1970:www.etymonline.com
1904:on 3 November 2018
1634:Subterranean river
1538:Limestone pavement
1426:
1409:
1405:Lunan Stone Forest
1316:
1255:
1186:
1174:
1080:in respect of it.
1048:Interstratal karst
953:limestone pavement
941:
708:chain of reactions
672:
665:Limestone pavement
564:
529:Earth's atmosphere
513:entrenched valleys
493:
413:
253:between Italy and
221:above the city of
200:was borrowed from
194:
160:) is important in
78:
67:
48:
4562:
4561:
4450:Cave conservation
4355:
4354:
4252:
4251:
4098:Ventilation shaft
3877:Man-made features
3872:
3871:
3577:
3576:
3355:(Cave formations)
3118:Cave conservation
3005:978-0-821345-08-5
2995:978-94-007-1206-5
2964:978-0-939748-66-2
2936:978-0-470-84996-5
2677:978-3-540-40882-6
2644:978-0-675-20887-1
2635:Applied Hydrology
2545:10.3133/wri964254
2513:978-3-642-83354-0
1871:978-961-6568-84-5
1461:South China Karst
1445:Yucatán Peninsula
1421:
1066:Mynydd Llangynidr
915:
914:
674:The oxidation of
643:
642:
553:calcium carbonate
443:Das Karstphänomen
377:Kar(u)sádios oros
196:The English word
162:petroleum geology
63:South China Karst
16:(Redirected from
4602:
4527:Mine exploration
4302:Greek Underworld
4261:
4239:Turda Salt Mines
4224:Shanghai tunnels
4088:Smuggling tunnel
4031:Underground base
4026:Underground city
3941:Dugout (shelter)
3891:Air raid shelter
3881:
3839:Lechuguilla Cave
3819:Castellana Caves
3788:Underground lake
3622:
3618:Natural features
3604:
3597:
3590:
3581:
3200:Anchihaline cave
3182:Caves by country
3082:
3075:
3068:
3059:
3035:Acta Carsologica
2987:Karst management
2940:Jennings, J.N.,
2914:
2913:
2911:
2887:
2881:
2880:
2862:
2856:
2855:
2853:
2851:
2840:
2834:
2833:
2831:
2829:
2814:
2808:
2807:
2805:
2803:
2788:
2782:
2781:
2779:
2777:
2734:
2728:
2727:
2692:Scanlon, Bridget
2688:
2682:
2681:
2655:
2649:
2648:
2630:
2624:
2623:
2620:10.2113/11.4.319
2613:
2584:
2578:
2577:
2575:
2564:
2555:
2549:
2548:
2538:
2527:
2518:
2517:
2491:
2485:
2484:
2466:
2460:
2459:
2447:
2441:
2440:
2438:
2436:
2430:
2421:
2415:
2400:
2394:
2393:
2387:
2379:
2377:
2375:
2369:
2363:. Archived from
2362:
2354:
2348:
2347:
2345:
2343:
2337:
2322:
2313:
2307:
2306:
2304:
2302:
2296:
2281:
2272:
2266:
2265:
2263:
2261:
2241:
2235:
2234:
2232:
2212:
2206:
2205:
2203:
2201:
2185:
2179:
2178:
2176:
2174:
2168:
2159:
2153:
2152:
2150:
2148:
2129:
2123:
2122:
2104:
2095:
2094:
2086:
2080:
2079:
2059:
2053:
2046:
2040:
2030:
2023:
2017:
2015:
2008:
1999:
1998:
1990:
1981:
1980:
1978:
1976:
1962:
1956:
1955:
1947:
1941:
1940:
1938:
1936:
1920:
1914:
1913:
1911:
1909:
1889:
1883:
1882:
1880:
1878:
1855:
1849:
1847:
1846:
1835:
1829:
1823:
1817:
1816:
1788:
1777:
1776:
1747:
1741:
1740:
1712:
1706:
1705:
1687:
1681:
1680:
1678:
1676:
1666:
1662:"What is Karst?"
