Kelp forest - Knowledge (XXG)

3598: 632:, the local model was improved with fine-scale data and tested; the research team found thriving kelp forests in all eight of their sampled sites, all of which had been predicted by the model, thus validating their approach. This suggests that their global model might actually be fairly accurate, and if so, kelp forests would be prolific in tropical subsurface waters worldwide. The importance of this contribution has been rapidly acknowledged within the scientific community and has prompted an entirely new trajectory of kelp forest research, highlighting the potential for kelp forests to provide marine organisms spatial refuge under climate change and providing possible explanations for evolutionary patterns of kelps worldwide. 827: 1014:

stretched from northeast Asia to the American Pacific coast would have provided many benefits to ancient boaters The kelp forests would have provided many sustenance opportunities, as well as acting as a type of buffer from rough water. Besides these benefits, researchers believe that the kelp forests might have helped early boaters navigate, acting as a type of "kelp highway". Theorists also suggest that the kelp forests would have helped these ancient colonists by providing a stable way of life and preventing them from having to adapt to new ecosystems and develop new survival methods even as they traveled thousands of miles.

4294: 281:"I can only compare these great aquatic forests...with the terrestrial ones in the intertropical regions. Yet if in any country a forest was destroyed, I do not believe so nearly so many species of animals would perish as would here, from the destruction of kelp. Amidst the leaves of this plant numerous species of fish live, which nowhere else could find food or shelter; with their destruction the many cormorants and other fishing birds, the otters, seals and porpoise, would soon perish also; and lastly, the Fuegian...would...decrease in numbers and perhaps cease to exist. 859:), particularly the understanding and top-down trophic processes. Bottom-up processes are generally driven by the abiotic conditions required for primary producers to grow, such as availability of light and nutrients, and the subsequent transfer of energy to consumers at higher trophic levels. For example, the occurrence of kelp is frequently correlated with oceanographic upwelling zones, which provide unusually high concentrations of nutrients to the local environment. This allows kelp to grow and subsequently support herbivores, which in turn support consumers at higher 1131:(MPAs) offer a unique solution that encompasses not only target species for harvesting, but also the interactions surrounding them and the local environment as a whole. Direct benefits of MPAs to fisheries (for example, spillover effects) have been well documented around the world. Indirect benefits have also been shown for several cases among species such as abalone and fishes in Central California. Most importantly, MPAs can be effective at protecting existing kelp forest ecosystems and may also allow for the regeneration of those that have been affected. 667: 641: 1006: 1140: 899:’) is a widespread phenomenon, often resulting from trophic cascades like those described above; the two phases are regarded as alternative stable states of the ecosystem. The recovery of kelp forests from barren states has been documented following dramatic perturbations, such as urchin disease or large shifts in thermal conditions. Recovery from intermediate states of deterioration is less predictable and depends on a combination of abiotic factors and biotic interactions in each case. 270: 842: 4320: 4308: 655: 919:

when drift subsidies are unavailable, grazers directly impact the physical structure of the ecosystem. Many studies in Southern California have demonstrated that the availability of drift kelp specifically influences the foraging behavior of sea urchins. Drift kelp and kelp-derived particulate matter have also been important in subsidizing adjacent habitats, such as sandy beaches and the rocky intertidal.

888:. The effect of removing one predatory species in this system differs from Alaska because redundancy exists in the trophic levels and other predatory species can continue to regulate urchins. However, the removal of multiple predators can effectively release urchins from predator pressure and allow the system to follow trajectories towards kelp forest degradation. Similar examples exist in 675: 812: 3926: 1083: 863:. By contrast, in top-down processes, predators limit the biomass of species at lower trophic levels through consumption. In the absence of predation, these lower-level species flourish because resources that support their energetic requirements are not limiting. In a well-studied example from Alaskan kelp forests, 968:

Catastrophic storms can remove surface kelp canopies through wave activity, but usually leave understory kelps intact; they can also remove urchins when little spatial refuge is available. Interspersed canopy clearings create a seascape mosaic where sunlight penetrates deeper into the kelp forest and

1228:. The report underscores the urgency of implementing global conservation efforts and emphasizes the need for international cooperation to adopt area-based management strategies. These strategies aim to mitigate the aforementioned impacts and enhance the resilience and sustainability of kelp forests. 875:

through predation. When sea otters are removed from the ecosystem (for example, by human exploitation), urchin populations are released from predatory control and grow dramatically. This leads to increased herbivore pressure on local kelp stands. Deterioration of the kelp itself results in the loss

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Kelp forest restoration, practiced in 16 countries over 300 years, has gained momentum, particularly from 2009 to 2019, involving diverse societal sectors such as academia, governments, and businesses. Large-scale restoration successes demonstrate its feasibility, with the best outcomes often near

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fishes. In many cases, these organisms feed on kelp that has been dislodged from substrate and drifts near the ocean floor rather than expend energy searching for intact thalli on which to feed. When sufficient drift kelp is available, herbivorous grazers do not exert pressure on attached thalli;

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reaches upward only a few meters. Beneath these kelps, a benthic assemblage of foliose red algae may occur. The dense vertical infrastructure with overlying canopy forms a system of microenvironments similar to those observed in a terrestrial forest, with a sunny canopy region, a partially shaded

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In addition to ecological monitoring of kelp forests before, during, and after such disturbances, scientists try to tease apart the intricacies of kelp forest dynamics using experimental manipulations. By working on smaller spatial-temporal scales, they can control for the presence or absence of

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species that are normally light-limited in the understory can flourish. Similarly, substrate cleared of kelp holdfasts can provide space for other sessile species to establish themselves and occupy the seafloor, sometimes directly competing with juvenile kelp and even inhibiting their settlement.

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Another major area of kelp forest research has been directed at understanding the spatial-temporal patterns of kelp patches. Not only do such dynamics affect the physical landscape, but they also affect species that associate with kelp for refuge or foraging activities. Large-scale environmental

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can increase the susceptibility of kelp to storm damage and herbivorous grazing, sometimes even prompting phase shifts to urchin-dominated landscapes. In general, oceanographic conditions (that is, water temperature, currents) influence the recruitment success of kelp and its competitors, which

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Kelp forests have been important to human existence for thousands of years. Indeed, many now theorise that the first colonisation of the Americas was due to fishing communities following the Pacific kelp forests during the last ice age. One theory contends that the kelp forests that would have

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is recognized as a way of generally stabilizing ecosystems and their services through mechanisms such as functional compensation and reduced susceptibility to foreign species invasions. More recently, the 2022 IPCC report states that kelp and other seaweeds in most regions are undergoing mass

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Given the complexity of kelp forests – their variable structure, geography, and interactions – they pose a considerable challenge to environmental managers. Extrapolating even well-studied trends to the future is difficult because interactions within the ecosystem will change under variable

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Overfishing higher trophic levels that naturally regulate herbivore populations is also recognized as an important stressor in kelp forests. As described in the previous section, the drivers and outcomes of trophic cascades are important for understanding spatial-temporal patterns of kelp

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waters. One recent study spatially overlaid the requisite physical parameters for kelp with mean oceanographic conditions and produced a model predicting the existence of subsurface kelps throughout the tropics worldwide to depths of 200 m (660 ft). For a hotspot in the

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Christie, H., Jørgensen, N.M., Norderhaug, K.M., Waage-Nielsen, E., 2003. Species distribution and habitat exploitation of fauna associated with kelp (Laminaria hyperborea) along the Norwegian coast. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the UK 83,

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Researchers at the Bodega Marine Laboratory of UC Davis are developing replanting strategies, and volunteers of the Orange County Coastkeeper group are replanting giant kelp. Humboldt State University began cultivating bull kelp in its research farm in 2021.

