Katangese Gendarmerie - Knowledge (XXG)

1003:. As more gendarmes gathered in Angola in late 1963, additional camps were established at Cazambo, Cazage, Lutai, and Lunguebungo. Mindful of the international ramifications of harbouring an armed group, the Portuguese portrayed the gendarmes and mercenaries as "refugees". While most of the standard personnel lived in squalor and lacked basic necessities, the officers were kept in hotel rooms paid for by Tshombe. Many were not paid while in exile. A new command structure was established for the Gendarmerie in Angola under Major Ferdinand Tshipola with Antoine Mwambu as chief of staff. Four groups operated autonomously under their own mercenary commanders. Schramme completely rejected Tshipola's authority. By 1964, two of the camps had become dedicated training facilities. Mercenaries traveled from Katanga to Angola via Rhodesia to relay messages between Tshombe, the gendarmes, and the mercenaries, with logistical support from 933:. Between 31 December 1962 and 4 January 1963, international opinion rallied in favour of the ONUC. Belgium and France strongly urged Tshombe to accept Thant's Plan for National Reconciliation and resolve the conflict. On 8 January, Tshombe reappeared in Élisabethville. The same day Prime Minister Adoula received a letter from the chiefs of the most prominent Kantangese tribes pledging allegiance to the Congolese government and calling for Tshombe's arrest. Thant expressed interest in negotiating with Tshombe, saying "If we could convince that there is no more room for maneuvering and bargaining, and no one to bargain with, he would surrender and the gendarmerie would collapse." Tshombe soon expressed his willingness to negotiate after being briefly detained and released, but warned that any advance on 1023:

clashed with one another, due to rivalries between Katangese and mercenary officers. A couple thousand remained in Angola. Tsombe's government also recruited former gendarmes in Jadotville and Élisabethville, who reenlisted primarily to regain their pay. These forces formed their own units which were then tendentiously integrated into the ANC. At least 6,000 additional ex-gendarmes were integrated into the police force of the new province of South Katanga. With support from Belgium and the United States, the gendarmes made steady progress in recapturing territory in late 1964. By 1965 they were deployed in mopping-up operations. The use of mercenaries bothered President Kasa-Vubu, which created divisions with the commander of the ANC,

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gendarmerie commanders for a return to power, further complicating the central government's efforts to absorb the force. United Nations efforts at reconciliation were ended as ONUC focused on withdrawing its own forces from Katanga in December 1963. The ANC began raiding pro-secession communities, as gendarmes continued to roam Northern Rhodesia, Angola and Katanga. The gendarmes in the Congo-Rhodesia border region would go into Rhodesian communities to barter for food and sometimes raid and steal supplies. Since most of the local Rhodesian residents were Lunda, many of the Lunda Katangese avoided the ANC security operations by simply disguising themselves in the indigenous communities.

662:. The capture of the mercenaries was given a great deal of public attention and indicated that British nationals had been working in Katanga's employ. Due to the action of the ONUC garrison, Kabalo remained the only major town in northern Katanga not controlled by the Katangese Gendarmerie at the conclusion of their offensive. Though ONUC was able to retain control of the locale, it lacked the ability to patrol the surrounding area to intervene in further conflicts. Having been defeated, Katangese forces began punitive attacks on Baluba villages, opposed only by poorly armed bands of Baluba. In the resulting conflict both belligerents committed numerous atrocities. 915:, the gendarmes had expected an attack on 30 December, but when one failed to occur they began to drink beer and fire flares at random, possibly to boost morale. Rogue bands of gendarmes subsequently conducted random raids around the city and looted the local bank. They were attacked by Swedish and Ghanaian troops two or three kilometers northeast of Kamina the following day, and defeated. The Katangese Gendamerie conducted a disorganised withdrawal to two camps southeast of the locale. The Swedes successfully took several gendarmerie camps and began working to stabilise the situation. Late that night a company of Indian 904: 691: 613:" that extended throughout the region. The ONUC contingents were completely surprised by the takeover in Manono. Tshombe and his government accused ONUC of collaborating with the Stanleyville regime and declared that they would no longer respect the neutral zone. By late January groups of Baluba were launching attacks on railways. UN officials appealed for them to stop, but the Baluba leaders stated that they aimed to do everything within their power to weaken the Katangese government and disrupt the Katangese Gendarmerie's offensive potential. On 21 February 1961 the 650:

arrested by the ONUC troops. Katangese forces moving by land attacked ONUC soldiers and fought with BALUBAKAT militia. The next day they sent an armed ferry up the river to seize the town, but ONUC forces destroyed it with a mortar, inflicting heavy casualties. The ONUC garrison played no further role in the fighting after 8 April. The Katangese made numerous attempts to enter Kabalo during the following days, but were bogged down by heavy resistance from Baluba militia. On 11 April Katangese troops withdrew from the area to focus their operations further south.

780:, a second attempt to expel remaining Belgians, without consulting any Western powers. The forces seized various outposts around Élisabethville, and attempted to arrest Tshombe. The operation quickly turned violent after a sniper shot an ONUC soldier outside the post office while other peacekeepers were attempting to negotiate its surrender, and heavy fighting ensued there and at the radio station, in which over 20 gendarmes were killed under disputed circumstances. Due to miscommunication between ONUC commanders, Tshombe was able to avoid capture and flee to 80: 511: 73: 1027:, who appreciated their effectiveness. Kasa-Vubu also developed a rivalry with Tshombe, and in October 1965 dismissed him from the premiership. Political deadlock ensued as Parliament refused to approve Kasa-Vubu's new appointee to the premiership, and in November Mobutu launched a coup and assumed the presidency. Tshombe returned to exile in Spain and resumed planning for a return to power. New mercenaries were recruited for the purpose with Portuguese support. 1057:. The tribunal sentenced Tshombe to death and criminalized the Katangese Gendarmerie retrospectively as an "irregular army". Mobutu held the Gendarmerie to be a criminal organization for the remainder of his rule. After the trial, all the gendarmes were referred to as 'mercenaries' by Congolese press. Tshombe's plans to use the remaining gendarmes and mercenaries to stage a rebellion were disrupted by the hijacking of his plane in June and ultimate detention in 768: 949:(which provided most of Katanga's electricity), and most UMHK mining facilities. UMHK officials privately told Tshombe they were withdrawing their support for secession. Muké vainly attempted to organise the 140 mercenaries and 2,000 gendarmes under his command to prepare a final defence of Kolwezi. His efforts, undermined by the force's low morale and indiscipline, were further hampered by an influx of refugees. Tshombe ordered the Katangese garrison of 428:, passed on August 9, supplemented Resolution 143 and stated that "the entry of the United Nations Force into the province of Katanga is necessary for the full implementation of the present resolution". However, the resolution also mandated that the "United Nations Force in the Congo will not be a party to or in any way intervene in or be used to influence the outcome of any internal conflict, constitutional or otherwise." Frustrated, Lumumba appealed to 1133:. The Portuguese had high respect for the gendarmes' abilities— they were called Fiéis or "the faithful". However, historian Pedro Aires Oliveira notes that the gendarmes cared more about fighting the Democratic Republic of the Congo than participating in the Angolan war and as a result were closely watched by the Portuguese authorities. 1,130 ex-gendarmes were deployed at Gafaria, and a further 1,555 at Camissombo. Some of the gendarmes were also given 967:

himself and his government. At a press conference, Adoula accepted Tshombe's proposition and announced that what remained of the Katangese Gendarmerie would be integrated into the ANC. Total statistics on Katangese Gendarmerie and mercenary casualties from Operation Grandslam are unknown. Following the operation the UN was able to confirm that Portuguese Angola, South Africa, and Northern Rhodesia had assisted the Katangese in arming their air force.

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Army. The operation also did not extend to all military centers in Katanga. Thus, many foreign officers, particularly the highly committed "ultras" were able to avoid deportation. Further mercenary forces arrived in Katanga after the operation. British, Rhodesian, and South African fighters enlisted mostly for money and adventure, while the French mercenaries were regarded by UN officials as politically extreme. Colonel

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only around 2,000–3,000 became part of the ANC. Those who integrated suffered threats and violence, and were given lower ranks. An estimated 7,000 returned to civilian life, and a further 8,000 escaped disarmament. Of the 8,000, some found work in security, and thousands of others were reported to be roaming "in the bush in South Katanga". Many could not return to their homes, and were considered outcasts.

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Gendarmerie to increase its efforts and the conflict intensified over the following days. Strengthened with weapons provided by Rhodesia, the gendarmes launched mortar and sniper assaults on ONUC troops in Élisabethville, attacked ONUC garrisons throughout Katanga, and deployed the Katangese Air Force's single remaining Fouga to strafe and bomb ONUC positions. Gendarmes led by European officers

318: 1044:, the commander responsible for Congolese police operations in Katanga in 1963. Tshipola issued a memo accusing Tshatshi of discriminating against the ex-gendarmes and denouncing Mobutu's coup. Other mercenaries revolted in Isiro and Watso before joining Tshipola's force in Kisangani. The insurrection was suppressed in September with the assistance of units led by mercenary 1019:." With the ANC lacking cohesion, Adoula's government was unable to handle the insurrections. Tshombe was invited to return to the Congo to assist in negotiating a political solution, and in July 1964 he was installed as Prime Minister with the hope that he could reach an agreement with the rebels and that his presence would ensure no new secession attempts in Katanga. 522:, and it was characterized by rapid advancement of many soldiers. By January 1961 there were approximately 250 former Force Publique officers serving in the Gendarmerie. They occupied all senior leadership positions and part of their salaries was paid by the Belgian government under a technical assistance programme. There were also 30–40 officers of the 848:

Adoula. Tshombe signed the Kitona Declaration on 21 December 1961, agreeing that Katanga was part of the Congo, and announcing plans to re-integrate the state with the Congo. Even as negotiations were in progress, the Gendarmerie continued to skirmish with the ANC. Throughout the year, the ANC made continuous inroads in North Katanga.

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agreement between Katanga and the UN ensured the exchange of prisoners and forced ONUC to relinquish some of its positions in Élisabethville. With his government threatened by the UN's failure, Adoula ordered two battalions of the ANC to launch an offensive, but the Katangese forces repulsed them with a bombardment.

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contingents, but in reality the peacekeeping units were too weak to exercise authority. Because the rebellion threatened Katanga's communications, partially-trained soldiers and policemen were dispatched in units of around 60 people to the region to exert Katangese control. The inexperienced troops often resorted to

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in Katanga. With the ultras in command and with its African members fearing their own disarmament in addition to that of the European mercenaries, the Gendarmerie moved additional troops to Élisabethville and began stockpiling weapons in private homes and offices for a defence. On September 13, 1961, ONUC launched

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The straggling gendarmes who returned to Angola after the defeats in the Congo initially maintained the hope of fighting for their return within a few years. This plan was nevertheless disrupted by Tshombe's detention, the departure of many mercenary commanders, and the increasing strength of Mobutu.

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was appointed to be commander of an army in exile, while mercenary Jeremiah Puren was ordered to evacuate what remained of the Katangese Air Force, along with necessary military equipment and the Katangese treasury. This was accomplished via air and railway. Rhodesian operatives assisted in smuggling

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was passed on November 24, 1961, affirming that the United Nations would "take vigorous action, including the use of the requisite measure of force, if necessary," to remove all "foreign military and paramilitary personnel and political advisers not under the United Nations Command, and mercenaries".