1658:
1422:
1227:
1226:
1222:
1062:Mynydd Llangatwg
998:) and extensive
939:plug in Ethiopia
783:
782:
781:
713:
696:hydrogen sulfide
647:Lechuguilla Cave
639:
638:
637:
566:
549:soil respiration
388:
370:
369:
352:
346:
340:
318:
227:Balkan peninsula
208:
105:
104:
101:
100:
97:
94:
91:
21:
4610:
4609:
4605:
4604:
4603:
4601:
4600:
4599:
4565:
4564:
4563:
4558:
4438:
4351:
4280:
4248:
4154:Kosvinsky Kamen
4102:
3961:Fallout shelter
3931:Crypt Mausoleum
3868:
3859:Veryovkina Cave
3849:Reed Flute Cave
3802:
3709:Solutional cave
3657:Communal burrow
3613:
3608:
3578:
3573:
3560:
3529:
3502:Popular culture
3497:
3456:
3354:
3349:
3341:
3287:Solutional cave
3192:
3186:
3101:
3092:
3086:
3029:Wayback Machine
3013:
2973:Karst Landforms
2923:
2921:Further reading
2918:
2917:
2889:
2888:
2884:
2877:
2864:
2863:
2859:
2849:
2847:
2842:
2841:
2837:
2827:
2825:
2816:
2815:
2811:
2801:
2799:
2790:
2789:
2785:
2775:
2773:
2763:10.1144/SP279.1
2736:
2735:
2731:
2690:
2689:
2685:
2678:
2657:
2656:
2652:
2645:
2632:
2631:
2627:
2611:10.1.1.372.1559
2586:
2585:
2581:
2573:
2562:
2557:
2556:
2552:
2536:
2529:
2528:
2521:
2514:
2493:
2492:
2488:
2481:
2480:978-085272584-9
2468:
2467:
2463:
2449:
2448:
2444:
2434:
2432:
2428:
2423:
2422:
2418:
2401:
2397:
2380:
2373:
2371:
2367:
2360:
2358:"Archived copy"
2356:
2355:
2351:
2341:
2339:
2335:
2320:
2315:
2314:
2310:
2300:
2298:
2297:on 4 March 2016
2294:
2279:
2274:
2273:
2269:
2259:
2257:
2243:
2242:
2238:
2230:10.1.1.521.9303
2214:
2213:
2209:
2199:
2197:
2187:
2186:
2182:
2172:
2170:
2166:
2161:
2160:
2156:
2146:
2144:
2131:
2130:
2126:
2119:
2106:
2105:
2098:
2088:
2087:
2083:
2061:
2060:
2056:
2047:
2043:
2024:
2020:
2009:
2002:
1992:
1991:
1984:
1974:
1972:
1964:
1963:
1959:
1952:Krš Jugoslavije
1949:
1948:
1944:
1934:
1932:
1922:
1921:
1917:
1907:
1905:
1891:
1890:
1886:
1876:
1874:
1872:
1857:
1856:
1852:
1836:
1832:
1824:
1820:
1790:
1789:
1780:
1749:
1748:
1744:
1714:
1713:
1709:
1702:
1689:
1688:
1684:
1674:
1672:
1664:
1660:
1659:
1655:
1650:
1645:
1599:
1487:
1481:
1453:West of Ireland
1430:Nullarbor Plain
1411:
1407:, Yunnan, China
1398:
1392:
1367:
1320:fracture traces
1278:sinking streams
1241:
1224:
1220:
1219:
1208:Popo Agie River
1166:
1135:
1113:
1086:
1070:Twrch Sandstone
1050:
992:haystack/eggbox
945:solution flutes
927:
907:
903:
893:
884:
869:
860:
842:
833:
829:
813:
804:
792:
780:
777:
776:
775:
773:
766:
757:
753:
742:
738:
729:
719:
705:
701:
689:
636:
633:
632:
631:
629:
616:
612:
603:
595:
591:
582:
572:
546:
538:
521:
478:
408:de Sauveterre,
395:
292:base (yielding
239:North Macedonia
178:
112:carbonate rocks
88:
84:
61:as part of the
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4608:
4606:
4598:
4597:
4592:
4587:
4582:
4577:
4567:
4566:
4560:
4559:
4557:
4556:
4551:
4546:
4545:
4544:
4534:
4529:
4524:
4519:
4514:
4513:
4512:
4502:
4500:Trench warfare
4497:
4495:Tunnel network
4492:
4490:Tunnel warfare