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The architecture of a kelp forest ecosystem is based on its physical structure, which influences the associated species that define its community structure. Structurally, the ecosystem includes three guilds of kelp and two guilds occupied by other algae:

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Kelp forests grow in rocky places along the shore that are constantly eroding carrying material out to the deep sea. The kelp then sinks to the ocean floor and store the carbon where is it unlikely to be disturbed by human activity. Researchers from the

553:, living for more than 20 years. In perennial kelp forests, maximum growth rates occur during upwelling months (typically spring and summer) and die-backs correspond to reduced nutrient availability, shorter photoperiods, and increased storm frequency. 1232:

existing kelp forests, emphasizing the importance of preventing their decline. However, challenges persist, including the need for cost-effective methods, funding mechanisms, and adaptations to climate change. This restoration work not only supports

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Erlandson, J.M., M.H. Graham, B.J. Bourque, D. Corbett, J.A. Estes, R.S. Steneck. 2007. The kelp highway hypothesis: Marine ecology, the coastal migration theory, and the peopling of the Americas. Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology

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Norwegian Blue Forests Network 2023 report titled 'Into the Blue: Securing a Sustainable Future for Kelp Forests' documents a global decline in kelp forests, with an annual reduction rate of 1.8%. Over the past 50 years, 40-60% of these

892:, South Africa, Australia, and Chile. The relative importance of top-down versus bottom-up control in kelp forest ecosystems and the strengths of trophic interactions continue to be the subject of considerable scientific investigation. 1126:

In many places, managers have opted to regulate the harvest of kelp and/or the taking of kelp forest species by fisheries. While these may be effective in one sense, they do not necessarily protect the entirety of the ecosystem.

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events have been shown to impact southern California kelp forests, though the intensity of the impact seems to depend on both the nature of the contaminants and duration of exposure. Pollution can include sediment deposition and

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middle, and darkened seafloor. Each guild has associated organisms, which vary in their levels of dependence on the habitat, and the assemblage of these organisms can vary with kelp morphologies. For example, in California,

2228:, T.P. Hughes, S. Kidwell, C.B. Lange, H.S. Lenihan, J.M. Pandolfi, C.H. Peterson, R.S. Steneck, M.J. Tegner and R.R. Warner. 2002. Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystems. Science 293: 629-638. 2161:

Tegner, M.J., P.K. Dayton, P.B. Edwards, K.L. Riser, D.B. Chadwick, T.A. Dean and L. Deysher. 1995. Effects of a large sewage spill on a kelp forest community: catastrophe or disturbance? Marine Environmental Research 40:

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Airamé, S., J.E. Dugan, K.D. Lafferty, H. Leslie, D.A. MacArdle and R.R. Warner. 2003. Applying ecological criteria to marine reserve design: a case study from the California Channel Islands. Ecological Applications 13:

533:. Water flow and turbulence facilitate nutrient assimilation across kelp fronds throughout the water column. Water clarity affects the depth to which sufficient light can be transmitted. In ideal conditions, giant kelp ( 1375:

Graham, M.H., B.P. Kinlan, L.D. Druehl, L.E. Garske, and S. Banks. 2007. Deep-water kelp refugia as potential hotspots of tropical marine diversity and productivity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104:

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Erlandson, J.M. T.J. Braje, K.M. Gill, M. Graham. 2015. Ecology of the kelp highway: Did marine resources facilitate human dispersal from northeast Asia to the Americas? Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology 10:

1118:. The most pressing threat to kelp forest preservation may be the overfishing of coastal ecosystems, which by removing higher trophic levels facilitates their shift to depauperate urchin barrens. The maintenance of 1846:

Byrnes, J., J.J. Stachowicz, K.M. Hultgren, A.R. Hughes, S.V. Olyarnik and C.S. Thornber. 2006. Predator diversity strengthens trophic cascades in kelp forests by modifying herbivore behavior. Ecology Letters 9:

299:, kelp forests provide a unique habitat for marine organisms and are a source for understanding many ecological processes. Over the last century, they have been the focus of extensive research, particularly in 2207:

Duggins, D.O., J.E. Eckman and A.T. Sewell. 1990. Ecology of understory kelp environments. II. Effects of kelps on recruitment of benthic invertebrates. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 143:

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mortalities from high temperature extremes and range shifts from warming, as they are stationary and cannot adapt quick enough to deal with the rapidly increasing temperature of the Earth and thus, the ocean.

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Druehl, L.D. 1981. The distribution of Laminariales in the North Pacific with reference to environmental influences. Proceedings of the International Congress on Systematic Evolution and Biology 2: 248-256.

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Kaehler, S., E.A. Pakhomov, R.M. Kalin and S. Davis. 2006. Trophic importance of kelp-derived suspended particulate matter in a through-flow sub-Antarctic system. Marine Ecology Progress Series 316: 17-22.

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Elmqvist, T., C. Folke, M. Nyström, G. Peterson, J. Bengtsson, B. Walker and J. Norberg. 2003. Response diversity, ecosystem change and resilience. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 1: 488-494.

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Vásquez, J.A., J.M. Alonso Vega and A.H. Buschmann. 2006. Long term variability in the structure of kelp communities in northern Chile and the 1997-98 ENSO. Journal of Applied Phycology 18: 505-519.

884:. In Southern California, kelp forests persist without sea otters and the control of herbivorous urchins is instead mediated by a suite of predators including lobsters and large fishes, such as the 4481: 2171:

Carpenter, S.R., R.F. Caraco, D.F. Cornell, R.W. Howarth, A.N. Sharpley and V.N. Smith. 1998. Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen. Ecological Applications 8: 559-568.

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Williams, Jonathan P.; Claisse, Jeremy T.; Ii, Daniel J. Pondella; Williams, Chelsea M.; Robart, Matthew J.; Scholz, Zoe; Jaco, Erin M.; Ford, Tom; Burdick, Heather; Witting, David (2021-04-15).

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have been known to occur exclusively in tropical deep waters. This general absence of kelp from the tropics is believed to be mostly due to insufficient nutrient levels associated with warm,

518:, or gas-filled bladders, usually located at the base of fronds near the stipe. These structures provide the necessary buoyancy for kelp to maintain an upright position in the water column. 1450:

Sala, E., C.F. Bourdouresque and M. Harmelin-Vivien. 1998. Fishing, trophic cascades, and the structure of algal assemblages: evaluation of an old but untested paradigm. Oikos 82: 425-439.

1041:; the industries that support these sports represent one benefit related to the ecosystem and the enjoyment derived from these activities represents another. All of these are examples of 989:

specific biotic and abiotic factors to discover the operative mechanisms. For example, in southern Australia, manipulations of kelp canopy types demonstrated that the relative amount of

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archipelagos, and in patches around Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. The region with the greatest diversity of kelps (>20 species) is the northeastern Pacific, from north of

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is one management strategy useful for addressing such issues, since it may limit the impacts of fishing and buffer the ecosystem from additive effects of other environmental stressors.

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Dayton, P.K., M.J. Tegner, P.E. Parnell and P.B. Edwards. 1992. Temporal and spatial patterns of disturbance and recovery in a kelp forest community. Ecological Monographs 62: 421-445.

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Dayton, P.K. M.J. Tegner, P.B. Edwards and K.L. Riser. 1999. Temporal and spatial scales of kelp demography: the role of the oceanographic climate. Ecological Monographs 69: 219-250.

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Fowler-Walker, M.J., B. M. Gillanders, S.D. Connell and A.D. Irving. 2005. Patterns of association between canopy-morphology and understory assemblages across temperate Australia.

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Babcock, R.C., S. Kelly, N.T. Shears, J.W. Walker and T.J. Willis. 1999. Changes in community structure in temperate marine reserves. Marine Ecology Progress Series 189: 125-134.

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Sala, E. and M.H. Graham. 2002. Community-wide distribution of predator-prey interaction strength in kelp forests. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 99: 3678-3683.

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is a root-like mass that anchors the thallus to the sea floor, though unlike true roots it is not responsible for absorbing and delivering nutrients to the rest of the thallus.

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Edwards, M.S. and G. Hernández-Carmona. 2005. Delayed recovery of giant kelp near its southern range limit in the North Pacific following El Niño. Marine Biology 147: 273-279.