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Relations between the UN and Katanga rapidly deteriorated in early September, and Katangese forces were placed on alert. Growing frustrated with Katanga's lack of cooperation and its continued employ of mercenaries, several ONUC officials planned a more forceful operation to establish their authority

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The Gendarmerie then shifted their focus to Kabalo, where they chiefly intended to secure the railway. The town was garrisoned by two companies of an Ethiopian battalion serving with ONUC. On 7 April a Katangese plane carrying 30 mercenaries landed to secure the airstrip in the town but were promptly

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of the area and rebelled against Katangese authority. Some prominent BALUBAKAT politicians allied themselves with the Stanleyville government. On October 17, 1960, neutral zones were created in the region under a temporary agreement with the United Nations. In theory the region was controlled by ONUC

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and Kisangani after it was revealed that the ANC planned to disband its mercenary units. The mutinies were led by European mercenaries. An estimated 600 former gendarmes led by Schramme were present in Kisangani during the mutiny. Under pressure from the ANC, Schramme was forced to evacuate the city

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On 24 December 1962, Katangese forces in Élisabethville attacked ONUC troops with small arms fire and shot down an unarmed ONUC helicopter. Firing continued over the following days. After conversation with UN officials, Tshombe made an initial promise to end the fighting, but he subsequently ordered

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for ONUC personnel. Reinforced by additional troops and aircraft, UN forces quickly secured Élisabethville and destroyed four Katangese planes. Approximately 80 gendarmes were killed and 250 wounded in the fighting. Military pressure applied by the operation forced Tshombe to agree to negotiate with

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in late August 1961 to peacefully arrest foreign members of the Gendarmerie. The operation was conducted successfully without violence, and by its end 81 foreign personnel of the Katangese Gendarmerie had been arrested in Katanga and brought to Kamina base to await deportation. Most of the remaining

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was appointed to replace Lumumba as prime minister of the Congo. He began a far more aggressive policy of ending Katanga's secession than the interim Congolese government, and Belgium continued to pressure the Katangese authorities to begin negotiations. Young suggested that "from this point onward,

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After the defeat of the State of Katanga, plans to disarm or integrate the gendarmes were made. On 8 February 1963, General Muké and several of his officers pledged their allegiance to President Kasa-Vubu. However, of the estimated 14,000–17,000 gendarmes, only 3,500 registered for integration, and

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trainer aircraft were also acquired. In August, most of the Belgian officers returned to Belgium, and mercenaries began training many of the soldiers. From its formation the force struggled with divisions between various white and black commanders. Belgian officers also protested the recruitment of

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under which they could gain amnesty by returning to the Congo. The mercenaries were expelled from Africa and returned to Europe. A brief diversionary raid was executed by Denard from November 1 to 5, 1967. Called "Operation Luciver", ex-gendarmes crossed from Angola to Katanga and occupied Kisenge

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By mid-1966 the Katangese forces in the Congo were still serving in the ANC in standalone units. About 1,000 mercenaries and 3,000 former gendarmes were deployed in South Kivu and Kisangani (formerly Stanleyville), tasked with suppressing the remaining Simba rebels. They were militarily effective,

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On 15 January, Tshombe sent a formal message to Thant, "I am ready to proclaim immediately before the world that the Katanga's secession is ended." He offered to return to Élisabethville to oversee the implementation of Thant's proposal for reunification if Prime Minister Adoula granted amnesty to

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laid down their arms to Nigerian and Malaysian soldiers. On 14 January, Indian troops found the last intact bridge into Kolwezi. After a brief fight with gendarmes and mercenaries they secured it and crossed over, stopping at the city outskirts to await further instruction. At a final meeting with

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began. About 3,000 to 4,000 FLNC members were involved. Western nations again supported Mobutu, and the FLNC was largely defeated by May 27. After the invasion failed, the FLNC lost Angola's support, and promptly collapsed. Some former gendarmes were incorporated into the Angolan army, where they

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From exile, Tshombe continued to plot his return to power in Katanga by use of the mercenaries and ex-gendarmes. He made entreaties to leftist Congolese dissidents in Brazzaville, causing consternation in the Congolese government. By April 1964 an additional 3,000–4,000 Katangese had crossed into

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Tshombe's Katangese government had enjoyed close relations with the administrators of Portuguese Angola, particularly since both were opposed to communism. Nevertheless, the Portuguese were initially overwhelmed by the large number of gendarmes and mercenaries that arrived under Schramme. As the

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of the Katangese Air Force were seized. The Belgian government agreed facilitate the repatriation of its nationals serving in the Gendarmerie, but in practice was only able to order the former Force Publique officers to return to Belgium under threat of losing their official ranks in the Belgian

1148:(FLNC) was founded. They were given further military training and in May 1971, many gendarmes began formally receiving compensation for fighting. Mbumba negotiated better conditions, training, and salaries for the soldiers in the early 1970s. In February 1971 they were formally made part of the 838:

Throughout October and November the Gendarmerie was reinforced with additional mercenaries, munitions, and aircraft. As tensions rose, gendarmes harassed UN officials and murdered an ONUC officer. Skirmishes occurred in early December, and the Gendarmerie began isolating ONUC detachments around

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By February 1961 the Gendarmerie was composed of around 8,600 soldiers—8,000 Katangese and 600 Europeans. On 11 February, the Katangese government announced that it would begin an offensive to eliminate the Baluba opposition in northern Katanga. Approximately 5,000 troops were earmarked for the

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permitting ONUC to use military force as a last resort to prevent civil war. As the Congo was already more-or-less in a state of civil war, the resolution gave ONUC significant latitude to act. It also called for the immediate departure of all foreign military personnel and mercenaries from the

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Immediately after becoming Prime Minister, Tshombe recalled some of the gendarmes in Angola back to the Congo to suppress the insurrections. These gendarmes, expecting to reignite the secession, were surprised by their new task and only took orders directly from Tshombe. Some of the units also

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Meanwhile, the Congolese government seized documents revealing that Tshombe was maintaining contact with foreign mercenaries. Fearing arrest and claiming political persecution, he fled to Paris, France, in June 1963, eventually settling in Madrid, Spain. From there he developed plans with his

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road to sever the Katangese lines to Rhodesia. Gendarmes were well positioned in wooded heights overlooking the route, but following heavy mortar bombardment they surrendered with little opposition. Other ONUC forces seized the town of Kipushi without facing any resistance. Tshombe ordered a

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ONUC launched Operation Grandslam on 28 December. On the first day, UN forces killed 50 Katangese gendarmes before securing downtown Élisabethville, the local Gendarmerie headquarters, the radio station, and Tshombe's presidential palace. Early on 29 December, the ONUC Air Division launched a

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Katangese leaders hailed the cease-fire as a military victory; Muké was promoted to general, and the exploits of the native Katangese gendarmes were widely celebrated, though some soldiers became disgruntled over the fact that they did not control the army like the foreign personnel. A formal

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Under pressure from the United States and United Nations, Belgium removed many of its forces from the region between August and September 1961. However, many officers remained, without official Belgian endorsement, or became mercenaries. To support the Katangese, Belgium organized hundreds of

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On 12 January a Swedish ONUC battalion surprised two gendarmerie battalions in Kabundji, seized their weapons, and directed them to return to their civilian livelihoods. Meanwhile, mercenaries in the Kolwezi area had taken Tshombe's threats about a scorched earth policy seriously and planted

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feared that "Katanga forces are likely to resort to guerrilla type operations and could severely harass UN forces for some time" if the situation was not resolved peacefully. It was suggested that the gendarmes could be integrated into the ANC, but Tshombe resisted such efforts, complicating

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Hammarskjöld and other top UN officials who had not been fully aware of the intentions of their subordinates were deeply embarrassed by the violence, which troubled Western powers who had supported the UN. Realising that the UN was in a precarious situation, Katangese leaders encouraged the

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encountered entrenched gendarmes and mercenaries along Jadotville Road and a gunfight ensued. Two mercenaries captured during the clash revealed that Katangese forces faced confusion and desertions. Overall Indian forces faced unexpectedly light resistance and reached the east bank of the

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Katanga fought a mainly diplomatic and partly military rearguard action against what was in retrospect the inevitable end to the secession." After Adoula's appointment, sporadic violence continued between tribes and the government, but Katanga was relatively peaceful for several months.

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on 3 January 1963. Mercenaries withdrew to Jadotville the next day after destroying a bridge over the Lufira. UN forces found a bridge upstream and used rafts and helicopters to cross and neutralise Katangese opposition on the far side of the river, occupying Jadotville.

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Europeans to fight with Katanga as mercenaries. At the same time the United Nations attempted to suppress foreign support to the Gendarmerie; 338 mercenaries and 443 political advisers were expelled from the region by August. That same month, war veterans were first

453:“During the entire month of August, a veritable race against the clock took place with the objective, for Tshombe and his advisers, of building a more or less efficient Katangan gendarmery before the eventual withdrawal of the Belgian troops.”— Belgian historian 373:

on July 5. This mutiny signaled the beginning of a large revolt and attacks on white people in the Congo. In response, Belgium sent troops into the region to maintain order and protect their commercial interests, without the permission of the Congolese state.

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country, though the use of force was not authorised to carry out the measure. Therefore, force could only be used to remove foreign soldiers and mercenaries if it was justified under the reasoning that such action would be necessary to prevent civil war.

249:, Angola and Katanga. Many crossed the Congo border into Angola (then a Portuguese colony) where Portuguese colonial authorities assisted and trained them. They were involved in several mutinies and attempted invasions of the Congo, most notably the 503:, appointed on July 13. The majority of soldiers were Katangese. The forces were first called the "Katangese Armed Forces" in November 1960. Katanga also seized most of the assets of the Force Publique's air service, providing a nucleus for the 891:

surprise assault on the Kolwezi airfield, inflicting serious damage to the installation's facilities. Further sorties resulted in the destruction of seven Katangese aircraft, though the Katangese Air Force managed to evacuate several planes to

674:, the Belgian government determined that their interests could be protected through negotiations with the Congolese government and began to gradually withdraw from Katanga. The state still had support from several Belgian politicians, such as 1078:. Schramme and Mobutu objected, and the plan did not go forward. Though the ANC continued fighting, around 900 gendarmes gave up their arms and crossed into Rwanda. At the end of the mutinies, the gendarmes agreed to a cease-fire proposed by 883:

the Katangese Air Force to raid ONUC positions. Radio intercepts also revealed to the UN that Muké had ordered the air force to bomb the Élisabethville airport on the night of 29 December. With the failure to enact a ceasefire, Major General

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Muké attempted to organise a defence of the town, but Katangese forces were in disarray, completely caught off-guard by the UN troops' advance. UN forces briefly stayed in Jadotville to regroup before advancing on Kolwezi, Sakania, and

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on September 18, 1961, killing him. A few days later a cease-fire was reached. That month, Gendarmerie forces were estimated to number 13,000; mainly deployed in North Katanga, troops were also present in Manono, Albertville, Kongolo,

424:, believed that engaging in Katanga would result in fighting, and refused to allow peacekeepers to enter the region. In reality, Katanga at the time had an ill-trained fighting force, mainly made up of dozens of Belgian officers. 764:, a Frenchman, was made chief of staff, and he established a new headquarters near Kolwezi to coordinate anti-UN guerilla operations. The Gendarmerie continued to sporadically fight BALUBAKAT rebels until around September 1961. 796:

and defeated UN relief efforts. Supporters of Katanga then began a propaganda campaign accusing ONUC of various human rights violations, and there were reports of UN attacks on civilian institutions. As Hammarskjöld flew to

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After the dissolution of the secessionist state, many gendarmes returned to civilian life or were integrated into the Congolese Army. However, around 8,000 refused to do so, and many of these kept their arms and roamed

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The captured mercenaries were interrogated by UN officials, and revealed to ONUC the extent to which Katanga had been recruiting mercenaries in southern Africa; and that recruiting stations were present in both the

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maintained relations with the state. Despite these interactions, the Belgian government gradually adopted a strategy of privately pressuring the Katangese to accept reintegration. Such efforts largely failed.

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but retained significant political distance from Mobutu's new regime and had tense relations with the regular ANC units. In July 1966 roughly 3,000 gendarmes and 240 mercenaries, upset about irregular pay,

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force aimed at helping "the Congolese government restore and maintain the political independence and territorial integrity of the Congo." By the end of July, 8,400 UN troops had been deployed to the Congo.

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all Force Publique troops based in Camp Massart except for 350 Katangese soldiers. The first iteration of the army was planned to consist of 1,500 men, all Katangese. The first volunteers were primarily

1103:"We cannot by any means support a political and military adventure in Katanga without it being useful to our own policy. ithout this we will be in difficulty in our own fight against subversion." – 1175:

began on March 8, 1977, when ex-gendarmes invaded the province. Western nations came to the aid of Mobutu, and the invasion was crushed by May 26, 1977. On May 11, 1978, a second invasion, known as

830:"Certainly every reasonable step should be taken to prevent the gendarmerie from becoming a lawless and undisciplined military organization." — United States Officer in Charge of U.N. Congo Affairs 5429: 730:

The battle at Kabalo led to heightened tensions between the UN and the Katangese government. The failure of the UN to convince the Katangese to dispel mercenaries from its forces led ONUC to begin

499:. By November, the Gendarmerie had 7,000 members. The army was largely organized, led, and trained by Belgians who were former Force Publique officers; the first commander of the Gendarmerie was 1126: 1144:

Efforts began to formalize the presence of exiled gendarmes in Angola. In March 1968, the Fédération Nationale Congolaise was created to represent Katangese in exile. In June 1969, the

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officially on loan to the Katangese government who either held commands in the gendarmerie, staffed the Katangese Ministry of Defence, or served as advisers. Between 50 and 100

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were occasionally deployed militarily. Various groups were formed to succeed the FLNC, including the FAPAK, the MCS, and the FLNC II. The factions were divided by their goals.