4487:
4482:
4477:
4472:
4467:
4462:
4457:
4452:
4446:
4444:
4443:Related topics
4440:
4439:
4437:
4436:
4431:
4426:
4421:
4416:
4411:
4406:
4405:
4404:
4394:
4389:
4384:
4379:
4374:
4369:
4363:
4361:
4357:
4356:
4353:
4352:
4350:
4349:
4344:
4339:
4334:
4329:
4324:
4319:
4314:
4309:
4304:
4299:
4294:
4288:
4286:
4282:
4281:
4279:
4278:
4273:
4267:
4265:
4258:
4254:
4253:
4250:
4249:
4247:
4246:
4241:
4236:
4231:
4226:
4221:
4216:
4211:
4206:
4201:
4199:Mount Yamantau
4196:
4191:
4189:Mines of Paris
4186:
4181:
4176:
4171:
4166:
4161:
4156:
4151:
4146:
4141:
4136:
4131:
4126:
4121:
4116:
4110:
4108:
4104:
4103:
4101:
4100:
4095:
4090:
4085:
4080:
4075:
4074:
4073:
4063:
4058:
4056:Secret passage
4053:
4048:
4043:
4038:
4033:
4028:
4023:
4018:
4013:
4008:
4003:
3998:
3993:
3988:
3983:
3978:
3973:
3968:
3963:
3958:
3953:
3948:
3943:
3938:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3918:
3913:
3908:
3903:
3898:
3893:
3887:
3885:
3878:
3874:
3873:
3870:
3869:
3867:
3866:
3861:
3856:
3851:
3846:
3841:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3824:Hang Sơn Đoòng
3821:
3816:
3810:
3808:
3804:
3803:
3801:
3800:
3795:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3754:
3753:
3743:
3738:
3733:
3731:Lava tree mold
3728:
3723:
3718:
3717:
3716:
3711:
3706:
3701:
3696:
3691:
3686:
3681:
3676:
3666:
3665:
3664:
3659:
3654:
3644:
3639:
3634:
3628:
3626:
3619:
3615:
3614:
3609:
3607:
3606:
3599:
3592:
3584:
3575:
3574:
3572:
3571:
3565:
3562:
3561:
3559:
3558:
3553:
3548:
3543:
3537:
3535:
3531:
3530:
3528:
3527:
3520:
3513:
3505:
3503:
3499:
3498:
3496:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3478:Cave monastery
3475:
3470:
3464:
3462:
3458:
3457:
3455:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3432:Speleoseismite
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3358:
3356:
3343:
3342:
3340:
3339:
3338:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3289:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3269:
3264:
3263:
3262:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3205:Breathing cave
3202:
3196:
3194:
3188:
3187:
3185:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3163:
3162:
3157:
3147:
3146:
3145:
3140:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3109:
3107:
3103:
3102:
3097:
3094:
3093:
3087:
3085:
3084:
3077:
3070:
3062:
3056:
3055:
3049:
3044:
3038:
3032:
3019:
3012:
3011:External links
3009:
3008:
3007:
2997:
2983:
2969:Sweeting, M.M.
2966:
2954:Palmer, A.N.,
2952:
2938:
2922:
2919:
2916:
2915:
2902:(3): 377–394.
2898:(in Spanish).
2882:
2875:
2857:
2835:
2824:on 22 May 2014
2809:
2783:
2729:
2683:
2676:
2650:
2643:
2625:
2579:
2550:
2519:
2512:
2486:
2479:
2461:
2442:
2416:
2395:
2349:
2308:
2267:
2236:
2223:(2): 147–157.
2207:
2180:
2154:
2124:
2117:
2096:
2081:
2070:(4): 375–426.
2054:
2041:
2018:
2000:
1982:
1957:
1942:
1915:
1884:
1870:
1850:
1840:Seebold, Elmar
1830:
1818:
1799:(5): 675–684.