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Ebeling, A.W., D.R. Laur and R.J. Rowley. 1985. Severe storm disturbances and reversal of community structure in a southern California kelp forest. Marine Biology 84: 287-294.

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Tilman, D., C.L. Lehman, and C.E. Bristow. 1998. Diversity-stability relationships: statistical inevitability or ecological consequence? The American Naturalist 151: 277-282.

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Velimirov, B., J.G. Field, C.L. Griffiths and P. Zoutendyk. 1977. The ecology of kelp bed communities in the Benguela upwelling system. Helgoland Marine Research 30: 495-518.

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The environmental factors necessary for kelp to survive include hard substrate (usually rock or sand), high nutrients (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus), and light (minimum annual

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spp. are closely associated with the kelp holdfast, while various herbivores, such as sea urchins and abalone, live under the prostrate canopy; many seastars, hydroids, and

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Bustamante, R.H., G.M. Branch and S. Eekhout. 1995. Maintenance of exceptional intertidal grazer biomass in South Africa: subsidy by subtidal kelps. Ecology 76: 2314-2329.

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Santelices, B. 2007. The discovery of kelp forests in deep-water habitats of tropical regions. Proceedings of the NationalAwan Riak Academy of Sciences 104: 19163-19164.

384:). Though not considered a taxonomically diverse order, kelps are highly diverse structurally and functionally. The most widely recognized species are the giant kelps ( 4471: 3597: 2999: 975:(ENSO) events involve the depression of oceanographic thermoclines, severe reductions of nutrient input, and changes in storm patterns. Stress due to warm water and 723:

assemblage is composed of other algal species (e.g., filamentous and foliose functional groups, articulated corallines) and sessile organisms along the ocean bottom.

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At the federal level, H.R. 4458, the Keeping Ecosystems Living and Productive (KELP) Act, introduced July 29, 2021, seeks to establish a new grant program within

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of physical ecosystem structure and subsequently, the loss of other species associated with this habitat. In Alaskan kelp forest ecosystems, sea otters are the

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are leaf- or blade-like attachments extending from the stipe, sometimes along its full length, and are the sites of nutrient uptake and photosynthetic activity.

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Pessarrodona, A; Assis, J; Filbee-Dexter, K; Burrows, M T; Gattuso, J-P; Duarte, C.M.; Krause-Jensen, D; Moore, P.J.; Smale, D.A.; Wernberg, T (23 July 2020).

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Allison, G.A., J. Lubchenco and M.H. Carr. 1998. Marine reserves are necessary but not sufficient for marine conservation. Ecological Applications 8: S79-S92.

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and D.O. Duggins. 1995. Sea otters and kelp forests in Alaska: generality and variation in a community ecological paradigm. Ecological Monographs 65: 75-100.

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Graham, M.H. 2004. Effects of local deforestation on the diversity and structure of Southern California giant kelp forest food webs. Ecosystems 7: 341-357.

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Stekoll, M.S., L.E. Deysher and M. Hess. 2006. A remote sensing approach to estimating harvestable kelp biomass. Journal of Applied Phycology 18: 323-334.

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Foster, M.S. and D.R. Schiel. 1985. The ecology of giant kelp forests in California: a community profile. US Fish and Wildlife Service Report 85: 1-152.

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Irving, A.D. and S.D. Connell. 2006. Predicting understory structure from the presence and composition of canopies: an assembly rule for marine algae.

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Dayton, P.K. and M.J. Tegner. 1984. Catastrophic storms, El Niño, and patch stability in a southern California kelp community. Science 224: 283-285.

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Gell, F.R. and C.M. Roberts. 2003. Benefits beyond boundaries: the fishery effects of marine reserves. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 18: 448-455.

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Grigg, R.W. and R.S. Kiwala. 1970. Some ecological effects of discharged wastes on marine life. California Department of Fish and Game 56: 145-155.

1207:-based company, secured $ 4.5 million in U.S. government funding to grow giant kelp on an 86-acre farm off the coast of Santa Barbara, California. 3772: 2869: 1859:

Halpern, B.S., K. Cottenie and B.R. Broitman. 2006. Strong top-down control in Southern California kelp forest ecosystems. Science 312: 1230-1232.

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Jones, C.G., J. H. Lawton and M. Shachak. 1997. Positive and negative effects of organisms as physical ecosystem engineers. Ecology 78: 1946-1957.

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ecology, and continue to provoke important ideas that are relevant beyond this unique ecosystem. For example, kelp forests can influence coastal

2640: 2603:. 2000. Kelp forest fish populations in marine reserves and adjacent exploited areas of Central California. Ecological Applications 10: 855-870. 1868:

Lawrence, J.M. 1975. On the relationships between marine plants and sea urchins. Oceanography and Marine Biology, An Annual Review. 13: 213-286.

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Stachowicz, J.J., R.B. Whitlatch and R.W. Osman. 1999. Species diversity and invasion resistance in a marine ecosystem. Science 286: 1577-1579.

42: 4433: 2921:"Sonoma-Mendocino Bull Kelp Recovery Plan, for Greater Farallones National Marine Sanctuary and California Department of Fish & Wildlife" 2612:

Rogers-Bennett, L. and J.S. Pearse. 2001. Indirect benefits of marine protected areas for juvenile abalone. Conservation Biology 15: 642-647.

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Multiple kelp species often co-exist within a forest; the term understory canopy refers to the stipitate and prostrate kelps. For example, a

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Kennelly, S.J. 1987. Physical disturbances in an Australian kelp community. I. Temporal effects. Marine Ecology Progress Series 40: 145-153.

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into benthic systems of north-central Chile: sustainability assessment. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 17: 89-105.

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uses gas-filled floats to keep the thallus suspended, allowing the kelp blades near the ocean surface to capture light for photosynthesis.

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Willis, T.J., R.B. Millar and R.C. Babcock. 2003. Protection of exploited fish in temperate regions: high density and biomass of snapper

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is analogous to a plant stalk, extending vertically from the holdfast and providing a support framework for other morphological features.

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Stull, J.K. 1989. Contaminants in sediments near a major marine outfall: history, effects and future. OCEANS ’89 Proceedings 2: 481-484.

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in Nova Scotia: evidence for a link with large-scale meteor logic and oceanographic events. Marine Ecology Progress Series 152: 155-165.

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conditions, not all relationships in the ecosystem are understood, and the nonlinear thresholds to transitions are not yet recognized.

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Norderhaug, K.M., Christie, H., 2009. Sea urchin grazing and kelp re-vegetation in the NE Atlantic. Marine Biology Research 5, 515-528

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and M.J. Tegner. 2002. Kelp forest ecosystems: biodiversity, stability, resilience and future. Environmental Conservation 29: 436-459.

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Steneck, R.S. and M.N. Dethier. 1994. A functional group approach to the structure of algal-dominated communities. Oikos 69: 476-498.

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Classic studies in kelp forest ecology have largely focused on trophic interactions (the relationships between organisms and their

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A wide range of sea life uses kelp forests for protection or food, including fish. In the North Pacific kelp forests, particularly

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Harrold, C. and D.C. Reed. 1985. Food availability, sea urchin grazing and kelp forest community structure. Ecology 66: 1160-1169.

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Frost, T.M., S.R. Carpenter, A.R. Ives, and T.K. Kratz. 1995. "Species compensation and complementarity in ecosystem function."

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Lafferty, K.D. 2004. Fishing for lobsters indirectly increases epidemics in sea urchins. Ecological Applications 14: 1566-1573.

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Scheffer, M., S. Carpenter, J.A. Foley, C. Folke and B. Walter. 2001. Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems. Nature 413: 591-596.

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Gutierrez, A., T. Correa, V. Muñoz, A. Santibañez, R. Marcos, C. Cáceres and A.H. Buschmann. 2006. Farming of the giant kelp

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Bohnsack, J.A. 1998. Application of marine reserves to reef fisheries management. Australian Journal of Ecology 23: 298-304.