559: 362: 760:, a native Katangese, was made commander of the Katangese Gendarmerie, but in practice its leadership was still heavily influenced by European mercenaries. Lieutenant Colonel 941:

policy. Tshombe fled to Northern Rhodesia on a Rhodesian Air Force plane, and managed to reach Kolwezi, the only significant location that remained under Katangese control.

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Angola and joined the gendarmes, and Tshombe was directing the re-mobilization of the force. However, that year two leftist rebellions overtook the Congolese government;

346: 999:, a nationalist anti-colonial rebel group, the Portuguese concluded that the gendarmes could serve as a counterweight to nationalist agitation and accommodated them in 578: 214: 1149: 1122: 421: 646:

to the north. The Katangese Gendarmerie subsequently launched operations Banquise, Mambo, and Lotus against the BALUBAKAT rebels. In March the army seized Manono.

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and Mutshatsha before being defeated by the ANC. In the Congo, reprisal raids against former gendarmes then occurred; the ANC killed several of their leaders.

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suggested that the tactics were intentional and represented "little more than terrorization carried out by indiscriminate reprisals against whole regions."

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and ultimately his removal from power in September and eventual murder in January 1961. In response to Lumumba's removal, his political allies gathered in

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Lukas, J. Anthony (9 August 1964). "Rebels Gain In Congo: Success of Rebellions Raises Doubt Over Ability of Tshombe to Mold Politically Cohesive State".

3573: 872:"There would have been no fighting at all if the Katangese Gendarmerie had not made it unavoidable by indulging in senseless firing for several days." 712: 820:

replaced Hammarskjöld as UN Secretary-General, and declared his support for the expulsion of the remaining mercenaries in the Katangese Gendarmerie.

3510: 631: 606: 217:(BALUBAKAT) in northern Katanga. The campaign was largely successful, but the fighting led to atrocities and gendarmes were halted by forces of the 5380: 856:

negotiations. Tshombe stalled, drawing out negotiations until October 1962, when ONUC intelligence indicated the Gendarmes were preparing for war.

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began establishing the agencies necessary for a state to function independently, with a constitution and ministers. Patrice Lumumba called for

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Passemiers, Lazlo (14 Jan 2016). "Safeguarding White Minority Power: The South African Government and the Secession of Katanga, 1960–1963".

682:, who had drafted the Katangese declaration of independence and continued to serve as an important adviser. Additionally, companies such as 802: 655: 570:

and successfully occupied it, but the Gendarmerie and South Kasian forces successfully prevented them from making incursions into Katanga.

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of various nationalities were initially present, but over the course of 1961 the Katangese government increased recruitment efforts. Three

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with 300 mercenaries and a few thousand gendarmes. They reached Bukavu, and a secessionist state was declared. A plan was proposed by the

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to surrender to besieging UN and ANC forces. Instead, they and most of the population deserted the city while a handful of gendarmes near

4101: 1215:. The concept of the Tigres has emerged in the Democratic Republic of the Congo as a symbolic force representing secessionist thinking. 1164: 1145: 1096: 996: 277: 257: 58: 4779: 4849: 4842: 4835: 4828: 4821: 4478: 4432: 4359: 4284: 4263: 4229: 4186: 4120: 4071: 4050: 3915: 3780: 3735: 3714: 3678: 1474: 4814: 903: 658:

and South Africa. Following questioning, the mercenaries were transferred to Léopoldville before being deported from the Congo to

4909: 4765: 4758: 683: 3943: 1040:. Led by Tshipola, since made a colonel, the force seized control of the city and killed several ANC officers including Colonel 5054: 708: 690: 213:(ANC). In February 1961 the Gendarmerie initiated a series of operations aimed at suppressing anti-secessionist rebels of the 5310: 4751: 3421: 1051:

In March 1967 Mobutu convened a military tribunal to try the ex-gendarmes responsible for the mutiny. Tshombe was also tried

5107: 958:

his mercenary commanders, Tshombe ordered all remaining Katangese armed forces to withdraw to Portuguese Angola. Mercenary

900:

determined resistance to ONUC, and threatened to blow up bridges and dams if the operation was not halted within 24 hours.

539:

officially denied Katangese requests for arms, there is evidence of a covert program supplying weapons to the Gendarmerie.

5419: 1079: 210: 5362: 5138: 4471: 4294:

Sonck, Jean-Pierre & Despas, Daniel (January 1996). "L'aviation katangaise (1 partie)" [Katangan Aviation].

90: 1524:

Larmer, Miles (2013). "Local conflicts in a transnational war: the Katangese gendarmes and the Shaba wars of 1977–78".

877:

Statement by Secretary-General Thant before the UN Security Council on 31 December concerning ONUC's actions in Katanga

4772: 2192: 1130: 852: 402: 261: 1208: 963:

the gold reserves out of the country. The last of Schramme's mercenaries and gendarmes were evacuated on 25 January.

3272:"Saved by the Civil War: African 'Loyalists' in the Portuguese Armed Forces and Angola's Transition to Independence" 5173: 4399: 4369: 1344: 1313: 1024: 441: 393:

intervention to end various secession movements in the country. The UN "called upon" Belgium to leave the Congo in

366: 5414: 5019: 1207:

concludes that the Tigres played a "decisive role in the war." In May 1997 Mobutu was overthrown and replaced by

5082: 4987: 887:

of India convinced Thant to authorise a strong, decisive offensive to pre-emptively eliminate Katangese forces.

5387: 5040: 4149: 2734: 1281: 895:. The Air Force remained grounded for the rest of the operation. At midday an ONUC formation advanced down the 1420:

This statistic is derived from the discovery of 50 bodies of Africans in the area after the fighting was over.

740: 5068: 5061: 4863: 4517: 1048:

and Schramme. Following this, several ex-gendarmes—including members of the Katangese police—fled to Angola.

298:. There has since been little gendarme presence, but they have emerged as a symbol of secessionist thinking. 5164: 4888: 4621: 4196: 1292: 1071: 567: 510: 225:

in April 1961. ONUC then initiated efforts to remove foreign mercenaries from the Gendarmerie, and launched

79: 72: 5292: 4959: 3482: 500: 209:

Throughout the existence of the State of Katanga, the gendarmes sporadically fought various tribes and the

119: 5283: 5253: 5228: 3828: 1041: 523: 454: 3499: 3271: 2372:"Who Killed Hammarskjöld? The UN, the Cold War, and White Supremacy in Africa by Susan Williams (review)" 5409: 5330: 5301: 4022: 1114: 1062: 1037: 831: 744: 716: 531: 250: 128: 601:

The Katangese Gendarmerie devoted significant effort to suppressing armed BALUBAKAT militia (pictured).

4966: 4587: 1466: 1118: 1395: 1374: 679: 197: 5237: 5212: 5189: 4538: 865: 844: 789: 735:

Belgian mercenaries reported to their consulate in Élisabethville. In addition to the arrests, two

731: 643: 614: 574: 504: 409: 238: 226: 83: 5026: 4941: 757: 699: 675: 124: 3984: 3692:. Princeton Studies in World Politics. Vol. 4. New York & London: Frederick A. Praeger. 3463: 3312: 2399: 2223: 1549: 851:

The United States began increasing efforts in retraining or reorganizing the Gendarmerie, as the

752: 4559: 767: 241:(December 1962). Operation Grandslam marked the end of the Katangese secession in January 1963. 2726: 4531: 4449: 4443: 4428: 4403: 4387: 4383: 4355: 4333: 4316: 4299: 4280: 4259: 4225: 4206: 4182: 4161: 4135: 4116: 4067: 4046: 4026: 4001: 3976: 3930: 3911: 3890: 3869: 3846: 3836: 3814: 3808: 3795: 3776: 3752: 3746: 3731: 3710: 3693: 3674: 3653: 3579: 3554: 3544: 3455: 3304: 2391: 2215: 1541: 1204: 1156: 1053: 1004: 892: 781: 777: 748: 736: 591: 273: 256:

After 1967, around 2,500 gendarmes were present in Angola, where they were reorganized as the

230: 4373: 4311:

Sonck, Jean-Pierre & Despas, Daniel (February 1996). "L'aviation katangaise (2 partie)".

3884: 3647: 5219: 5205: 5150: 4934: 4902: 4601: 4573: 4552: 3966: 3958: 3575:

Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe

3294: 3286: 2383: 2207: 1533: 1354: 1187:, supporting a rebellion against Mobutu. In February 1997, 2,000 to 3,000 were airlifted to 1160: 954: 916: 884: 840: 695: 610: 553: 433: 386: 378: 342: 330: 289: 234: 229:

to arrest them in August 1961. They came into conflict with ONUC three times afterwards, in

222: 185: 101: 2670: 2668: 5355: 5319: 5276: 5269: 5262: 5075: 4653: 4566: 4328:

Sonck, Jean-Pierre & Despas, Daniel (March 1996). "L'aviation katangaise (3 partie)".

1265: 1184: 1134: 1016: 1012: 981: 350: 295: 264:

on the side of the Portuguese government against the Angolan nationalist movements of the

169: 66: 558:

In the immediate aftermath of the Katangese secession, Katangese forces clashed with the

609:

in northern Katanga. Accompanying BALUBAKAT leaders declared the establishing of a new "

5246: 5033: 5012: 4545: 4524: 4510: 4408: 4378: 4345: 4200: 2919: 938: 761: 723: 519: 390: 370: 246: 202: 189: 4221:

Katanga 1960–63: Mercenaries, Spies and the African Nation that Waged War on the World

3446:

Ogunbadejo, Oye (1979). "Conflict in Africa: A Case Study of the Shaba Crisis, 1977".

2164:, Chapter 7 : 'Smash' : The First Battle of Katanga : – September 1961. 479:

and Tshombe's family. Throughout the year additional forces were recruited, including

5403: 5198: 4980: 4580: 4404:"U.N. Troop Fighting All of Plan – Bunche Indicates That Drive Will Go On to Kolwezi" 4154: 3988: 3316: 2403: 2227: 1553: 1000: 959: 950: 711:

by the Katangese government. Dead soldiers were also remembered in ceremonies at the

488: 382: 326: 5100: 5047: 4973: 4927: 4494: 4086: 1369: 1331: 1083: 921: 839:Élisabethville via a series of large roadblocks. On 5 December 1961, ONUC launched 536: 472: 466:

In order to develop a stronger fighting force, Katanga (with the help of Belgians)

429: 417: 312: 156: 3290: 2211: 597: 33: 4422: 4349: 4274: 4253: 4219: 4176: 4110: 4061: 4040: 4016: 3962: 3905: 3859: 3770: 3725: 3668: 3129: 2387: 1957: 1955: 1690: 1537: 192:

from 1960 to 1963. The forces were formed upon the secession of Katanga from the

5157: 5114: 4895: 4646: 3766: 2914: 1318: 659: 582: 563: 527: 480: 365:, upon independence its affairs quickly devolved into chaos. Congolese soldiers 317: 2771: 2769: 2767: 2765: 2763: 381:

announced its secession from the Republic of the Congo under the leadership of

5005: 3670:

Peace Enforcement: The United Nations Experience in Congo, Somalia, and Bosnia

1467:"Milestones: 1961–1968:The Congo, Decolonization, and the Cold War, 1960–1965" 1378: 1045: 793: 476: 4337: 4320: 4303: 4210: 4030: 3980: 3850: 3799: 3697: 3558: 3459: 3357:

Epstein, Edward Jay (3 August 2000). "U.N. Is Diamond Cartel's Best Friend".

3308: 2395: 2219: 1545: 4424:

Who Killed Hammarskjold?: The UN, the Cold War and White Supremacy in Africa

4391: 1200: 946: 587: 437: 4463: 3998:

The Katangese Gendarmes and War in Central Africa: Fighting Their Way Home

3934: 4413: 4083:

World Order and Local Disorder: The United Nations and Internal Conflicts

3865: 1176: 1138: 467: 445: 285: 4112:

Peace Operations and Intrastate Conflict: The Sword Or the Olive Branch?