1778:
1742:
1707:
1700:
1682:
1652:
1651:
1649:
1646:
1644:
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1637:
1631:
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1587:
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1571:
1561:
1551:
1541:
1535:
1529:
1523:
1517:
1507:
1501:
1480:
1477:
1394:Main article:
1391:
1388:
1366:
1363:
1348:porous aquifer
1305:Jura mountains
1240:
1237:
1165:
1162:
1134:
1131:
1112:
1109:
1085:
1082:
1058:Cefn yr Ystrad
1049:
1046:
1015:mean sea level
926:
923:
913:
912:
909:
905:
901:
898:
895:
891:
888:
885:
882:
878:
877:
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861:
858:
855:
852:
848:
847:
844:
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837:
834:
831:
827:
824:
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815:
811:
808:
805:
802:
798:
797:
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790:
787:
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778:
771:
768:
764:
761:
758:
755:
751:
747:
746:
743:
740:
736:
733:
730:
727:
724:
721:
717:
703:
699:
687:
655:Frasassi Caves
641:
640:
634:
626:
623:
620:
617:
614:
610:
607:
604:
601:
597:
596:
593:
589:
586:
583:
580:
577:
574:
570:
544:
536:
533:carbon dioxide
520:
517:
497:carbonate rock
477:
474:
455:cyclical model
410:Lozère, France
394:
391:
329:Serbo-Croatian
177:
174:
170:carbonate rock
168:are hosted in
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4607:
4596:
4593:
4591:
4590:Geomorphology
4588:
4586:
4583:
4581:
4578:
4576:
4573:
4572:
4570:
4555:
4552:
4550:
4547:
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4523:
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4511:
4508:
4507:
4506:
4503:
4501:
4498:
4496:
4493:
4491:
4488:
4486:
4485:Civil defense
4483:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4475:Cave painting
4473:
4471:
4468:
4466:
4463:
4461:
4458:
4456:
4453:
4451:
4448:
4447:
4445:
4441:
4435:
4432:
4430:
4427:
4425:
4422:
4420:
4417:
4415:
4412:
4410:
4407:
4403:
4400:
4399:
4398:
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4393:
4390:
4388:
4385:
4383:
4380:
4378:
4375:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4364:
4362:
4360:Organisations
4358:
4348:
4345:
4343:
4340:
4338:
4335:
4333:
4330:
4328:
4325:
4323:
4320:
4318:
4315:
4313:
4310:
4308:
4305:
4303:
4300:
4298:
4295:
4293:
4290:
4289:
4287:
4283:
4277:
4274:
4272:
4269:
4268:
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4245:
4242:
4240:
4237:
4235:
4232:
4230:
4227:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4194:Mustang Caves
4192:
4190:
4187:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4172:
4170:
4167:
4165:
4162:
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4150:
4147:
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4137:
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4125:
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4120:
4117:
4115:
4112:
4111:
4109:
4105:
4099:
4096:
4094:
4091:
4089:
4086:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4072:
4069:
4068:
4067:
4064:
4062:
4061:Semi-basement
4059:
4057:
4054:
4052:
4051:Subway system
4049:
4047:
4044:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4021:Utility vault
4019:
4017:
4014:
4012:
4009:
4007:
4006:Rock-cut tomb
4004:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3996:Passage grave
3994:
3992:
3989:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3951:Earth shelter
3949:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3916:Blast shelter
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3892:
3889:
3888:
3886:
3882:
3879:
3875:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3847:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3835:
3834:Kazumura Cave
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3811:
3809:
3805:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3793:Volcanic pipe
3791:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3752:
3749:
3748:
3747:
3744:
3742:
3741:Maternity den
3739:
3737:
3736:Magma chamber
3734:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3719:
3715:
3712:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3702:
3700:
3697:
3695:
3692:
3690:
3687:
3685:
3682:
3680:
3677:
3675:
3672:
3671:
3670:
3667:
3663:
3660:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3652:Burrow fossil
3650:
3649:
3648:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3633:
3630:
3629:
3627:
3623:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3605:
3600:
3598:
3593:
3591:
3586:
3585:
3582:
3570:
3567:
3566:
3563:
3557:
3554:
3552:
3549:
3547:
3544:
3542:
3539:
3538:
3536:
3532:
3526:
3525:
3521:
3519:
3518:
3514:
3512:
3511:
3507:
3506:
3504:
3500:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3465:
3463:
3459:
3453:
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3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3387:Dogtooth spar
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3372:Calcite rafts
3370:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3359:
3357:
3353:
3348:
3344:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3322:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3261:
3258:
3257:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3208:
3206:
3203:
3201:
3198:
3197:
3195:
3189:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3172:Speleogenesis
3170:
3168:
3165:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3152:
3151:
3148:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3135:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3123:Cave painting
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3113:Biospeleology
3111:
3110:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3083:
3078:
3076:
3071:
3069:
3064:
3063:
3060:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3042:
3039:
3036:
3033:
3030:
3026:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3015:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2982:
2981:0-231-03623-X
2978:
2974:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2951:
2950:0-631-14032-8
2947:
2943:
2939:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2924:
2920:
2910:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2886:
2883:
2878:
2876:0-919975-10-0
2872:
2868:
2861:
2858:
2845:
2839:
2836:
2823:
2819:
2813:
2810:
2798:
2794:
2787:
2784:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2733:
2730:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2687:
2684:
2679:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2654:
2651:
2646:
2640:
2636:
2629:
2626:
2621:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2583:
2580:
2572:
2568:
2561:
2554:
2551:
2546:
2542:
2535:
2534:
2526:
2524:
2520:
2515:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2490:
2487:
2482:
2476:
2472:
2465:
2462:
2457:
2453:
2446:
2443:
2427:
2420:
2417:
2413:
2412:0-14-051094-X
2409:
2405:
2399:
2396:
2391:
2385:
2366:
2359:
2353:
2350:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2319:
2312:
2309:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2278:
2271:
2268:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2240:
2237:
2231:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2211:
2208:
2195:
2191:
2184:
2181:
2165:
2158:
2155:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2128:
2125:
2120:
2114:
2110:
2103:
2101:
2097:
2092:
2085:
2082:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2066:(in French).
2065:
2058:
2055:
2051:
2048:Paul Larsen,
2045:
2042:
2038:
2037:961-6500-46-5
2034:
2029:
2022:
2019:
2014:
2007:
2005:
2001:
1996:
1989:
1987:
1983:
1971:
1967:
1961:
1958:
1953:
1946:
1943:
1931:(in Croatian)
1930:
1929:Geografija.hr
1926:
1919:
1916:
1903:
1899:
1898:Geografija.hr
1895:
1888:
1885:
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1867:
1863:
1862:
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1798:
1794:
1787:
1785:
1783:
1779:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1753:Geomorphology
1746:
1743:
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1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1711:
1708:
1703:
1697:
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1635:
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1620:
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1614:
1611:
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1602:
1601:
1596:
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1585:
1581:
1578:
1575:
1572:
1569:
1565:
1562:
1559:
1555:
1552:
1549:
1545:
1544:Losing stream
1542:
1539:
1536:
1533:
1530:
1527:
1524:
1521:
1518:
1515:
1511:
1508:
1505:
1502:
1499:
1496:
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1470:
1466:
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1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
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1335:
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1327:
1325:
1321:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1297:
1293:
1291:
1287:
1286:geologic maps
1283:
1279:
1275:
1270:
1267:
1266:carbonic acid
1263:
1259:
1251:
1247:
1246:
1245:Aquifer#Karst
1243:Main Article
1238:
1236:
1234:
1229:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1204:
1202:
1197:
1195:
1191:
1190:karst fenster
1184:, Philippines
1183:
1178:
1170:
1163:
1161:
1159:
1155:
1154:paleocollapse
1151:
1147:
1144:
1140:
1132:
1130:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1110:
1108:
1104:
1102:
1097:
1095:
1091:
1083:
1081:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1047:
1045:
1043:
1039:
1034:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1003:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
976:
974:
970:
966:
962:
958:
954:
950:
946:
938:
935:
931:
924:
922:
920:
910:
896:
889:
886:
880:
879:
875:
871:
865:
862:
856:
853:
850:
849:
845:
838:
835:
825:
822:
819:
816:
809:
806:
800:
799:
795:
785:
772:
769:
762:
759:
749:
748:
744:
731:
725:
722:
715:
714:
711:
709:
697:
693:
685:
681:
680:sulfuric acid
677:
670:
666:
662:
658:
656:
652:
648:
627:
624:
621:
618:
608:
605:
599:
598:
584:
578:
575:
568:
567:
560:
556:
554:
550:
542:
534:
530:
526:
525:carbonic acid
518:
516:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
491:
490:Sinj, Croatia
487:
482:
475:
473:
471:
467:
466:speleologists
463:
458:
456:
452:
448:
444:
439:
435:
433:
432:Lake Cerknica
429:
425:
424:Royal Society
421:
417:
411:
407:
403:
399:
393:Early studies
392:
390:
387:
382:
378:
375:
371:
363:
359:
358:Mediterranean
354:
351:
345:
339:
334:
330:
326:
322:
317:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
284:In the local
282:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
247:Šar Mountains
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
225:, across the
224:
220:
216:
212:
207:
203:
199:
191:
187:
182:
175:
173:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
152:The study of
150:
148:
143:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
103:
82:
76:
71:
64:
60:
56:
52:
45:
44:Škocjan Caves
41:
37:
33:
19:
4455:Cave dweller
4317:Nome Kingdom
4271:Hollow Earth
4184:Maginot Line
4083:Storm cellar
3901:Burial vault
3763:Rock shelter
3725:
3674:Glacier cave
3522:
3515:
3508:
3468:Cave dweller
3382:Cave popcorn
3321:Underground
3240:Karst spring
3230:Glacier cave
3166:
2986:
2972:
2956:Cave Geology
2955:
2941:
2927:
2899:
2895:
2885:
2866:
2860:
2848:. Retrieved
2838:
2826:. Retrieved
2822:the original
2812:
2800:. Retrieved
2796:
2786:
2774:. Retrieved
2746:
2742:
2732:
2699:
2695:
2686:
2659:
2653:
2634:
2628:
2593:
2589:
2582:
2566:
2553:
2532:
2495:
2489:
2470:
2464:
2455:
2445:
2433:. Retrieved
2419:
2403:
2398:
2372:. Retrieved
2365:the original
2352:
2340:. Retrieved
2328:
2324:
2311:
2299:. Retrieved
2292:the original
2287:
2283:
2270:
2258:. Retrieved
2256:(2): 111–125
2253:
2249:
2239:
2220:
2216:
2210:
2198:. Retrieved
2193:
2183:
2171:. Retrieved
2157:
2145:. Retrieved
2141:the original
2136:
2127:
2108:
2090:
2084:
2067:
2063:
2057:
2049:
2044:
2021:
1994:
1973:. Retrieved
1969:
1960:
1951:
1945:
1933:. Retrieved
1928:
1918:
1906:. Retrieved
1902:the original
1897:
1887:
1875:. Retrieved
1860:
1853:
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1833:
1825:
1821:
1796:
1792:
1756:
1752:
1745:
1720:
1716:
1710:
1691:
1685:
1673:. Retrieved
1668:
1656:
1557:
1532:Karst spring
1526:Karst window
1513:
1488:
1438:
1434:Highland Rim
1427:
1372:
1368:
1360:
1356:septic tanks
1342:
1332:
1328:
1317:
1301:karst spring
1271:
1257:
1256:
1242:
1230:
1205:
1198:
1187:
1136:
1120:sequence of
1114:
1105:
1098:
1087:
1051:
1035:
1023:Phangnga Bay
1004:
988:karst towers
977:
942:
916:
673:
644:
547:produced by
522:
494:
486:Dinaric Alps
459:
442:
438:Jovan Cvijić
436:
427:
414:
376:
365:
355:
310:metathesized
283:
241:, where the
215:Dinaric Alps
197:
195:
153:
151:
144:
80:
79:
36:
4537:Mole people
4522:Mine rescue
4470:Cave rescue
4460:Cave diving
4204:Mogao Caves
4134:Coober Pedy
4093:Spider hole
4071:Septic tank
4011:Root cellar
3662:Paleoburrow
3611:Subterranea
3347:Speleothems
3260:Exploration
3160:Troglofauna
3128:Cave survey
3106:Main topics
2850:31 December
2828:31 December
2342:26 December
2301:29 November
2260:24 February
2200:26 December
2173:26 December
2147:26 December
1975:31 December
1723:(1): 1–17.