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Hughes, T.P. 1994. Catastrophes, phase shifts and large-scale degradation of a Caribbean coral reef. Science 265: 1547-1551.

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Dayton, P.K. 1985b. The structure and regulation of some South American kelp communities. Ecological Monographs 55: 447-468.

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estimated kelp forest around Australia sequestered 1.3-2.8 teragrams of carbon per year which is 27–34% of the total annual

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are loosely associated with kelp forests, usually interacting near the edges as they visit to feed on resident organisms.

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provided specifically by kelp forests. The Monterey Bay aquarium was the first aquarium to exhibit an alive kelp forest.

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Canopy kelps include the largest species and often constitute floating canopies that extend to the ocean surface (e.g.,

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Jackson, G.A. and C.D. Winant. 1983. Effect of a kelp forest on coastal currents. Continental Shelf Report 2: 75-80.

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dose > 50 E m). Especially productive kelp forests tend to be associated with areas of significant oceanographic

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Jackson, J.B.C, M.X. Kirby, W.H. Berger, K.A. Bjorndal, L.W. Botsford, B.J. Bourque, R.H. Bradbury, R. Cooke, J.

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Siversten, K. 2006. Overgrazing of kelp beds along the coast of Norway. Journal of Applied Phycology 18: 599-610.

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Halpern, B.S. and R.R. Warner. 2002. Marine reserves have rapid and lasting effects. Ecology Letters 5: 361-366.

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Carr, M.H. 1994. Effects of macroalgal dynamics on recruitment of a temperate reef fish. Ecology 75: 1320-1333.

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Research efforts at the state level to prevent kelp forest collapse in California were announced in July 2020.

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canopy may extend many meters above the seafloor towards the ocean surface, while an understory of the kelps

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Stipitate kelps generally extend a few meters above the sea floor and can grow in dense aggregations (e.g.,

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Though urchins are usually the dominant herbivores, others with significant interaction strengths include

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Excellent general information on kelp forests, as well as specific information on Tasmanian kelp forests.

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and K.W. Kenyon. 1978. Aleuts, sea otters, and alternate stable-state communities. Science 200: 403-411.

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Dayton, P.K. 1985a. Ecology of kelp communities. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 16: 215-245.

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The transition from macroalgal (i.e. kelp forest) to denuded landscapes dominated by sea urchins (or ‘

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in a canopy could be used to predict understory species assemblages; consequently, the proportion of

929: 885: 648: 2947: 4804: 4645: 4461: 4226: 3880: 3689: 3647: 3417: 3377: 2720: 2480:: C. Jones and J. Lawton, editors. Linking species and ecosystems. Chapman and Hall, London. 387pp. 2296:

Ortiz, M. and W. Stotz. 2007. Ecological and eco-social models for the introduction of the abalone

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in southern Chile for development of novel food products. Journal of Applied Phycology 18: 259-267.

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Wheeler, W.N. 1980. Effect of boundary layer transport on the fixation of carbon by the giant kelp

347: 1074:. Every year 200 million tons of carbon dioxide are being sequestered by macroalgae such as kelp. 4672: 4662: 4146: 4141: 4009: 3951: 3845: 3694: 3612: 3497: 3477: 3387: 3330: 2801: 1175: 1042: 976: 820: 779: 493: 473: 315: 308: 247: 234:, which covers a large part of the world's coastlines. Smaller areas of anchored kelp are called 476:, kelp provides a physical substrate and habitat for kelp forest communities. In algae (kingdom 1775:

Pearse, J.S. and A.H. Hines. 1987. Expansion of a central California kelp forest following the

269: 4841: 4763: 4692: 4682: 4605: 4156: 4131: 4034: 3981: 3900: 3567: 3532: 3472: 3432: 3402: 3372: 3283: 2793: 2386: 2007: 1933: 1925: 1522: 1321: 1178:

is an important keystone species which helps control sea urchin abundance, but an outbreak of

1167: 1098:

frond (California): Marine protected areas are one way to guard kelp forests as an ecosystem.

629: 168: 96: 488:). The morphological structure of a kelp thallus is defined by three basic structural units: 4702: 4264: 3956: 3860: 3812: 3724: 3617: 3557: 3315: 2785: 2425: 2376: 2368: 1999: 1917: 1590:

Kelp forests provide habitat for a variety of invertebrates, fish, marine mammals, and birds

1514: 1353: 1311: 1301: 1293: 1270:

Mann, K.H. 1973. Seaweeds: their productivity and strategy for growth. Science 182: 975-981.

1111: 950: 877: 613: 466: 300: 2590:(Sparidae) in northern New Zealand marine reserves. Journal of Applied Ecology 40: 214-227. 1151:

In the 2010s, Northern California lost 95% of its kelp ecosystems due to marine heatwaves.

4677: 4667: 4570: 4342: 4234: 4201: 4062: 4014: 3890: 3865: 3674: 3627: 3552: 3397: 3382: 2189:

McPhaden, M.J. 1999. Genesis and evolution of the 1997-1998 El Niño. Science 283: 950-954.

2099:

Koop, K., R.C. Newell and M.I. Lucas. 1982. Biodegradation and carbon flow based on kelp (

1071: 1067: 953:

from agricultural areas, anti-fouling chemicals used in harbors and marinas (for example,

881: 757: 550: 404: 377: 188: 124: 81: 76: 66: 1788:

Scheibiling, R.E. and A.W. Hennigar. 1997. Recurrent outbreaks of disease in sea urchins

2781: 2765: 2421: 2364: 1995: 1913: 1510: 1494: 1025:

and rockfish. Humans can also harvest kelp directly to feed aquaculture species such as

4718: 4697: 4687: 4098: 4052: 4047: 4019: 3986: 3855: 3714: 3642: 3632: 3482: 3427: 3345: 3340: 3335: 2600: 2381: 2348: 2251: 2225: 1776: 1758: 1431: 1316: 1281: 1183: 1115: 1088: 942: 896: 800: 752: 605: 569: 500: 422: 339: 287: 33: 3199: 841: 342:, kelp forests have all but disappeared in many especially vulnerable places, such as 4866: 4615: 4565: 4528: 4412: 4312: 4206: 4171: 4072: 4067: 4042: 3572: 3537: 3512: 3362: 3325: 2805: 2454:"95pc of Tasmania's giant kelp is gone, scientists are in a race to save what's left" 2221: 1979: 1427: 1236:

recovery but also offers significant social and economic benefits, aligning with the

1204: 1107: 860: 774: 601: 416: 331: 178: 61: 1589: 1566: 654: 457:. Many marine mammals and birds are also found, including seals, sea lions, whales, 41: 4723: 4600: 4595: 4590: 4365: 4307: 4298: 4077: 4057: 3961: 3699: 3582: 3502: 3462: 3452: 3422: 3244: 3174:

United Nations Environment Programme, & Norwegian Blue Forests Network (2023).

3072: 1119: 1034: 1030: 796: 726:

Encrusting coralline algae directly and often extensively cover geologic substrate.

593: 542: 515: 454: 450: 446: 434: 373: 304: 255: 183: 145: 140: 101: 537:

spp.) can grow as much as 30–60 cm vertically per day. Some species, such as

4334: 2824:

USC Sea Grant - USC Dana and David Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences

928:

disturbances have offered important insights concerning mechanisms and ecosystem

4211: 4186: 4181: 3934: 3910: 3875: 3684: 3587: 3507: 3467: 3320: 2894: 1657:

Petrov, J.E., M.V. Suchovejeva and G.V. Avdejev. 1973. New species of the genus

1389:. The Harvard Classics Volume 29. New York, USA: P.F. Collier & Son Company. 1225: 1094: 1063: 1059: 954: 915: 889: 872: 792: 589: 530: 462: 410: 386: 335: 327: 319: 2372: 2152:) in Orange and San Diego Counties, California. Hydrobiologia 260/261: 277-283. 2103:) debris in a sandy beach microcosm. Marine Ecology Progress Series 7: 315-326. 1968:

Pearse, J.S. 2006. Ecological role of purple sea urchins. Science 314: 940-941.