3467: 4594: 3299: 1172: 1058: 934: 896: 817: 807: 639: 496: 492: 334: 288:

attempted invasions of Katanga. Split into factions after the war, the

281: 3971: 3541:

The great African war : Congo and regional geopolitics, 1996–2006

2371: 4095: 1441: 1308: 1287: 1277: 1196: 1188: 1075: 1066: 930: 912: 907:

A wounded Katangese gendarme is treated by Swedish medics near Kamina

635: 627: 1159:(from 1975 to 2002), the FLNC, composed of ex-gendarmes called the " 341:

on June 30, 1960. Though the nation had elected officials including

1152:. By 1974 there were an estimated 2,400 gendarmes in 16 companies. 801:

to meet with Tshombe and negotiate a peaceful end to the fighting,

702:, future commander of the Gendarmerie, stands second from the left. 337:

retained control of the colony until it gained independence as the

1264: 1168: 902: 798: 766: 689: 596: 484: 316: 269: 3199: 3197: 2952: 2950: 3500:"Shaba II: The French and Belgian Intervention in Zaire in 1978" 3328: 3326: 3216:

Tanner, Henry (July 23, 1967). "Congo: The Revolt That Failed".

2604: 2602: 2565: 2563: 2281: 2279: 1915: 1913: 1911: 1909: 1821: 1819: 1817: 1815: 1718: 1716: 1619: 1617: 1297: 1192: 1104: 1074:

to evacuate 950 gendarmes and around 650 of their dependents to

694:

ANC and Katangese Gendarmerie officers with Congolese President

507:. Joseph Yav, a native Katangese, was made Minister of Defence. 432:

nations for military assistance, resulting in his conflict with

265: 4467: 2843: 2841: 2839: 2837: 1942: 1940: 1589: 1587: 1211:. After the war, the Tigres were largely incorporated into the 1141:

diamond company for disrupting smuggling operations in Angola.

3810:

The United Nations Security Council in the Age of Human Rights

3727:

Public Papers of the Secretaries General of the United Nations

3184: 3182: 3157: 3155: 3100: 3098: 3010: 3008: 3006: 2993: 2991: 2989: 2816: 2049: 2047: 1836: 1834: 1673: 1671: 377:

Largely in response to Belgian interference, on July 11, the

1604: 1602: 1199:. Their fighting contributed heavily towards the capture of 397:

adopted on July 14 that also authorized the creation of the

3484:

Africa in turmoil: a reflection on military coups in Africa

385:. The state also represented Belgian mining interests. The 3927:

The Congo Since Independence: January 1960 – December 1961

3690:

Peace-keeping by U.N. Forces : From Suez to the Congo

2884: 2882: 2880: 2871: 2788: 2786: 2784: 2239: 2237: 1492: 1490: 548:

Early action and suppressing rebellion in northern Katanga

518:

Much of Gendarmerie's early organization was based on the

3724:

Cordier, Andrew Wellington; Harrelson, Max, eds. (2013).

2415: 2413: 2266: 2264: 1998: 1996: 1994: 1634: 1632: 3745:

Dixon, Jeffrey S.; Sarkees, Meredith Reid (2015-10-22).

2685: 2683: 2550: 2548: 562:(ANC) in the Kasai region. In August 1960 the region of 272:(UNITA). When the war ended in 1975, they fought in the 630:. At the same time, they were to recapture the town of 626:

operation, which focused on a northward offensive from

4255:

Siege at Jadotville: The Irish Army's Forgotten Battle

4045:(illustrated ed.). University of Michigan Press. 4156:

The Congo, From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History

4132:

Battleground Africa: Cold War in the Congo, 1960–1965

3621: 3619: 2619: 2617: 1117:

in the Eastern Military Zone, where they were led by

634:, secure the area south of it, and launch attacks on 581:(BALUBAKAT), a political party which represented the 5430:

Rebel groups in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

4354:(illustrated ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. 4115:(illustrated ed.). Greenwood Publishing Group. 3775:. Military Strategy and Operational Art. Routledge. 3673:(illustrated ed.). Greenwood Publishing Group. 1213:

Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

771:

Katangese gendarmes in battle with ONUC troops, 1961

605:

On 7 January 1961 troops from Stanleyville occupied

5372: 5340: 5128: 5092: 4997: 4951: 4919: 4880: 4873: 4741: 4723: 4663: 4631: 4611: 4502: 4018:

United Nations Peacekeeping in the Congo: 1960–1964

1224:

21st–24th, 33th and 34th Battalions de Gendarmerie,

1127:

União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola

321:

Map of the Congo with the State of Katanga in green

270:

National Union for the Total Independence of Angola

152: 147: 139: 134: 115: 107: 96: 89: 65: 51: 43: 21: 4445:Politics in Congo: Decolonization and Independence 4153: 3807:Genser, Jared; Ugarte, Bruno Stagno (2014-06-05). 2193:"Anglo-American Relations and Crisis in The Congo" 184:), was the paramilitary force of the unrecognized 4134:. Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press. 475:from southern Katanga, who were organized by the 3951:The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 1782: 3707:The Rise and fall of Moise Tshombe: a Biography 1230:1st Para-Commando Battalion (aka: 1st Commando) 1101: 976:Exile, return, and fighting the Simba rebellion 870: 828: 451: 4258:(unabridged ed.). Blackstone Publishing. 3907:United Nations Peacekeeping, 1946-1967: Africa 2847: 2754: 2713: 2608: 2593: 1946: 1163:", fought on the side of the MPLA against the 995:Congolese government had given backing to the 426:United Nations Security Council Resolution 146 4479: 3332: 1919: 1650: 590:and burning settlements. Political scientist 266:Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola 8: 4330:Avions: Toute l'aéronautique et son histoire 4313:Avions: Toute l'aéronautique et son histoire 4296:Avions: Toute l'aéronautique et son histoire 4097:Library of Congress Country Study Zaire 1993 4015:Lefever, Ernest W.; Joshua, Wynfred (1966). 3649:Mercenaries: Scourge of the Developing World 3628:Modern African Wars (4): The Congo 1960–2002 3610: 3598: 3526: 3407: 3395: 3383: 3371: 3344: 3254: 3242: 3203: 3188: 3173: 3161: 3146: 3116: 3104: 3089: 3077: 3050: 3038: 3026: 3014: 2997: 2980: 2968: 2956: 2569: 2479: 2357: 2285: 2101: 2089: 2077: 2053: 2038: 2014: 1852: 1825: 1806: 1722: 1677: 1662: 1623: 1608: 1593: 1578: 1496: 678:, the author of Katanga's constitution, and 4224:(illustrated ed.). The History Press. 3886:A Company Action: The battle for the tunnel 3861:A Company Action: The battle for the tunnel 3772:Air Power in UN Operations: Wings for Peace 3688:Burns, Arthur Lee; Heathcote, Nina (1963). 2026: 1113:The gendarmes were instead deployed by the 4877: 4486: 4472: 4464: 3942:Larmer, Miles; Kennes, Erik (2014-08-08). 3730:. Vol. 6. Columbia University Press. 2677:, Chapter 25: Christmas in Elisabethville. 1770: 579:Association Générale des Baluba du Katanga 573:The Gendarmerie first saw major action in 294:emerged and played a decisive role in the 215:Association Générale des Baluba du Katanga 32: 4085:. Princeton University Press – via 3970: 3543:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3298: 2792: 2659: 2149: 1985: 1697:. Vol. 22. 1967. pp. 1305–1306. 1123:Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola 566:seceded from the Congo. The ANC launched 4654:Armée Populaire de Libération ("Simbas") 4094:Meditz, Sandra W.; Merrill, Tim (1993). 3910:. Vol. 3. Oxford University Press. 2859: 2828: 2701: 2243: 2191:Marsh, Steve; Culley, Tia (2018-07-03). 509: 4780:White Legion (Compagnie Internationale) 4273:Puren, Jerry; Pottinger, Brian (1986). 4202:To Katanga And Back - A UN Case History 2900: 2888: 2647: 2635: 2581: 2554: 2539: 2527: 2515: 2503: 2491: 2467: 2455: 2443: 2431: 2419: 2345: 2333: 2321: 2309: 2297: 2270: 2255: 2173: 2125: 2002: 1973: 1931: 1900: 1888: 1876: 1840: 1797:, Chapter 7: We Are The United Nations. 1758: 1746: 1734: 1707: 1638: 1433: 1413: 1203:and "sped up" the rebellion. Historian 1015:and another in the east, waged by the " 414:Secretary-General of the United Nations 3516:from the original on January 28, 2017. 3265: 3263: 3230: 2804: 2689: 2161: 2137: 2113: 1566: 1508: 1233:1st Police Militaire (three companies) 945:explosives on all nearby bridges, the 369:against their white commanders in the 108:Secretary of State of National Defense 18: 5349:Dissolution of the Lumumba Government 4672:United Nations Operation in the Congo 2775: 2674: 2186: 2184: 2182: 2065: 1961: 1864: 1794: 672:dissolution of the Lumumba Government 399:United Nations Operation in the Congo 280:(FNLA). The FLNC was involved in the 219:United Nations Operation in the Congo 7: 4160:(3rd ed.). New York: Palgrave. 3996:Kennes, Erik; Larmer, Miles (2016). 3944:"Rethinking the Katangese Secession" 2941: 2623: 1519: 1517: 656:Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland 495:, and several white volunteers from 5381:Belgian general strike of 1960–1961 4178:The Congo-Zaire Experience, 1960–98 3929:. London: Oxford University Press. 3626:Peter Abbott and Raffaele Ruggeri. 2913:Chiborn, Larry (24 February 2009). 2817:United Press International (2) 1963 1341:75 mm caliber recoilless rifle 1165:National Liberation Front of Angola 1146:Congolese National Liberation Front 1097:Congolese National Liberation Front 997:National Liberation Front of Angola 937:would result in the enactment of a 713:Cathedral of St. Peter and St. Paul 278:National Liberation Front of Angola 258:Congolese National Liberation Front 4181:(illustrated ed.). Springer. 3130:"Congo : Ringing the Changes" 1239:Four ‘mobile groups’ lettered A–D, 440:in the eastern Congo and declared 14: 4066:(revised ed.). Grove Press. 4021:. Vol. 3. Washington, D.C.: 3835:. University of Wisconsin Press. 1475:United States Department of State 1269:A captured Katangese M8 Greyhound 357:, and various bodies including a 38:Member of the Gendarmerie in 1961 4773:6th Commando Battalion (Belgium) 4766:4th Commando Battalion (Belgium) 4759:2nd Commando Battalion (Belgium) 4622:Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC) 4241:The State, the Citizen and Power 3422:"Zaire: An African Horror Story" 3279:The International History Review 1964:, Chapter 12: Sold Up The River. 1183:The Tigres were involved in the 666:Conflict with the United Nations 78: 71: 16:Military of the State of Katanga 4374:"Congo War At an End – Tshombe" 2872:United Press International 1963 1261:Equipment inventory (1960–1963) 1242:Peloton de Garde Présidentielle 822:Security Council Resolution 169 543:Katangese secession (1960–1963) 57:(remnants reconstituted as the 5356:Torture and killing of Lumumba 4448:. Princeton University Press. 4442:Young, Crawford (2015-12-08). 4351:Ralph Bunche: An American Life 3813:. Cambridge University Press. 3792:Revolt in the Congo, 1960–1964 3572:Prunier, Gerard (2008-12-31). 3420:Berkeley, Bill (August 1993). 3270:Oliveira, Pedro Aires (2017). 1065:broke out on July 5, 1967, in 1031:Rebellions and return to exile 1: 5425:1960 establishments in Africa 4109:Mockaitis, Thomas R. (1999). 3291:10.1080/07075332.2016.1167103 2212:10.1080/13619462.2018.1477598 1080:Organisation of African Unity 684:Union Minière du Haut Katanga 520:Force Publique's organization 444:to the central government in 4000:. Indiana University Press. 3963:10.1080/03086534.2014.894716 3507:The Combat Studies Institute 2388:10.2979/africatoday.59.3.163 2200:Contemporary British History 1538:10.1080/14682745.2012.727801 1091:Later history (1967–present) 971:Angola and Congo (1963–1967) 4427:. Oxford University Press. 4218:Othen, Christopher (2015). 3925:Hoskyns, Catherine (1965). 3794:. New York: Facts on File. 3790:Epstein, Howard M. (1965). 3748:A Guide to Intra-state Wars 3578:. Oxford University Press. 1227:1st Battalion d’Inf Portée, 1150:Portuguese irregular forces 1131:Angolan War of Independence 853:Central Intelligence Agency 577:in efforts to suppress the 262:Angolan War of Independence 200:and former officers of the 5446: 4400:United Press International 4370:United Press International 4175:O'Ballance, Edgar (1999). 3883:Harvey, Dan (2015-01-07). 3646:Arnold, Guy (1999-11-26). 3539:Reyntjens, Filip. (2009). 2778:, Chapter 26: Katanga '63. 2755:Burns & Heathcote 1963 2727:"Anfallet mot kaminaville" 2714:Burns & Heathcote 1963 2609:Burns & Heathcote 1963 2594:Burns & Heathcote 1963 2370:Martin, Guy (2013-05-01). 1947:Puren & Pottinger 1986 1314:M1919 Browning machine gun 1236:1st Garde Mobile Battalion 1094: 979: 863: 560:Armée Nationale Congolaise 551: 310: 5363:Death of Dag Hammarskjöld 4150:Nzongola-Ntalaja, Georges 4081:Miller, Linda B. (2015). 4063:United Nations: A History 4060:Meisler, Stanley (2011). 3904:Higgins, Rosalyn (1980). 3333:Meditz & Merrill 1993 1920:Lefever & Joshua 1966 329:was established from the 260:(FLNC) and fought in the 182:Forces Armées Katangaises 31: 27:Forces Armées Katangaises 26: 5388:Decolonisation of Africa 5041:Hubert Fauntleroy Julian 4714:Ghana, Nigeria and Egypt 4421:Williams, Susan (2014). 3611:Kennes & Larmer 2016 3599:Kennes & Larmer 2016 3529:, pp. 145, 163–164. 3527:Kennes & Larmer 2016 3408:Kennes & Larmer 2016 3396:Kennes & Larmer 2016 3384:Kennes & Larmer 2016 3372:Kennes & Larmer 2016 3345:Kennes & Larmer 2016 3255:Kennes & Larmer 2016 3243:Kennes & Larmer 2016 3204:Kennes & Larmer 2016 3189:Kennes & Larmer 2016 3174:Kennes & Larmer 2016 3162:Kennes & Larmer 2016 3147:Kennes & Larmer 2016 3117:Kennes & Larmer 2016 3105:Kennes & Larmer 2016 3090:Kennes & Larmer 2016 3078:Kennes & Larmer 2016 3051:Kennes & Larmer 2016 3039:Kennes & Larmer 2016 3027:Kennes & Larmer 2016 3015:Kennes & Larmer 2016 2998:Kennes & Larmer 2016 2981:Kennes & Larmer 2016 2969:Kennes & Larmer 2016 2957:Kennes & Larmer 2016 2735:Folke Bernadotte Academy 2570:Kennes & Larmer 2016 2480:Kennes & Larmer 2016 2358:Kennes & Larmer 2016 2286:Kennes & Larmer 2016 2102:Kennes & Larmer 2016 2090:Dixon & Sarkees 2015 2078:Kennes & Larmer 2016 2054:Kennes & Larmer 2016 2039:Kennes & Larmer 2016 2015:Kennes & Larmer 2016 1903:, pp. 329, 334–335. 1853:Larmer & Kennes 2014 1826:Kennes & Larmer 2016 1807:Kennes & Larmer 2016 1723:Kennes & Larmer 2016 1678:Kennes & Larmer 2016 1663:Larmer & Kennes 2014 1624:Kennes & Larmer 2016 1609:Kennes & Larmer 2016 1594:Larmer & Kennes 2014 1579:Genser & Ugarte 2014 1497:Larmer & Kennes 2014 401:(ONUC), a multinational 5139:Force Publique mutinies 5108:William "Rip" Robertson 4864:Cuban Exile Naval Force 4518:Egide Bocheley-Davidson 4332:(in French) (36): 2–6. 4315:(in French) (35): 2–7. 4298:(in French) (34): 2–6. 3359:The Wall Street Journal 1471:Office of the Historian 1345:Canon de 75 modèle 1897 1293:Vigneron submachine gun 1245:Unité Européen (50 men) 1072:International Red Cross 1063:second wave of mutinies 1013:one in the Kwilu region 792:an Irish detachment in 211:Congolese National Army 5254:Port Francqui incident 4252:Power, Declan (2016). 4205:. London: Hutchinson. 4130:Namikas, Lise (2013). 4039:Lipsey, Roger (2013). 3667:Boulden, Jane (2001). 1270: 1109: 1042:Joseph-Damien Tshatshi 908: 874: 835: 772: 703: 602: 524:Belgian Land Component 515: 458: 422:special representative 322: 181: 178:Katangese Armed Forces 174:Gendarmerie Katangaise 173: 22:Katangese Armed Forces 5331:Stanleyville mutinies 4960:Jean-Marie Crèvecoeur 4857:211th Makasi Squadron 4640:Katangese Gendarmerie 4197:O'Brien, Conor Cruise 4023:Brookings Institution 3245:, pp. 77–78, 84. 