1675:25 December
1640:Thermokarst
1616:Glaciokarst
1455:is home to
1439:In Canada,
1390:Karst areas
1352:trash dumps
1334:Groundwater
1201:Ljubljanica
1133:Pseudokarst
1122:South Wales
1042:speleothems
531:picking up
503:and highly
476:Development
470:karst caves
386:Carusardius
4569:Categories
4549:Speleology
4542:in fiction
4322:Pellucidar
4164:Kome Caves
3814:Balve Cave
3758:Pit crater
3714:Talus cave
3637:Ant colony
3483:Kome Caves
3447:Stalagnate
3442:Stalagmite
3437:Stalactite
3427:Soda straw
3417:Shelfstone
3377:Cave pearl
3352:Speleogens
3317:Talus cave
3250:Ley tunnel
3177:Speleology
3155:Stygofauna
2749:(1): 1–3.
2431:. BGS/NERC
2118:0471861979
2025:Gams, I.,
1935:30 October
1908:30 October
1701:0922152349
1648:References
1628:Speleology
1566:, same as
1485:Speleothem
1483:See also:
1457:The Burren
1344:Well water
1324:subsidence
1290:dye traces
1156:features.
1141:caves and
1126:weathering
1111:Paleokarst
1027:Halong Bay
1011:bioerosion
957:kamenitzas
925:Morphology
657:of Italy.
651:New Mexico
190:evaporites
154:paleokarst
136:weathering
108:topography
46:, Slovenia
18:Karstology
4580:Landforms
4465:Cave gate
4337:Underdark
4285:Exemplars
4107:Exemplars
4046:Wine cave
3921:Catacombs
3807:Exemplars
3704:Show cave
3694:Lava tube
3689:Lava cave
3534:Incidents
3461:Dwellings
3402:Helictite
3397:Frostwork
3392:Flowstone
3362:Anthodite
3335:Waterfall
3307:Suffosion
3292:Show cave
3277:Salt cave
3245:Lava cave
3193:processes
3143:Equipment
2802:26 August
2776:9 October
2771:130950517
2606:CiteSeerX
2435:9 October
2331:: 48–57.
2225:CiteSeerX
1813:129378021
1759:: 63–80.
1568:estavelle
1548:ponornica
1386:in 2014.
1262:limestone
1164:Hydrology
1158:Mud Caves
1129:periods.
1054:sandstone
961:sinkholes
505:fractured
462:hydrology
379:cited by
308:), later
302:Dalmatian
188:, except
186:limestone
176:Etymology
140:quartzite
128:sinkholes
116:limestone
4078:Stepwell
4066:Sewerage
3976:Hypogeum
3956:Erdstall
3946:Dry well
3926:Casemate
3906:Borehole
3896:Basement
3768:Sinkhole
3699:Pit Cave
3684:Ice cave
3569:Category
3422:Snottite
3412:Rimstone
3407:Moonmilk
3297:Sinkhole
3282:Sea cave
3267:Pit cave
3235:Ice cave
3025:Archived
2724:16046040
2571:Archived
2384:cite web
2333:Archived
1842:. 1999.
1597:See also
1580:Turlough
1338:polluted
1239:Aquifers
1233:turlough
1194:cascades
1019:Thailand
996:aquifers
676:sulfides
420:Slovenia
290:Illyrian
275:Albanian
255:Slovenia
231:Adriatic
120:dolomite
114:such as
4372:Bergamt
4297:Batcave
4244:Yaodong
3981:Manhole
3971:Foxhole
3936:Dungeon
3642:Aquifer
3493:Yaodong
3367:Boxwork
3210:Cave-in
2751:Bibcode
2704:Bibcode
2598:Bibcode
2374:3 March
2052:, 2003.