1358: 1341: 619:

Although kelp forests are unknown in tropical surface waters, a few species of

4809: 4585: 4191: 4126: 3915: 3895: 3679: 3652: 3437: 3350: 1980:"Sea urchin barrens as alternative stable states of collapsed kelp ecosystems" 1493:

Filbee-Dexter, Karen; Feehan, Colette J.; Scheibling, Robert E. (2016-02-03).

1155: 864: 835: 788: 748: 678: 644: 624: 529:, a process that delivers cool, nutrient-rich water from depth to the ocean's 522: 430: 381: 296: 243: 91: 2974:"An Orange County marine biologist wants to weed the ocean to help kelp grow" 2797: 2011: 1929: 1814:, and habitat structure on reefs in temperate Australia. Ecology 74: 292-302. 1526: 1224:

have degraded due to factors such as climate change, poor water quality, and

334:

where relatively few species persist. Already due to the combined effects of

4799: 4794: 4610: 4216: 4121: 3905: 3669: 3662: 3637: 3547: 3219: 2870:"New Study Finds Hope for Restoration of Kelp Beds and Commercial Fisheries" 2238: 2054: 1221: 1159: 1018: 937: 856: 831: 674: 585: 557: 526: 458: 392: 323: 251: 239: 173: 3925: 3222:: Department of Primary Industries, Water & Environment. Archived from 2641:"Hitting Rock Bottom: The Disappearance of California's Underwater Forests" 2405: 2390: 1937: 1325: 1297: 997:

can be used as an indicator of other species occurring in the environment.

811: 2692:"The collapse of Northern California kelp forests will be hard to reverse" 1542:"The dead sea: Tasmania's underwater forests disappearing in our lifetime" 246:

only cover 0.1% of Earth's total surface, they account for 0.9% of global

4631: 4575: 4538: 4166: 3976: 3522: 3517: 3442: 3215: 3148:"Ocean rainforest secures $ 4.5 m to ramp up Californian kelp production" 1540:

Morton, Adam; Cordell, Marni; Fanner, David; Ball, Andy; Evershed, Nick.

1495:"Large-scale degradation of a kelp ecosystem in an ocean warming hotspot" 1038: 958: 903: 769: 477: 438: 398: 343: 259: 163: 1567:"What Will It Take to Bring Back the Kelp Forest? - Bay Nature Magazine" 1306: 980:

clearly affect subsequent species interactions and kelp forest dynamics.

17: 4533: 4176: 4136: 4106: 4084: 3704: 3492: 3392: 1811: 1233: 1026: 1022: 907: 784: 773:

spp., and many other fishes are found within the stipitate understory;

720: 485: 481: 263: 71: 2789: 2517: 2003: 1518: 1240:(SDGs), and underscores the importance of multi-sector collaboration. 1171:, an invasive species first spotted in 2003, has also been a concern. 4507: 4397: 4161: 3487: 3252: 2716:"5 Reasons to Protect Kelp, the West Coast's Powerhouse Marine Algae" 2429: 1921: 561: 507: 442: 154: 3124:"Huffman-sponsored bill seeks grant funding to restore kelp forests" 2766:"Sea urchin mass mortality rapidly restores kelp forest communities" 2148:

North, W.J., D.E. James and L.G. Jones. 1993. History of kelp beds (

1082: 787:

fishes live among the benthic assemblages; solitary corals, various

3223: 3000:"Sunflower Sea Star Proposed for Endangered Species Act Protection" 330:

of kelp and other algae. This can rapidly result in transitions to

4402: 4373: 1722:, off southern California. Limnology and Oceanography 22: 979-995. 1154:

Kelp bed recovery efforts in California are primarily focusing on

1138: 1081: 1004: 911: 840: 825: 810: 673: 665: 653: 639: 577: 573: 4560: 3657: 946: 659: 369: 363: 238:. They are recognized as one of the most productive and dynamic 231: 4338: 3810: 3294: 3256: 2645:

The Bill Lane Center for the American West, Stanford University

2406:"Substantial role of macroalgae in marine carbon sequestration" 2349:"Substantial blue carbon in overlooked Australian kelp forests" 314:

However, the influence of humans has often contributed to kelp

3719: 3709: 2848: 258:

coastal oceans. In 2007, kelp forests were also discovered in

3176:

Into the Blue: Securing a Sustainable Future for Kelp Forests

2404:

Krause-Jensen, Dorte; M. Duarte, Carlos (12 September 2016).

763:

are closely associated with surface canopies; the kelp perch

2518:"Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability" 1896:

Filbee-Dexter, Karen; Scheibling, Robert E. (January 2017).

1718:

Jackson, G.A. 1977. Nutrients and production of giant kelp,

1661:

from the Philippine Sea. Nov Sistem. Nizch. Rast. 10: 59-61.

670:

A kelp forest off of the coast of Anacapa Island, California

3099:"New research to address kelp forest crisis in California" 2715: 1978:

Filbee-Dexter, Karen; Scheibling, Robert E. (2014-01-09).

326:

from their normal population regulation and result in the

2948:"Marine Invasive Species - Channel Islands National Park" 1592:

NOAA. Updated 11 January 2013. Retrieved 15 January 2014.

945:

from sewage, industrial byproducts and contaminants like

1644:

Joly, A.B. and E.C. Oliveira Filho. 1967. Two Brazilian

949:

and heavy metals (for example, copper, zinc), runoff of

712:

Prostrate kelps lie near and along the sea floor (e.g.,

2347:

Filbee-Dexter, Karen; Wernberg, Thomas (23 July 2020).

795:

live over the encrusting coralline algae. In addition,

1426:

Steneck, R.S., M.H. Graham, B.J. Bourque, D. Corbett,

1810:

Andrew, N.L. 1993. Spatial heterogeneity, sea urchin

1342:"Non-Flat Earth Recalibrated for Terrain and Topsoil" 1106:

Major issues of concern include marine pollution and

1371: 1369: 600:

occurs throughout the northeastern and southeastern

480:), the body of an individual organism is known as a 4824: 4782: 4711: 4655: 4644: 4624: 4551: 4516: 4490: 4452: 4421: 4390: 4381: 4372: 4225: 4097: 4033: 3995: 3933: 3823: 3740: 3605: 3308: 1771: 1769: 1767: 242:on Earth. Although algal kelp forest combined with 2690:University of California Santa Cruz (2021-03-05). 2323:"How Kelp Naturally Combats Global Climate Change" 2310:Monterey Bay Aquarium celebrates its 37th birthday 1833: 1831: 1829: 932:. Examples of environmental disturbances include: 2751:Smithsonian Contributions to the Marine Sciences 819:can damage kelp forests by chewing through kelp 3249:Watch a live feed from the kelp forest exhibit. 3028:Coastal and Marine Sciences Institute, UC Davis 1470: 1468: 1466: 1464: 1462: 1460: 1458: 1456: 564:waters worldwide. Of the more dominant genera, 469:, and cormorants, as well as some shore birds. 279: 2216: 2214: 2077: 2075: 1855: 1853: 1680: 1678: 1676: 1609: 1607: 1422: 1420: 1418: 1416: 1414: 390:spp.), although numerous other genera such as 4350: 3558:Stable isotope analysis in aquatic ecosystems 3268: 3178:. https://wedocs.unep.org/20.500.11822/42255. 1955: 1953: 1951: 1949: 1947: 1730: 1728: 1692: 1690: 1266: 1264: 208: 8: 1754: 1752: 1238:United Nations Sustainable Development Goals 568:is mainly associated with both sides of the 230:are underwater areas with a high density of 4498:Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub 3623:Freshwater environmental quality parameters 3192:"Kelp Forest & Rocky Subtidal Habitats" 2045:Cowen, R.K. 1983. The effect of sheephead ( 1648:. Instituto de Pesquisas da Marinha 4: 1-7. 1062:sequestered in the Australian continent by 318:. Of particular concern are the effects of 4652: 4387: 4378: 4357: 4343: 4335: 3939: 3820: 3807: 3305: 3291: 3275: 3261: 3253: 2065: 2063: 2032: 2030: 1446: 1444: 1442: 1440: 250:. Kelp forests occur worldwide throughout 215: 201: 29: 2820:"New Findings on Kelp Forest Restoration" 2380: 2053:) populations: an experimental analysis. 1779:of sea urchins. Marine Biology 51: 83-91. 1357: 1315: 1305: 322:nearshore ecosystems, which can release 268: 1742: 1740: 1260: 153: 132: 109: 51: 32: 27:Underwater areas highly dense with kelp 3170: 3168: 1186:has led to its critical endangerment. 1158:removal, both by scuba divers, and by 290:, 1 June 1834, Tierra del Fuego, Chile 1135:Kelp forest restoration in California 871:) control populations of herbivorous 7: 4482:Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands 4444:Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands 3024:"Kelp: California's Coastal Forests" 1707:Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 1217:United Nations Environment Programme 556:Kelps are primarily associated with 514:In addition, many kelp species have 3886:Oceanic physical-biological process 3748:List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF) 2667:"California's Crashing Kelp Forest" 1021:of kelp-associated species such as 274:Global distribution of kelp forests 3122:Bittenbender, Steve (2021-08-10). 3097:Leitzell, Katherine (2020-07-06). 2844:"Saving California's kelp forests" 662:forest off the coast of California 25: 4408:Montane grasslands and shrublands 2321:Hurlimann, Sylvia (4 July 2019). 1790:Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis 1110:, kelp harvesting and fisheries, 4319: 4318: 4306: 4292: 3924: 3596: 3413:Colored dissolved organic matter 3233:"Monterey Bay Aquarium Kelp Cam" 961:) and land-based pathogens like 851:grazing on a blade of giant kelp 484:rather than as a plant (kingdom 40: 4524:Flooded grasslands and savannas 3758:Latin America and the Caribbean 3004:Center for Biological Diversity 2972:Ritchie, Erika I (2020-09-08). 2051:Strongylocentrotus franciscanus 2049:) predation on red sea urchin ( 1162:, which are natural predators. 1056:University of Western Australia 346:'s east coast and the coast of 4837:Ecological land classification 4366:Biogeographic regionalisations 4240:Ecological values of mangroves 3783:North Pacific Subtropical Gyre 2928:Greater Farallones Association 2770:Marine Ecology Progress Series 2452:MacDonald, Lucy (2019-02-06). 1984:Marine Ecology Progress Series 1499:Marine Ecology Progress Series 1017:Modern economies are based on 1: 2899:SeaTrees, by Sustainable Surf 1626:. Marine Biology 56: 103-110. 1282:"Global Seaweed Productivity" 1200:for kelp forest restoration. 4503:Deserts and xeric shrublands 4260:Marine conservation activism 4245:Fisheries and climate change 3049:"Kelp Reforestation Program" 2744:"Kelp Forests in California" 1029:and to extract the compound 1009:A diver measures kelp growth 973:El Niño-Southern Oscillation 834:is an important predator of 4744:Temperate Northern Atlantic 4434:Broadleaf and mixed forests 4255:Human impact on marine life 4132:Davidson Seamount § Ecology 3368:Aquatic population dynamics 1211:Global Conservation Efforts 295:Physically formed by brown 4899: 4847:Vegetation classifications 4749:Temperate Northern Pacific 2952:U.S. National Park Service 2742:Foster, Michael S (2013). 2665:Kerlin, Kat (2019-10-21). 2373:10.1038/s41598-020-69258-7 1359:10.3390/soilsystems2040064 1340:Blakemore, Robert (2018). 361: 307:patterns and provide many 4759:Temperate Southern Africa 4286: 3942: 3922: 3871:Marine primary production 3819: 3806: 3765:List of marine ecoregions 3594: 3304: 3290: 3053:Orange County Coastkeeper 1250:Aquaculture of giant kelp 610:San Francisco, California 472:Frequently considered an 4769:Tropical Eastern Pacific 4719:Antarctic/Southern Ocean 4117:Coastal biogeomorphology 4112:Marine coastal ecosystem 1387:The Voyage of the Beagle 1180:Sea star wasting disease 350:. The implementation of 4790:Biogeographic provinces 4754:Temperate South America 4472:Moist broadleaf forests 4025:Paradox of the plankton 3836:Diel vertical migration 3730:Freshwater swamp forest 3448:GIS and aquatic science 3296:General components and 2895:"Project: Palos Verdes" 1182:and a vulnerability to 963:fecal coliform bacteria 545:, while others such as 3851:Large marine ecosystem 3543:Shoaling and schooling 2979:Orange County Register 2298:Haliotis discus hannai 1298:10.1126/sciadv.abn2465 1148: 1129:Marine protected areas 1099: 1078:Threats and management 1010: 852: 845:The jeweled top snail 838: 823: 815:Sea urchins like this 682: 671: 663: 651: 