1783:Nzongola-Ntalaja 2007 1446:World Digital Library 1268: 1251:‘Tanganyika Flotilla’ 1209:Laurent-Désiré Kabila 1115:Portuguese government 1107:statement, June 1968 1095:Further information: 1038:rebelled in Kisangani 980:Further information: 906: 832:Charles S. Whitehouse 770: 693: 600: 552:Further information: 513: 501:Jean-Marie Crèvecoeur 339:Republic of the Congo 320: 251:Stanleyville mutinies 237:(December 1961), and 194:Republic of the Congo 166:Katangese Gendarmerie 120:Jean-Marie Crèvecoeur 5420:Defunct gendarmeries 5312:Violettes Imperiales 4935:Joseph-Désiré Mobutu 4889:Conor Cruise O'Brien 4787:5 Mechanised Brigade 4574:Joseph-Désiré Mobutu 4042:Hammarskjöld: A Life 3858:Harvey, Dan (2011). 3829:Gérard-Libois, Jules 3705:Colvin, Ian (1968). 1691:"Congolese Republic" 1396:Mai-Mai Kata Katanga 1248:sundry service units 1025:Joseph-Désiré Mobutu 843:, aimed at ensuring 483:, 2,000 Bazela from 143:14,000–17,000 (1963) 4988:Frédéric Vandewalle 4276:Mercenary Commander 4102:Library of Congress 3613:, pp. 188–189. 3509:. pp. 31, 86. 2638:, pp. 141–142. 2596:, pp. 208–209. 2530:, pp. 451–452. 2518:, pp. 450–451. 2470:, pp. 444–445. 2446:, pp. 438–439. 2434:, pp. 437–438. 2348:, pp. 421–424. 2336:, pp. 419–420. 2312:, pp. 414–417. 2176:, pp. 406–408. 1843:, pp. 302–303. 1749:, pp. 385–387. 1129:(UNITA) during the 866:Operation Grandslam 860:Operation Grandslam 845:freedom of movement 743:helicopters, three 739:helicopters, three 732:Operation Rum Punch 722:On August 2, 1961, 615:UN Security Council 611:Province of Lualaba 505:Katangese Air Force 455:Jules Gérard-Libois 239:Operation Grandslam 227:Operation Rum Punch 84:Katangese Air Force 5341:Other major events 5174:Congo-Stanleyville 4647:South Kasai forces 4402:(5 January 1963). 4372:(9 January 1963). 3889:. Maverick House. 3868:: Maverick House. 3709:. London: Frewin. 3481:Eze, Dons (2008). 3398:, pp. 92, 95. 3218:The New York Times 3136:. 6 December 1965. 3065:The New York Times 1651:Gérard-Libois 1967 1271: 1082:Secretary General 909: 810:, and Jadotville. 773: 704: 603: 535:Frenchmen. Though 516: 323: 253:in 1966 and 1967. 233:(September 1961), 221:(ONUC) during the 176:), officially the 129:Ferdinand Tshipola 97:Commander-in-Chief 5397: 5396: 5129:Main operations / 5124: 5123: 4752:White mercenaries 4614:government forces 4532:Christophe Gbenye 4503:Political leaders 4455:978-1-4008-7857-4 4167:978-1-84277-053-5 4141:978-0-8047-8486-3 4007:978-0-253-02130-4 3896:978-1-907221-40-8 3875:978-1-907221-40-8 3842:978-0-299-04200-4 3833:Katanga Secession 3820:978-1-107-04007-6 3758:978-0-87289-775-5 3659:978-1-349-27708-7 3630:. pp. 34–36. 3585:978-0-19-974399-5 3550:978-0-511-59629-2 3257:, pp. 80–81. 3206:, pp. 77–78. 3176:, pp. 75–76. 3119:, pp. 71–72. 3080:, pp. 69–70. 3029:, pp. 67–68. 2983:, pp. 65–66. 2959:, pp. 64–65. 2731:UTLANDSVETERAN.SE 2572:, pp. 55–58. 2482:, pp. 55–57. 2288:, pp. 55–56. 2116:, pp. 94–95. 2104:, pp. 52–54. 2080:, pp. 50–52. 2041:, pp. 49–50. 1855:, pp. 15–16. 1828:, pp. 47–49. 1725:, pp. 47–48. 1626:, pp. 45–46. 1596:, pp. 14–15. 1386: 1328:60 mm mortar 1257: 1157:Angolan Civil War 1005:Southern Rhodesia 893:Portuguese Angola 803:his plane crashed 782:Northern Rhodesia 778:Operation Morthor 274:Angolan Civil War 231:Operation Morthor 162: 161: 5437: 5415:State of Katanga 5390: 5383: 5365: 5358: 5351: 5333: 5324: 5315: 5306: 5297: 5288: 5279: 5272: 5265: 5256: 5249: 5242: 5231: 5224: 5215: 5208: 5206:Battle of Kabalo 5201: 5194: 5185: 5176: 5167: 5160: 5153: 5146: 5145:Secession crisis 5141: 5117: 5110: 5103: 5085: 5078: 5071: 5064: 5057: 5055:Siegfried Müller 5050: 5043: 5036: 5029: 5022: 5015: 5008: 4990: 4983: 4976: 4969: 4967:Jules Crèvecoeur 4962: 4944: 4937: 4930: 4912: 4905: 4903:Dewan Prem Chand 4898: 4891: 4878: 4866: 4859: 4852: 4845: 4838: 4831: 4824: 4817: 4810: 4803: 4796: 4789: 4782: 4775: 4768: 4761: 4754: 4734: 4716: 4709: 4702: 4695: 4688: 4681: 4674: 4656: 4649: 4642: 4624: 4604: 4597: 4590: 4588:Gaston Soumialot 4583: 4576: 4569: 4562: 4555: 4553:Joseph Kasa-Vubu 4548: 4541: 4539:Dag Hammarskjöld 4534: 4527: 4520: 4513: 4488: 4481: 4474: 4465: 4459: 4438: 4417: 4395: 4365: 4341: 4324: 4307: 4290: 4269: 4248: 4235: 4214: 4192: 4171: 4159: 4145: 4126: 4105: 4090: 4077: 4056: 4034: 4011: 3992: 3974: 3948: 3938: 3921: 3900: 3879: 3854: 3824: 3803: 3786: 3762: 3741: 3720: 3701: 3684: 3663: 3632: 3631: 3623: 3614: 3608: 3602: 3596: 3590: 3589: 3569: 3563: 3562: 3536: 3530: 3524: 3518: 3517: 3515: 3504: 3498:Odom, Thomas P. 3495: 3489: 3488: 3478: 3472: 3471: 3443: 3437: 3436: 3434: 3432: 3417: 3411: 3405: 3399: 3393: 3387: 3381: 3375: 3369: 3363: 3362: 3354: 3348: 3342: 3336: 3330: 3321: 3320: 3302: 3276: 3267: 3258: 3252: 3246: 3240: 3234: 3228: 3222: 3221: 3213: 3207: 3201: 3192: 3186: 3177: 3171: 3165: 3159: 3150: 3144: 3138: 3137: 3126: 3120: 3114: 3108: 3102: 3093: 3087: 3081: 3075: 3069: 3068: 3060: 3054: 3048: 3042: 3036: 3030: 3024: 3018: 3012: 3001: 2995: 2984: 2978: 2972: 2966: 2960: 2954: 2945: 2939: 2933: 2932: 2930: 2928: 2910: 2904: 2898: 2892: 2886: 2875: 2869: 2863: 2857: 2851: 2845: 2832: 2826: 2820: 2814: 2808: 2802: 2796: 2790: 2779: 2773: 2758: 2752: 2746: 2745: 2743: 2741: 2723: 2717: 2711: 2705: 2699: 2693: 2687: 2678: 2672: 2663: 2657: 2651: 2645: 2639: 2633: 2627: 2621: 2612: 2606: 2597: 2591: 2585: 2579: 2573: 2567: 2558: 2552: 2543: 2537: 2531: 2525: 2519: 2513: 2507: 2501: 2495: 2489: 2483: 2477: 2471: 2465: 2459: 2453: 2447: 2441: 2435: 2429: 2423: 2417: 2408: 2407: 2367: 2361: 2355: 2349: 2343: 2337: 2331: 2325: 2319: 2313: 2307: 2301: 2295: 2289: 2283: 2274: 2268: 2259: 2253: 2247: 2241: 2232: 2231: 2197: 2188: 2177: 2171: 2165: 2159: 2153: 2147: 2141: 2135: 2129: 2123: 2117: 2111: 2105: 2099: 2093: 2087: 2081: 2075: 2069: 2063: 2057: 2051: 2042: 2036: 2030: 2024: 2018: 2012: 2006: 2000: 1989: 1983: 1977: 1971: 1965: 1959: 1950: 1944: 1935: 1929: 1923: 1917: 1904: 1898: 1892: 1886: 1880: 1874: 1868: 1862: 1856: 1850: 1844: 1838: 1829: 1823: 1810: 1804: 1798: 1792: 1786: 1780: 1774: 1768: 1762: 1756: 1750: 1744: 1738: 1732: 1726: 1720: 1711: 1705: 1699: 1698: 1687: 1681: 1675: 1666: 1660: 1654: 1648: 1642: 1636: 1627: 1621: 1612: 1606: 1597: 1591: 1582: 1576: 1570: 1564: 1558: 1557: 1526:Cold War History 1521: 1512: 1506: 1500: 1494: 1485: 1484: 1482: 1481: 1463: 1457: 1456: 1454: 1453: 1438: 1421: 1418: 1384: 1357:(referred to as 1355:Bofors 40 mm gun 1255: 1119:Nathaniel Mbumba 917:Rajputana Rifles 885:Dewan Prem Chand 878: 841:Operation Unokat 696:Joseph Kasa-Vubu 642:to the east and 575:Northern Katanga 554:Battle of Kabalo 434:Joseph Kasa-Vubu 410:Dag Hammarskjöld 387:State of Katanga 379:Katanga Province 343:Joseph Kasa-Vubu 331:Congo Free State 235:Operation UNOKAT 223:Battle of Kabalo 198:Belgian soldiers 186:State of Katanga 148:Related articles 140:Active personnel 82: 75: 67:Service branches 36: 19: 5445: 5444: 5440: 5439: 5438: 5436: 5435: 5434: 5400: 5399: 5398: 5393: 5386: 5379: 5368: 5361: 5354: 5347: 5336: 5329: 5318: 5309: 5300: 5291: 5282: 5277:Simba rebellion 5275: 5270:Kwilu rebellion 5268: 5263:Kanyarwanda War 5261: 5252: 5245: 5236: 5227: 5218: 5211: 5204: 5197: 5188: 5183:UN intervention 5181: 5172: 5163: 5156: 5149: 5144: 5137: 5130: 5120: 5113: 5106: 5099: 5088: 5081: 5076:Roger Trinquier 5074: 5067: 5060: 5053: 5046: 5039: 5032: 5025: 5020:Charles Gardien 5018: 5011: 5004: 4993: 4986: 4979: 4972: 4965: 4958: 4947: 4940: 4933: 4926: 4915: 4908: 4901: 4894: 4887: 4869: 4862: 4855: 4848: 4841: 4834: 4827: 4820: 4813: 4806: 4799: 4792: 4785: 4778: 4771: 4764: 4757: 4750: 4744:mercenary units 4743: 4737: 4730: 4719: 4712: 4705: 4698: 4691: 4684: 4677: 4670: 4659: 4652: 4645: 4638: 4627: 4620: 4613: 4607: 4600: 4593: 4586: 4579: 4572: 4567:Patrice Lumumba 4565: 4558: 4551: 4544: 4537: 4530: 4523: 4516: 4509: 4498: 4492: 4462: 4456: 4441: 4435: 4420: 4398: 4368: 4362: 4346:Urquhart, Brian 4344: 4327: 4310: 4293: 4287: 4272: 4266: 4251: 4238: 4232: 4217: 4195: 4189: 4174: 4168: 4148: 4142: 4129: 4123: 4108: 4093: 4080: 4074: 4059: 4053: 4038: 4014: 4008: 3995: 3946: 3941: 3924: 3918: 3903: 3897: 3882: 3876: 3857: 3843: 3827: 3821: 3806: 3789: 3783: 3767:Dorn, A. Walter 3765: 3759: 3744: 3738: 3723: 3717: 3704: 3687: 3681: 3666: 3660: 3645: 3641: 3636: 3635: 3625: 3624: 3617: 3609: 3605: 3597: 3593: 3586: 3571: 3570: 3566: 3551: 3538: 3537: 3533: 3525: 3521: 3513: 3502: 3497: 3496: 3492: 3480: 3479: 3475: 3445: 3444: 3440: 3430: 3428: 3419: 3418: 3414: 3410:, pp. 118. 3406: 3402: 3394: 3390: 3382: 3378: 3370: 3366: 3356: 3355: 3351: 3343: 3339: 3331: 3324: 3274: 3269: 3268: 3261: 3253: 3249: 3241: 3237: 3229: 3225: 3215: 3214: 3210: 3202: 3195: 3187: 3180: 3172: 3168: 3160: 3153: 3145: 3141: 3128: 3127: 3123: 3115: 3111: 3103: 3096: 3088: 3084: 3076: 3072: 3062: 3061: 3057: 3049: 3045: 3037: 3033: 3025: 3021: 3013: 3004: 2996: 2987: 2979: 2975: 2967: 2963: 2955: 2948: 2940: 2936: 2926: 2924: 2915:"Bengt Fredman" 2912: 2911: 2907: 2899: 2895: 2887: 2878: 2870: 2866: 2858: 2854: 2848:O'Ballance 1999 2846: 2835: 2827: 2823: 2815: 2811: 2803: 2799: 2791: 2782: 2774: 2761: 2753: 2749: 2739: 2737: 2725: 2724: 2720: 2712: 2708: 2700: 2696: 2688: 2681: 2673: 2666: 2658: 2654: 2646: 2642: 2634: 2630: 2622: 2615: 2607: 2600: 2592: 2588: 2580: 2576: 2568: 2561: 2553: 2546: 2538: 2534: 2526: 2522: 2514: 2510: 2502: 2498: 2490: 2486: 2478: 2474: 2466: 2462: 2454: 2450: 2442: 2438: 2430: 2426: 2418: 2411: 2369: 2368: 2364: 2356: 2352: 2344: 2340: 2332: 2328: 2320: 2316: 2308: 2304: 2296: 2292: 2284: 2277: 2269: 2262: 2254: 2250: 2242: 2235: 2195: 2190: 2189: 2180: 2172: 2168: 2160: 2156: 2148: 2144: 2136: 2132: 2124: 2120: 2112: 2108: 2100: 2096: 2088: 2084: 2076: 2072: 2064: 2060: 2052: 2045: 2037: 2033: 2025: 2021: 2013: 2009: 2001: 1992: 1984: 1980: 1972: 1968: 1960: 1953: 1945: 1938: 1930: 1926: 1922:, p. P-16. 