1877:15 June
1761:Bibcode
1725:Bibcode
1469:Guangxi
1465:Guizhou
1449:Chiapas
1375:erosion
1303:in the
1282:springs
1223:⁄
1143:granite
1090:mogotes
1031:Vietnam
1025:and at
1007:tropics
973:springs
965:cenotes
949:runnels
934:Rubaksa
447:dolines
404:in the
381:Ptolemy
321:Slovene
259:Italian
251:plateau
245:of the
223:Trieste
213:of the
147:bedrock
106:) is a
55:Lijiang
4480:Caving
4402:Grotto
4016:Tunnel
4001:Quarry
3911:Bunker
3798:Warren
3721:Cenote
3679:Grotto
3647:Burrow
3632:Alcove
3302:Spring
3215:Cenote
3138:Diving
3133:Caving
3091:topics
3003:
2993:
2979:
2962:
2948:
2934:
2873:
2769:
2722:
2674:
2641:
2608:
2510:
2477:
2410:
2227:
2115:
2035:
1868:
1811:
1698:
1586:karst.
1574:Scowle
1514:dolina
1510:Doline
1504:Cenote
1473:Yunnan
1471:, and
1451:. The
1309:Ouhans
1280:, and
1094:poljes
1092:, and
984:poljes
919:gypsum
692:pyrite
684:oxygen
501:bedded
460:Karst
451:poljes
406:causse
402:Doline
374:oronym
368:karra-
344:kraški
306:carsus
298:carsus
279:karsti
273:, and
267:German
243:massif
235:Kosovo
202:German
124:poljes
59:Guilin
4575:Karst
4264:Types
3966:Fogou
3884:Types
3726:Karst
3625:Types
3330:River
3272:Ponor
3225:Foiba
3167:Karst
3150:Fauna
2767:S2CID
2720:S2CID
2574:(PDF)
2563:(PDF)
2537:(PDF)
2429:(PDF)
2368:(PDF)
2361:(PDF)
2336:(PDF)
2321:(PDF)
2295:(PDF)
2280:(PDF)
2167:(PDF)
1809:S2CID
1665:(PDF)
1610:Gryke
1604:Alvar
1590:Uvala
1584:Irish
1564:Ponor
1558:polje
1554:Polje
1520:Foibe
1498:Abîme
1307:near
1258:Karst
1152:—and
1000:caves
990:, or
969:foibe
904:· 2 H
509:chalk
488:near
428:karst
364:root
350:Grast
316:korsъ
314:*
294:Latin
271:Karst
263:Carso
219:Italy
211:range
206:Karst
198:karst
132:caves
81:Karst
4041:Well
3986:Mine
3746:Nest
3669:Cave
3350:and
3325:Lake
3312:Sump
3255:Mine
3089:Cave
3001:ISBN
2991:ISBN
2977:ISBN
2960:ISBN
2946:ISBN
2932:ISBN
2871:ISBN
2852:2019
2830:2019
2804:2019
2778:2021
2672:ISBN
2639:ISBN
2508:ISBN
2475:ISBN
2437:2022
2408:ISBN
2390:link
2376:2013
2344:2020
2303:2012
2262:2021
2202:2020
2175:2020
2149:2020
2113:ISBN
2033:ISBN
1977:2019
1937:2018
1910:2018
1879:2020
1866:ISBN
1696:ISBN
1677:2020
1447:and
1313:Loue
1180:The
1146:tors
1139:lava
1101:salt
1064:and
1038:tufa
937:tufa
900:CaSO
881:CaSO
866:CaSO
801:CaCO
710:is:
600:CaCO
541:soil
523:The
449:and
338:kras
327:and
325:kras
237:and
130:and
118:and
3751:Bee
3452:Vug
2904:doi
2797:CNN
2759:doi
2747:279
2712:doi
2700:276
2664:doi
2616:doi
2541:doi
2500:doi
2072:doi
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1769:doi
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1733:doi
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