636:Ecosystem architecture 380:Laminariales (phylum: 352:marine protected areas 283: 276: 4852:Zoogeographic regions 4810:Global 200 ecoregions 4739:Temperate Australasia 4477:Dry broadleaf forests 4270:Marine protected area 4197:Salt pannes and pools 3972:Marine larval ecology 3947:Census of Marine Life 3831:Deep scattering layer 3788:San Francisco Estuary 3753:Africa and Madagascar 3578:Underwater camouflage 3358:Aquatic biomonitoring 3298:freshwater ecosystems 3241:Monterey Bay Aquarium 2047:Semicossyphus pulcher 1147:through a kelp forest 1142: 1085: 1008: 848:Calliostoma annulatum 844: 829: 814: 765:Brachyistius frenatus 677: 669: 657: 643: 272: 4832:Altitudinal zonation 4774:Western Indo-Pacific 4734:Eastern Indo-Pacific 4729:Central Indo-Pacific 4005:Marine bacteriophage 3967:Marine invertebrates 3103:California Sea Grant 3073:"Kelp is on the Way" 2285:Macrocystis pyrifera 1720:Macrocystis pyrifera 1624:Macrocystis pyrifera 1203:Ocean Rainforest, a 1049:As carbon sequesters 886:California sheephead 761:Caprella californica 745:Macrocystis pyrifera 248:primary productivity 4805:Lists of ecoregions 4462:Tropical rainforest 3881:Ocean fertilization 3690:Trophic state index 3648:Lake stratification 3378:Aquatic respiration 2782:2021MEPS..664..117W 2721:Pew Research Center 2671:Science and Climate 2422:2016NatGe...9..737K 2365:2020NatSR..1012341F 2327:Science in the News 1996:2014MEPS..495....1F 1914:2017Ecol...98..253F 1565:Steinbauer, James. 1511:2016MEPS..543..141F 880:that mediates this 531:mixed surface layer 348:Northern California 4842:Floristic kingdoms 4606:Hydrothermal vents 4467:Coniferous forests 4429:Coniferous forests 4147:Intertidal wetland 4142:Intertidal ecology 4010:Marine prokaryotes 3952:Deep-sea community 3846:Iron fertilization 3769:Specific examples 3695:Upland and lowland 3613:Freshwater biology 3478:Microbial food web 3388:Aquatic toxicology 3331:Aquatic adaptation 3284:Aquatic ecosystems 3077:Humboldt State Now 2919:Hohman, R (2019). 2599:Paddack, M.J. and 2353:Scientific Reports 1176:Sunflower sea star 1149: 1100: 1043:ecosystem services 1011: 977:nutrient depletion 936:Acute and chronic 853: 839: 824: 777:and turban snails 683: 672: 664: 652: 572:and the coasts of 474:ecosystem engineer 316:forest degradation 309:ecosystem services 277: 169:Hydrothermal vents 120:Surface microlayer 4860: 4859: 4820: 4819: 4764:Tropical Atlantic 4640: 4639: 4547: 4546: 4439:Deciduous forests 4332: 4331: 4313:Oceans portal 4282: 4281: 4278: 4277: 4157:Hydrothermal vent 4093: 4092: 3982:Seashore wildlife 3813:Marine ecosystems 3802: 3801: 3798: 3797: 3568:Thermal pollution 3533:Ramsar Convention 3473:Microbial ecology 3433:Fisheries science 3373:Aquatic predation 2790:10.3354/meps13680 2410:Nature Geoscience 2250:Simenstad, C.A., 2004:10.3354/meps10573 1519:10.3354/meps11554 1385:Darwin, C. 1909. 1168:Sargassum horneri 817:purple sea urchin 630:Galapagos Islands 467:great blue herons 376:belonging to the 332:barren landscapes 225: 224: 97:Continental shelf 16:(Redirected from 4890: 4878:Fishing industry 4653: 4388: 4379: 4359: 4352: 4345: 4336: 4322: 4321: 4315: 4311: 4310: 4301: 4299:Lakes portal 4297: 4296: 4295: 4265:Marine pollution 3957:Deep-water coral 3940: 3928: 3861:Marine chemistry 3821: 3808: 3725:Freshwater marsh 3618:Freshwater biome 3600: 3316:Acoustic ecology 3306: 3292: 3277: 3270: 3263: 3254: 3248: 3243:. Archived from 3227: 3203: 3198:. Archived from 3179: 3172: 3163: 3162: 3160: 3159: 3144: 3138: 3137: 3135: 3134: 3119: 3113: 3112: 3110: 3109: 3094: 3088: 3087: 3085: 3084: 3069: 3063: 3062: 3060: 3059: 3045: 3039: 3038: 3036: 3035: 3020: 3014: 3013: 3011: 3010: 2996: 2990: 2989: 2987: 2986: 2969: 2963: 2962: 2960: 2959: 2944: 2938: 2937: 2935: 2934: 2925: 2916: 2910: 2909: 2907: 2906: 2891: 2885: 2884: 2882: 2881: 2866: 2860: 2859: 2857: 2856: 2840: 2834: 2833: 2831: 2830: 2816: 2810: 2809: 2761: 2755: 2754: 2748: 2739: 2733: 2732: 2730: 2729: 2712: 2706: 2705: 2703: 2702: 2687: 2681: 2680: 2678: 2677: 2662: 2656: 2655: 2653: 2652: 2637: 2631: 2628: 2622: 2619: 2613: 2610: 2604: 2597: 2591: 2584: 2578: 2575: 2569: 2566: 2560: 2556: 2550: 2547: 2541: 2538: 2532: 2531: 2529: 2528: 2514: 2508: 2505: 2499: 2496: 2490: 2487: 2481: 2474: 2468: 2467: 2465: 2464: 2449: 2443: 2440: 2434: 2433: 2430:10.1038/ngeo2790 2401: 2395: 2394: 2384: 2344: 2338: 2337: 2335: 2333: 2318: 2312: 2307: 2301: 2294: 2288: 2281: 2275: 2271: 2265: 2261: 2255: 2248: 2242: 2235: 2229: 2218: 2209: 2205: 2199: 2196: 2190: 2187: 2181: 2178: 2172: 2169: 2163: 2159: 2153: 2146: 2140: 2137: 2131: 2128: 2122: 2119: 2113: 2110: 2104: 2097: 2091: 2088: 2082: 2079: 2070: 2067: 2058: 2043: 2037: 2034: 2025: 2022: 2016: 2015: 1975: 1969: 1966: 1960: 1957: 1942: 1941: 1922:10.1002/ecy.1638 1893: 1887: 1884: 1878: 1875: 1869: 1866: 1860: 1857: 1848: 1844: 1838: 1835: 1824: 1821: 1815: 1808: 1802: 1799: 1793: 1786: 1780: 1773: 1762: 1756: 1747: 1744: 1735: 1732: 1723: 1716: 1710: 1703: 1697: 1694: 1685: 1682: 1671: 1668: 1662: 1655: 1649: 1642: 1636: 1633: 1627: 1620: 1614: 1611: 1602: 1599: 1593: 1587: 1581: 1580: 1578: 1577: 1562: 1556: 1555: 1553: 1552: 1537: 1531: 1530: 1490: 1484: 1481: 1475: 1472: 1451: 1448: 1435: 1424: 1409: 1406: 1400: 1396: 1390: 1383: 1377: 1373: 1364: 1363: 1361: 1336: 1330: 1329: 1319: 1309: 1292:(37): eabn2465. 1286:Science Advances 1277: 1271: 1268: 1112:invasive species 1068:mangrove forests 991:Ecklonia radiata 951:organophosphates 878:keystone species 647:swimming around 614:Aleutian Islands 461:, gulls, terns, 291: 217: 210: 203: 82:Seagrass meadows 77:Mangrove forests 53:Coastal habitats 44: 30: 21: 4898: 4897: 4893: 4892: 4891: 4889: 4888: 4887: 4873:Aquatic ecology 4863: 4862: 4861: 4856: 4816: 4778: 4707: 4647: 4636: 4632:Endolithic zone 4620: 4553: 4543: 4512: 4486: 4454: 4448: 4417: 4383: 4368: 4363: 4333: 4328: 4305: 4304: 4293: 4291: 4290: 4274: 4235:Coral bleaching 4221: 4202:Seagrass meadow 4099:Marine habitats 4089: 4063:Coral reef fish 4029: 4015:Marine protists 3991: 3929: 3920: 3891:Ocean turbidity 3866:Marine food web 3815: 3794: 3736: 3675:River ecosystem 3628:Freshwater fish 3601: 3592: 3398:Bioluminescence 3383:Aquatic science 3300: 3286: 3281: 3231: 3206: 3190: 3187: 3182: 3173: 3166: 3157: 3155: 3146: 3145: 3141: 3132: 3130: 3121: 3120: 3116: 3107: 3105: 3096: 3095: 3091: 3082: 3080: 3071: 3070: 3066: 3057: 3055: 3047: 3046: 3042: 3033: 3031: 3022: 3021: 3017: 3008: 3006: 2998: 2997: 2993: 2984: 2982: 2971: 2970: 2966: 2957: 2955: 2946: 2945: 2941: 2932: 2930: 2923: 2918: 2917: 2913: 2904: 2902: 2893: 2892: 2888: 2879: 2877: 2868: 2867: 2863: 2854: 2852: 2842: 2841: 2837: 2828: 2826: 2818: 2817: 2813: 2763: 2762: 2758: 2746: 2741: 2740: 2736: 2727: 2725: 2714: 2713: 2709: 2700: 2698: 2689: 2688: 2684: 2675: 2673: 2664: 2663: 2659: 2650: 2648: 2639: 2638: 2634: 2629: 2625: 2620: 2616: 2611: 2607: 2598: 2594: 2585: 2581: 2576: 2572: 2567: 2563: 2557: 2553: 2548: 2544: 2539: 2535: 2526: 2524: 2516: 2515: 2511: 2506: 2502: 2497: 2493: 2488: 2484: 2475: 2471: 2462: 2460: 2451: 2450: 2446: 2441: 2437: 2416:(10): 737–742. 