1918: 1907: 1899: 1895: 1887: 1883: 1875: 1871: 1863: 1859: 1851: 1847: 1839: 1832: 1824: 1813: 1805: 1801: 1793: 1789: 1781: 1777: 1771:Passemiers 2016 1769: 1765: 1757: 1753: 1745: 1741: 1733: 1729: 1721: 1714: 1706: 1702: 1689: 1688: 1684: 1676: 1669: 1661: 1657: 1649: 1645: 1637: 1630: 1622: 1615: 1607: 1600: 1592: 1585: 1577: 1573: 1565: 1561: 1523: 1522: 1515: 1507: 1503: 1495: 1488: 1479: 1477: 1465: 1464: 1460: 1451: 1449: 1442:"Belgian Congo" 1440: 1439: 1435: 1425: 1424: 1419: 1415: 1405: 1392: 1263: 1221: 1219:Order of Battle 1185:First Congo War 1121:and fought the 1110: 1099: 1093: 1033: 984: 982:Simba rebellion 978: 973: 880: 876: 868: 862: 836: 680:George Thyssens 668: 556: 550: 545: 464: 459: 351:Patrice Lumumba 315: 309: 304: 296:First Congo War 196:with help from 127: 123: 77: 56: 55:21 January 1963 39: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5443: 5441: 5433: 5432: 5427: 5422: 5417: 5412: 5402: 5401: 5395: 5394: 5392: 5391: 5384: 5376: 5374: 5370: 5369: 5367: 5366: 5359: 5352: 5344: 5342: 5338: 5337: 5335: 5334: 5327: 5326: 5325: 5316: 5307: 5298: 5289: 5273: 5266: 5259: 5258: 5257: 5250: 5247:Kindu atrocity 5243: 5234: 5233: 5232: 5216: 5209: 5202: 5195: 5179: 5178: 5177: 5170: 5169: 5168: 5154: 5142: 5134: 5132: 5126: 5125: 5122: 5121: 5119: 5118: 5111: 5104: 5096: 5094: 5090: 5089: 5087: 5086: 5083:Hugh van Oppen 5079: 5072: 5065: 5058: 5051: 5044: 5037: 5030: 5023: 5016: 5013:Roger Faulques 5009: 5001: 4999: 4995: 4994: 4992: 4991: 4984: 4977: 4970: 4963: 4955: 4953: 4949: 4948: 4946: 4945: 4938: 4931: 4923: 4921: 4917: 4916: 4914: 4913: 4906: 4899: 4892: 4884: 4882: 4881:United Nations 4875: 4871: 4870: 4868: 4867: 4860: 4853: 4846: 4839: 4832: 4825: 4818: 4811: 4804: 4797: 4790: 4783: 4776: 4769: 4762: 4755: 4747: 4745: 4739: 4738: 4736: 4735: 4727: 4725: 4724:Other entities 4721: 4720: 4718: 4717: 4710: 4703: 4696: 4689: 4682: 4675: 4667: 4665: 4661: 4660: 4658: 4657: 4650: 4643: 4635: 4633: 4629: 4628: 4626: 4625: 4617: 4615: 4609: 4608: 4606: 4605: 4598: 4591: 4584: 4577: 4570: 4563: 4556: 4549: 4546:Albert Kalonji 4542: 4535: 4528: 4525:Gaston Eyskens 4521: 4514: 4511:Cyrille Adoula 4506: 4504: 4500: 4499: 4493: 4491: 4490: 4483: 4476: 4468: 4461: 4460: 4454: 4439: 4433: 4418: 4409:The Desert Sun 4396: 4384:Élisabethville 4379:The Desert Sun 4366: 4360: 4342: 4325: 4308: 4291: 4285: 4270: 4264: 4249: 4236: 4230: 4215: 4193: 4187: 4172: 4166: 4146: 4140: 4127: 4121: 4106: 4091: 4078: 4072: 4057: 4051: 4036: 4012: 4006: 3993: 3957:(4): 741–761. 3939: 3922: 3916: 3901: 3895: 3880: 3874: 3855: 3841: 3825: 3819: 3804: 3787: 3781: 3763: 3757: 3742: 3736: 3721: 3715: 3702: 3685: 3679: 3664: 3658: 3642: 3640: 3637: 3634: 3633: 3615: 3603: 3601:, p. 171. 3591: 3584: 3564: 3549: 3531: 3519: 3490: 3487:. Linco Press. 3473: 3454:(3): 219–234. 3438: 3412: 3400: 3388: 3376: 3364: 3361:. p. A14. 3349: 3337: 3335:, p. 292. 3322: 3285:(1): 126–142. 3259: 3247: 3235: 3223: 3208: 3193: 3178: 3166: 3151: 3139: 3121: 3109: 3094: 3082: 3070: 3055: 3043: 3031: 3019: 3002: 2985: 2973: 2961: 2946: 2934: 2920:Dagens Nyheter 2905: 2893: 2891:, p. 133. 2876: 2864: 2862:, p. 360. 2852: 2833: 2831:, p. 359. 2821: 2809: 2807:, p. 136. 2797: 2793:Mockaitis 1999 2780: 2759: 2757:, p. 213. 2747: 2718: 2716:, p. 211. 2706: 2704:, p. 357. 2694: 2692:, p. 135. 2679: 2664: 2660:Mockaitis 1999 2652: 2640: 2628: 2613: 2611:, p. 210. 2598: 2586: 2574: 2559: 2544: 2542:, p. 457. 2532: 2520: 2508: 2506:, p. 448. 2496: 2494:, p. 447. 2484: 2472: 2460: 2458:, p. 443. 2448: 2436: 2424: 2422:, p. 432. 2409: 2382:(3): 163–166. 2362: 2350: 2338: 2326: 2324:, p. 418. 2314: 2302: 2300:, p. 413. 2290: 2275: 2273:, p. 424. 2260: 2258:, p. 408. 2248: 2246:, p. 169. 2233: 2206:(3): 359–384. 2178: 2166: 2154: 2150:Mockaitis 1999 2142: 2140:, p. 538. 2130: 2128:, p. 402. 2118: 2106: 2094: 2092:, p. 612. 2082: 2070: 2068:, p. 113. 2058: 2043: 2031: 2029:, p. 150. 2019: 2007: 2005:, p. 393. 1990: 1986:Mockaitis 1999 1978: 1976:, p. 392. 1966: 1951: 1936: 1934:, p. 417. 1924: 1905: 1893: 1891:, p. 303. 1881: 1879:, p. 302. 1869: 1867:, p. 335. 1857: 1845: 1830: 1811: 1799: 1787: 1785:, p. 105. 1775: 1763: 1761:, p. 386. 1751: 1739: 1737:, p. 384. 1727: 1712: 1710:, p. 385. 1700: 1682: 1667: 1655: 1653:, p. 114. 1643: 1641:, p. 289. 1628: 1613: 1598: 1583: 1581:, p. 358. 1571: 1559: 1513: 1501: 1486: 1458: 1432: 1431: 1430: 1429: 1423: 1422: 1412: 1411: 1410: 1409: 1404: 1401: 1400: 1399: 1398:(2011–present) 1391: 1388: 1382: 1381: 1372: 1363: 1362: 1350:Anti-Aircraft 1348: 1347: 1342: 1335: 1334: 1329: 1322: 1321: 1316: 1311: 1302: 1301: 1300:submachine gun 1295: 1290: 1285: 1262: 1259: 1253: 1252: 1249: 1246: 1243: 1240: 1237: 1234: 1231: 1228: 1225: 1220: 1217: 1205:Gérard Prunier 1191:and driven to 1100: 1092: 1089: 1032: 1029: 977: 974: 972: 969: 939:scorched earth 869: 864:Main article: 861: 858: 827: 762:Roger Faulques 724:Cyrille Adoula 717:Élisabethville 667: 664: 592:Crawford Young 549: 546: 544: 541: 463: 460: 450: 442:a rival regime 395:Resolution 143 391:United Nations 371:Force Publique 355:prime minister 311:Main article: 308: 305: 303: 300: 247:North Rhodesia 203:Force Publique 190:Central Africa 160: 159: 154: 150: 149: 145: 144: 141: 137: 136: 132: 131: 117: 113: 112: 109: 105: 104: 98: 94: 93: 87: 86: 76:Katangese Army 69: 63: 62: 53: 49: 48: 45: 41: 40: 37: 29: 28: 24: 23: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5442: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5407: 5405: 5389: 5385: 5382: 5378: 5377: 5375: 5371: 5364: 5360: 5357: 5353: 5350: 5346: 5345: 5343: 5339: 5332: 5328: 5323: 5322: 5317: 5314: 5313: 5308: 5305: 5304: 5299: 5296: 5295: 5290: 5287: 5286: 5281: 5280: 5278: 5274: 5271: 5267: 5264: 5260: 5255: 5251: 5248: 5244: 5241: 5240: 5235: 5230: 5226: 5225: 5223: 5222: 5217: 5214: 5210: 5207: 5203: 5200: 5199:Niemba ambush 5196: 5193: 5192: 5187: 5186: 5184: 5180: 5175: 5171: 5166: 5162: 5161: 5159: 5155: 5152: 5148: 5147: 5143: 5140: 5136: 5135: 5133: 5127: 5116: 5112: 5109: 5105: 5102: 5098: 5097: 5095: 5091: 5084: 5080: 5077: 5073: 5070: 5066: 5063: 5059: 5056: 5052: 5049: 5045: 5042: 5038: 5035: 5031: 5028: 5024: 5021: 5017: 5014: 5010: 5007: 5003: 5002: 5000: 4996: 4989: 4985: 4982: 4981:Jean Schramme 4978: 4975: 4971: 4968: 4964: 4961: 4957: 4956: 4954: 4950: 4943: 4939: 4936: 4932: 4929: 4925: 4924: 4922: 4918: 4911: 4907: 4904: 4900: 4897: 4893: 4890: 4886: 4885: 4883: 4879: 4876: 4872: 4865: 4861: 4858: 4854: 4851: 4847: 4844: 4840: 4837: 4833: 4830: 4826: 4823: 4819: 4816: 4812: 4809: 4805: 4802: 4798: 4795: 4791: 4788: 4784: 4781: 4777: 4774: 4770: 4767: 4763: 4760: 4756: 4753: 4749: 4748: 4746: 4740: 4733: 4729: 4728: 4726: 4722: 4715: 4711: 4708: 4704: 4701: 4697: 4694: 4690: 4687: 4683: 4680: 4676: 4673: 4669: 4668: 4666: 4664:UN contingent 4662: 4655: 4651: 4648: 4644: 4641: 4637: 4636: 4634: 4630: 4623: 4619: 4618: 4616: 4610: 4603: 4602:Moïse Tshombe 4599: 4596: 4592: 4589: 4585: 4582: 4581:Pierre Mulele 4578: 4575: 4571: 4568: 4564: 4561: 4557: 4554: 4550: 4547: 4543: 4540: 4536: 4533: 4529: 4526: 4522: 4519: 4515: 4512: 4508: 4507: 4505: 4501: 4496: 4489: 4484: 4482: 4477: 4475: 4470: 4469: 4466: 4457: 4451: 4447: 4446: 4440: 4436: 4434:9780190257637 4430: 4426: 4425: 4419: 4415: 4411: 4410: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4386:. p. 2. 4385: 4381: 4380: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4363: 4361:9780393318593 4357: 4353: 4352: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4326: 4322: 4318: 4314: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4292: 4288: 4286:9780947020217 4282: 4278: 4277: 4271: 4267: 4265:9781504758888 4261: 4257: 4256: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4237: 4233: 4231:9780750965804 4227: 4223: 4222: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4203: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4188:9780230286481 4184: 4180: 4179: 4173: 4169: 4163: 4158: 4157: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4137: 4133: 4128: 4124: 4122:9780275961732 4118: 4114: 4113: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4098: 4092: 4088: 4084: 4079: 4075: 4073:9780802194992 4069: 4065: 4064: 4058: 4054: 4052:9780472118908 4048: 4044: 4043: 4037: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4019: 4013: 4009: 4003: 3999: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3978: 3973: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3945: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3923: 3919: 3917:9780192183217 3913: 3909: 3908: 3902: 3898: 3892: 3888: 3887: 3881: 3877: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3862: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3816: 3812: 3811: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3788: 3784: 3782:9781317183396 3778: 3774: 3773: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3754: 3750: 3749: 3743: 3739: 3737:9780231513807 3733: 3729: 3728: 3722: 3718: 3716:9780090876501 3712: 3708: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3686: 3682: 3680:9780275969066 3676: 3672: 3671: 3665: 3661: 3655: 3651: 3650: 3644: 3643: 3638: 3629: 3622: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3607: 3604: 3600: 3595: 3592: 3587: 3581: 3577: 3576: 3568: 3565: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3546: 3542: 3535: 3532: 3528: 3523: 3520: 3512: 3508: 3501: 3494: 3491: 3486: 3485: 3477: 3474: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3448:World Affairs 3442: 3439: 3427: 3423: 3416: 3413: 3409: 3404: 3401: 3397: 3392: 3389: 3386:, p. 81. 3385: 3380: 3377: 3374:, p. 85. 3373: 3368: 3365: 3360: 3353: 3350: 3347:, p. 86. 3346: 3341: 3338: 3334: 3329: 3327: 3323: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3301: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3273: 3266: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3251: 3248: 3244: 3239: 3236: 3233:, p. 15. 3232: 3227: 3224: 3219: 3212: 3209: 3205: 3200: 3198: 3194: 3191:, p. 77. 3190: 3185: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3170: 3167: 3164:, p. 76. 3163: 3158: 3156: 3152: 3149:, p. 73. 3148: 3143: 3140: 3135: 3134:Arab Observer 3131: 3125: 3122: 3118: 3113: 3110: 3107:, p. 75. 3106: 3101: 3099: 3095: 3092:, p. 72. 3091: 3086: 3083: 3079: 3074: 3071: 3067:. p. E4. 3066: 3059: 3056: 3053:, p. 69. 3052: 3047: 3044: 3041:, p. 68. 3040: 3035: 3032: 3028: 3023: 3020: 3017:, p. 70. 3016: 3011: 3009: 3007: 3003: 3000:, p. 67. 2999: 2994: 2992: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2977: 2974: 2971:, p. 63. 2970: 2965: 2962: 2958: 2953: 2951: 2947: 2944:, p. 32. 2943: 2938: 2935: 2922: 2921: 2916: 2909: 2906: 2903:, p. 40. 2902: 2897: 2894: 2890: 2885: 2883: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2868: 2865: 2861: 2860:Urquhart 1998 2856: 2853: 2850:, p. 63. 2849: 2844: 2842: 2840: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2829:Urquhart 1998 2825: 2822: 2818: 2813: 2810: 2806: 2801: 2798: 2795:, p. 37. 2794: 2789: 2787: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2772: 2770: 2768: 2766: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2751: 2748: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2722: 2719: 2715: 2710: 2707: 2703: 2702:Urquhart 1998 2698: 2695: 2691: 2686: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2671: 2669: 2665: 2662:, p. 36. 2661: 2656: 2653: 2650:, p. 132 2649: 2644: 2641: 2637: 2632: 2629: 2626:, p. 30. 2625: 2620: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2605: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2590: 2587: 2584:, p. 39. 2583: 2578: 2575: 2571: 2566: 2564: 2560: 2557:, p. 31. 2556: 2551: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2536: 2533: 2529: 2524: 2521: 2517: 2512: 2509: 2505: 2500: 2497: 2493: 2488: 2485: 2481: 2476: 2473: 2469: 2464: 2461: 2457: 2452: 2449: 2445: 2440: 2437: 2433: 2428: 2425: 2421: 2416: 2414: 2410: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2366: 2363: 2360:, p. 55. 2359: 2354: 2351: 2347: 2342: 2339: 2335: 2330: 2327: 2323: 2318: 2315: 2311: 2306: 2303: 2299: 2294: 2291: 2287: 2282: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2267: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2252: 2249: 2245: 2244:Williams 2014 2240: 2238: 2234: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2194: 2187: 2185: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2170: 2167: 2163: 2158: 2155: 2152:, p. 28. 2151: 2146: 2143: 2139: 2134: 2131: 2127: 2122: 2119: 2115: 2110: 2107: 2103: 2098: 2095: 2091: 2086: 2083: 2079: 2074: 2071: 2067: 2062: 2059: 2056:, p. 50. 2055: 2050: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2035: 2032: 2028: 2023: 2020: 2017:, p. 49. 2016: 2011: 2008: 2004: 1999: 1997: 1995: 1991: 1988:, p. 26. 1987: 1982: 1979: 1975: 1970: 1967: 1963: 1958: 1956: 1952: 1949:, p. 30. 1948: 1943: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1928: 1925: 1921: 1916: 1914: 1912: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1897: 1894: 1890: 1885: 1882: 1878: 1873: 1870: 1866: 1861: 1858: 1854: 1849: 1846: 1842: 1837: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1822: 1820: 1818: 1816: 1812: 1809:, p. 48. 1808: 1803: 1800: 1796: 1791: 1788: 1784: 1779: 1776: 1773:, p. 81. 1772: 1767: 1764: 1760: 1755: 1752: 1748: 1743: 1740: 1736: 1731: 1728: 1724: 1719: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1704: 1701: 1696: 1692: 1686: 1683: 1680:, p. 47. 1679: 1674: 1672: 1668: 1665:, p. 15. 1664: 1659: 1656: 1652: 1647: 1644: 1640: 1635: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1620: 1618: 1614: 1611:, p. 46. 1610: 1605: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1590: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1575: 1572: 1569:, p. 72. 1568: 1563: 1560: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1532:(1): 89–108. 1531: 1527: 1520: 1518: 1514: 1511:, p. 70. 1510: 1505: 1502: 1498: 1493: 1491: 1487: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1462: 1459: 1447: 1443: 1437: 1434: 1427: 1426: 1417: 1414: 1407: 1406: 1402: 1397: 1394: 1393: 1389: 1387: 1380: 1376: 1373: 1371: 1368: 1367: 1366: 1360: 1356: 1353: 1352: 1351: 1346: 1343: 1340: 1339: 1338: 1333: 1330: 1327: 1326: 1325: 1320: 1317: 1315: 1312: 1310: 1307: 1306: 1305: 1304:Machine guns 1299: 1296: 1294: 1291: 1289: 1286: 1283: 1279: 1276: 1275: 1274: 1267: 1260: 1258: 1250: 1247: 1244: 1241: 1238: 1235: 1232: 1229: 1226: 1223: 1222: 1218: 1216: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1181: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1153: 1151: 1147: 1142: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1108: 1106: 1098: 1090: 1088: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1055: 1049: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1030: 1028: 1026: 1020: 1018: 1014: 1008: 1006: 1002: 998: 992: 988: 983: 975: 970: 968: 964: 961: 960:Jean Schramme 956: 952: 951:Baudouinville 948: 942: 940: 936: 932: 926: 923: 918: 914: 905: 901: 898: 894: 888: 886: 879: 873: 867: 859: 857: 854: 849: 846: 842: 834: 833: 826: 823: 819: 815: 811: 809: 804: 800: 795: 791: 785: 783: 779: 769: 765: 763: 759: 754: 750: 746: 742: 738: 733: 728: 725: 720: 718: 714: 710: 701: 697: 692: 688: 685: 681: 677: 673: 665: 663: 661: 657: 651: 647: 645: 641: 637: 633: 629: 623: 620: 616: 612: 608: 599: 595: 593: 589: 584: 580: 576: 571: 569: 565: 561: 555: 547: 542: 540: 538: 533: 529: 525: 521: 512: 508: 506: 502: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 481:Luba warriors 478: 474: 469: 461: 457: 456: 449: 447: 443: 439: 435: 431: 427: 423: 419: 415: 411: 407: 404: 400: 396: 392: 388: 384: 383:Moise Tshombe 380: 375: 372: 368: 364: 360: 356: 352: 348: 344: 340: 336: 332: 328: 327:Belgian Congo 319: 314: 306: 301: 299: 297: 293: 292: 287: 283: 279: 275: 271: 267: 263: 259: 254: 252: 248: 242: 240: 236: 232: 228: 224: 220: 216: 212: 207: 205: 204: 199: 195: 191: 187: 183: 179: 175: 171: 167: 158: 155: 151: 146: 142: 138: 133: 130: 126: 121: 118: 114: 110: 106: 103: 102:Moïse Tshombe 99: 95: 92: 88: 85: 81: 74: 70: 68: 64: 60: 54: 50: 46: 42: 35: 30: 25: 20: 5410:Congo Crisis 5320: 5311: 5302: 5293: 5285:Dragon Rouge 5284: 5238: 5229:Camp Massart 5220: 5190: 5101:Larry Devlin 5048:Jack Malloch 5027:Hans Germani 4974:Marc Goosens 4942:Norbert Moke 4928:Louis Bobozo 4639: 4632:Rebel forces 4560:Théo Lefèvre 4495:Congo Crisis 4444: 4423: 4416:. p. 2. 4414:Léopoldville 4407: 4377: 4350: 4329: 4312: 4295: 4275: 4254: 4244: 4240: 4220: 4201: 4177: 4155: 4131: 4111: 4096: 4087:Project MUSE 4082: 4062: 4041: 4017: 3997: 3954: 3950: 3926: 3906: 3885: 3860: 3832: 3809: 3791: 3771: 3747: 3726: 3706: 3689: 3669: 3652:. Springer. 3648: 3639:Bibliography 3627: 3606: 3594: 3574: 3567: 3540: 3534: 3522: 3506: 3493: 3483: 3476: 3451: 3447: 3441: 3429:. Retrieved 3426:The Atlantic 3425: 3415: 3403: 3391: 3379: 3367: 3358: 3352: 3340: 3282: 3278: 3250: 3238: 3226: 3217: 3211: 3169: 3142: 3133: 3124: 3112: 3085: 3073: 3064: 3058: 3046: 3034: 3022: 2976: 2964: 2937: 2925:. Retrieved 2923:(in Swedish) 2918: 2908: 2901:Boulden 2001 2896: 2889:Meisler 2011 2867: 2855: 2824: 2812: 2800: 2750: 2738:. Retrieved 2730: 2721: 2709: 2697: 2655: 2648:Meisler 2011 2643: 2636:Epstein 1965 2631: 2589: 2582:Boulden 2001 2577: 2555:Boulden 2001 2540:Hoskyns 1965 2535: 2528:Hoskyns 1965 2523: 2516:Hoskyns 1965 2511: 2504:Hoskyns 1965 2499: 2492:Hoskyns 1965 2487: 2475: 2468:Hoskyns 1965 2463: 2456:Hoskyns 1965 2451: 2444:Hoskyns 1965 2439: 2432:Hoskyns 1965 2427: 2420:Hoskyns 1965 2379: 2376:Africa Today 2375: 2365: 2353: 2346:Hoskyns 1965 2341: 2334:Hoskyns 1965 2329: 2322:Hoskyns 1965 2317: 2310:Hoskyns 1965 2305: 2298:Hoskyns 1965 2293: 2271:Hoskyns 1965 2256:Hoskyns 1965 2251: 2203: 2199: 2174:Hoskyns 1965 2169: 2157: 2145: 2133: 2126:Hoskyns 1965 2121: 2109: 2097: 2085: 2073: 2061: 2034: 2027:O'Brien 1962 2022: 2010: 2003:Hoskyns 1965 1981: 1974:Hoskyns 1965 1969: 1932:Higgins 1980 1927: 1901:Hoskyns 1965 1896: 1889:Hoskyns 1965 1884: 1877:Hoskyns 1965 1872: 1860: 1848: 1841:Hoskyns 1965 1802: 1790: 1778: 1766: 1759:Hoskyns 1965 1754: 1747:Hoskyns 1965 1742: 1735:Hoskyns 1965 1730: 1708:Hoskyns 1965 1703: 1694: 1685: 1658: 1646: 1639:Hoskyns 1965 1574: 1562: 1529: 1525: 1504: 1478:. Retrieved 1470: 1461: 1450:. Retrieved 1445: 1436: 1416: 1383: 1370:M8 Greyhound 1364: 1358: 1349: 1336: 1332:81 mm mortar 1323: 1303: 1282:FN Mle 24/30 1272: 1254: 1182: 1154: 1143: 1111: 1102: 1084:Diallo Telli 1052: 1050: 1034: 1021: 1009: 993: 989: 985: 965: 943: 927: 922:Lufira River 910: 889: 881: 875: 871: 850: 837: 829: 816: 812: 786: 774: 758:Norbert Muké 729: 721: 705: 700:Norbert Muké 676:René Clemens 669: 652: 648: 624: 619:a resolution 604: 572: 568:an offensive 557: 537:South Africa 517: 473:Lunda people 465: 452: 446:Léopoldville 438:Stanleyville 430:Eastern Bloc 418:Ralph Bunche 408: 403:peacekeeping 376: 324: 313:Congo Crisis 290: 276:against the 255: 243: 208: 201: 177: 165: 163: 157:Congo Crisis 125:Norbert Muké 47:11 July 1960 5303:White Giant 5294:Dragon Noir 5158:South Kasai 5115:Che Guevara 5069:Jerry Puren 5062:John Peters 4910:Pat Quinlan 4896:K.A.S. Raja 4850:15 Commando 4843:14 Commando 4836:13 Commando 4829:12 Commando 4822:11 Commando 4497:(1960–1965) 3300:10362/31419 3231:Arnold 1999 2874:, p. 2 2819:, p. 2 2805:Colvin 1968 2690:Colvin 1968 2162:Harvey 2011 2138:Lipsey 2013 2114:Miller 2015 1567:Miller 2015 1509:Miller 2015 1319:M2 Browning 1273:Small arms 1155:During the 1125:(MPLA) and 1054:in absentia 670:During the 660:Brazzaville 640:Albertville 583:Luba people 564:South Kasai 528:mercenaries 268:(MPLA) and 5404:Categories 5213:Jadotville 5034:Mike Hoare 5006:Bob Denard 4874:Commanders 4815:9 Commando 4808:6 Commando 4801:5 Commando 4794:4 Commando 4279:. Golago. 3972:2263/49135 2776:Othen 2015 2675:Othen 2015 2066:Othen 2015 1962:Othen 2015 1865:Young 2015 1795:Othen 2015 1480:2020-03-29 1452:2020-03-29 1403:References 1379:Land Rover 1337:Artillery 1046:Bob Denard 794:Jadotville 751:, and two 477:Mwaant Yav 307:Background 111:Joseph Yav 100:President 91:Leadership 5239:Grandslam 5191:Rum Punch 4998:Mercenary 4920:Congolese 4742:Belgian / 4612:Congolese 4338:1243-8650 4321:1243-8650 4304:1243-8650 4211:460615937 4031:631685344 3989:145205024 3981:0308-6534 3851:209775045 3800:875482690 3698:186378493 3559:506026042 3460:0043-8200 3317:156383478 3309:0707-5332 2942:Dorn 2016 2624:Dorn 2016 2404:142914852 2396:1527-1978 2228:149469962 2220:1361-9462 1695:Interavia 1554:153058994 1546:1468-2745 1365:Vehicles 1201:Kisangani 947:Nzilo Dam 698:in 1961. 588:pillaging 514:Cap Badge 462:Formation 347:president 333:in 1908. 180:(French: 135:Personnel 116:Commander 52:Disbanded 5165:Invasion 4707:Ethiopia 4392:26432381 4348:(1998). 4247:: 70–91. 4199:(1962). 4152:(2007). 3866:Dunboyne 3831:(1967). 3769:(2016). 3751:. SAGE. 3511:Archived 3468:20671780 3431:April 5, 2927:12 April 1390:See also 1385:Source: 1359:Beaufort 1324:Mortars 1280:rifles ( 1177:Shaba II 1139:De Beers 1135:bounties 790:besieged 737:Sikorsky 468:disarmed 367:mutinied 363:assembly 5373:Related 5151:Katanga 5131:battles 4952:Belgian 4686:Ireland 4595:U Thant 1428:Sources 1375:Minerva 1256:Source: 1173:Shaba I 1137:by the 1059:Algiers 955:Kongolo 935:Kolwezi 897:Kipushi 818:U Thant 808:Kolwezi 747:, four 745:Dakotas 741:Aloutte 709:honored 644:Kongolo 617:passed 497:Kaniama 493:Bunkeya 335:Belgium 302:Origins 282:Shaba I 153:History 44:Founded 5221:UNOKAT 4693:Sweden 4679:Canada 4452: 4431: 4390: 4358: 4336: 4319: 4302: 4283: 4262: 4228: 4209: 4185: 4164: 4138: 4119: 4070: 4049: 4029: 4004: 3987: 3979: 3935:414961 3933: 3914: 3893: 3872: 3849: 3839: 3817: 3798: 3779: 3755: 3734: 3713: 3696: 3677: 3656: 3582: 3557: 3547: 3466: 3458: 3315: 3307: 2740:9 June 2402: 2394: 2226: 2218: 1552: 1544: 1448:. 1920 1377:built 1309:FN MAG 1288:FN FAL 1278:Mauser 1197:Bukavu 1189:Kigali 1161:Tigres 1076:Zambia 1067:Bukavu 1017:Simbas 931:Dilolo 913:Kamina 753:Herons 636:Kabalo 632:Manono 628:Lubudi 607:Manono 489:Bayeke 420:, his 416:, and 412:, the 359:senate 291:tigres 170:French 5321:South 5093:Other 4700:India 3985:S2CID 3947:(PDF) 3514:(PDF) 3503:(PDF) 3464:JSTOR 3313:S2CID 3275:(PDF) 2400:S2CID 2224:S2CID 2196:(PDF) 1550:S2CID 1408:Notes 1169:Zaire 799:Ndola 749:Doves 638:from 532:Fouga 491:from 485:Pweto 122:(1st) 4450:ISBN 4429:ISBN 4388:OCLC 4356:ISBN 4334:ISSN 4317:ISSN 4300:ISSN 4281:ISBN 4260:ISBN 4226:ISBN 4207:OCLC 4183:ISBN 4162:ISBN 4136:ISBN 4117:ISBN 4068:ISBN 4047:ISBN 4027:OCLC 4002:ISBN 3977:ISSN 3931:OCLC 3912:ISBN 3891:ISBN 3870:ISBN 3847:OCLC 3837:ISBN 3815:ISBN 3796:OCLC 3777:ISBN 3753:ISBN 3732:ISBN 3711:ISBN 3694:OCLC 3675:ISBN 3654:ISBN 3580:ISBN 3555:OCLC 3545:ISBN 3456:ISSN 3433:2020 3305:ISSN 2929:2019 2742:2017 2392:ISSN 2216:ISSN 1542:ISSN 1298:Sten 1195:and 1193:Goma 1105:PIDE 1061:. 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