2403: 2402: 2398: 2346: 2345: 2341: 2331: 2329: 2320: 2319: 2315: 2308: 2304: 2295: 2291: 2282: 2278: 2272: 2268: 2262: 2258: 2249: 2245: 2236: 2232: 2219: 2212: 2206: 2202: 2197: 2193: 2188: 2184: 2179: 2175: 2170: 2166: 2160: 2156: 2147: 2143: 2138: 2134: 2129: 2125: 2120: 2116: 2111: 2107: 2101:Ecklonia maxima 2098: 2094: 2089: 2085: 2080: 2073: 2068: 2061: 2044: 2040: 2035: 2028: 2023: 2019: 1977: 1976: 1972: 1967: 1963: 1958: 1945: 1895: 1894: 1890: 1885: 1881: 1876: 1872: 1867: 1863: 1858: 1851: 1845: 1841: 1836: 1827: 1822: 1818: 1809: 1805: 1800: 1796: 1787: 1783: 1774: 1765: 1757: 1750: 1745: 1738: 1733: 1726: 1717: 1713: 1704: 1700: 1695: 1688: 1683: 1674: 1669: 1665: 1656: 1652: 1643: 1639: 1634: 1630: 1621: 1617: 1612: 1605: 1600: 1596: 1588: 1584: 1575: 1573: 1564: 1563: 1559: 1550: 1548: 1539: 1538: 1534: 1492: 1491: 1487: 1482: 1478: 1473: 1454: 1449: 1438: 1425: 1412: 1407: 1403: 1397: 1393: 1384: 1380: 1374: 1367: 1339: 1337: 1333: 1279: 1278: 1274: 1269: 1262: 1258: 1246: 1213: 1137: 1086:The nudibranch 1080: 1051: 1003: 925: 882:trophic cascade 809: 807:Trophic ecology 758:skeleton shrimp 638: 426:are described. 366: 360: 293: 285: 275: 221: 189:Marine sediment 125:Epipelagic zone 67:Intertidal zone 47: 34:Marine habitats 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4896: 4894: 4886: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4865: 4864: 4858: 4857: 4855: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4839: 4834: 4828: 4826: 4822: 4821: 4818: 4817: 4815: 4814: 4813: 4812: 4807: 4797: 4792: 4786: 4784: 4780: 4779: 4777: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4751: 4746: 4741: 4736: 4731: 4726: 4721: 4715: 4713: 4709: 4708: 4706: 4705: 4700: 4695: 4690: 4685: 4680: 4675: 4670: 4665: 4659: 4657: 4650: 4646:Biogeographic 4642: 4641: 4638: 4637: 4635: 4634: 4628: 4626: 4622: 4621: 4619: 4618: 4613: 4608: 4603: 4598: 4593: 4588: 4583: 4578: 4573: 4568: 4563: 4557: 4555: 4549: 4548: 4545: 4544: 4542: 4541: 4536: 4531: 4526: 4520: 4518: 4514: 4513: 4511: 4510: 4505: 4500: 4494: 4492: 4488: 4487: 4485: 4484: 4479: 4474: 4469: 4464: 4458: 4456: 4450: 4449: 4447: 4446: 4441: 4436: 4431: 4425: 4423: 4419: 4418: 4416: 4415: 4410: 4405: 4400: 4394: 4392: 4385: 4376: 4370: 4369: 4364: 4362: 4361: 4354: 4347: 4339: 4330: 4329: 4327: 4326: 4316: 4302: 4287: 4284: 4283: 4280: 4279: 4276: 4275: 4273: 4272: 4267: 4262: 4257: 4252: 4247: 4242: 4237: 4231: 4229: 4223: 4222: 4220: 4219: 4214: 4209: 4204: 4199: 4194: 4189: 4184: 4179: 4174: 4169: 4164: 4159: 4154: 4149: 4144: 4139: 4134: 4129: 4124: 4119: 4114: 4109: 4103: 4101: 4095: 4094: 4091: 4090: 4088: 4087: 4082: 4081: 4080: 4075: 4070: 4065: 4060: 4053:Saltwater fish 4050: 4048:Marine reptile 4045: 4039: 4037: 4031: 4030: 4028: 4027: 4022: 4020:Marine viruses 4017: 4012: 4007: 4001: 3999: 3997:Microorganisms 3993: 3992: 3990: 3989: 3987:Wild fisheries 3984: 3979: 3974: 3969: 3964: 3959: 3954: 3949: 3943: 3937: 3931: 3930: 3923: 3921: 3919: 3918: 3913: 3908: 3903: 3901:Thorson's rule 3898: 3893: 3888: 3883: 3878: 3873: 3868: 3863: 3858: 3856:Marine biology 3853: 3848: 3843: 3838: 3833: 3827: 3825: 3817: 3816: 3811: 3804: 3803: 3800: 3799: 3796: 3795: 3793: 3792: 3791: 3790: 3785: 3780: 3775: 3767: 3762: 3761: 3760: 3755: 3744: 3742: 3738: 3737: 3735: 3734: 3733: 3732: 3727: 3722: 3717: 3715:Brackish marsh 3712: 3702: 3697: 3692: 3687: 3682: 3677: 3672: 3667: 3666: 3665: 3655: 3650: 3645: 3643:Lake ecosystem 3640: 3635: 3633:Hyporheic zone 3630: 3625: 3620: 3615: 3609: 3607: 3603: 3602: 3595: 3593: 3591: 3590: 3585: 3580: 3575: 3570: 3565: 3560: 3555: 3550: 3545: 3540: 3535: 3530: 3525: 3520: 3515: 3510: 3505: 3500: 3495: 3490: 3485: 3483:Microbial loop 3480: 3475: 3470: 3465: 3460: 3455: 3450: 3445: 3440: 3435: 3430: 3428:Eutrophication 3425: 3420: 3415: 3410: 3408:Cascade effect 3405: 3400: 3395: 3390: 3385: 3380: 3375: 3370: 3365: 3360: 3355: 3354: 3353: 3348: 3343: 3336:Aquatic animal 3333: 3328: 3323: 3318: 3312: 3310: 3302: 3301: 3295: 3288: 3287: 3282: 3280: 3279: 3272: 3265: 3257: 3251: 3250: 3247:on 1999-11-28. 3229: 3226:on 2004-12-04. 3204: 3202:on 2007-03-22. 3186: 3185:External links 3183: 3181: 3180: 3164: 3139: 3114: 3089: 3064: 3040: 3015: 2991: 2964: 2939: 2911: 2886: 2861: 2835: 2811: 2756: 2734: 2707: 2682: 2657: 2632: 2623: 2614: 2605: 2592: 2588:Pagrus auratus 2579: 2570: 2561: 2551: 2542: 2533: 2509: 2500: 2491: 2482: 2469: 2444: 2435: 2396: 2339: 2313: 2302: 2289: 2276: 2266: 2256: 2243: 2230: 2210: 2200: 2191: 2182: 2173: 2164: 2154: 2141: 2132: 2123: 2114: 2105: 2092: 2083: 2071: 2059: 2038: 2026: 2017: 1970: 1961: 1943: 1908:(1): 253–264. 1888: 1879: 1870: 1861: 1849: 1839: 1825: 1816: 1803: 1794: 1781: 1777:mass mortality 1763: 1748: 1736: 1724: 1711: 1698: 1686: 1672: 1663: 1650: 1637: 1628: 1615: 1603: 1594: 1582: 1557: 1532: 1485: 1476: 1452: 1436: 1428:J.M. Erlandson 1410: 1401: 1391: 1378: 1365: 1338:See Fig. 3 in 1331: 1272: 1259: 1257: 1254: 1253: 1252: 1245: 1242: 1212: 1209: 1184:climate change 1165:A brown alga, 1136: 1133: 1116:climate change 1089:Melibe leonina 1079: 1076: 1050: 1047: 1002: 999: 986: 985: 981: 970: 966: 943:eutrophication 924: 923:Patch dynamics 921: 897:urchin barrens 869:Enhydra lutris 861:trophic levels 808: 805: 801:marine mammals 797:pelagic fishes 753:Melibe leonina 728: 727: 724: 717: 710: 699: 637: 634: 606:Southern Ocean 570:Atlantic Ocean 512: 511: 504: 497: 362:Main article: 359: 356: 340:climate change 288:Charles Darwin 278: 273: 223: 222: 220: 219: 212: 205: 197: 194: 193: 192: 191: 186: 181: 176: 171: 166: 158: 157: 151: 150: 149: 148: 143: 135: 134: 130: 129: 128: 127: 122: 114: 113: 107: 106: 105: 104: 99: 94: 89: 84: 79: 74: 69: 64: 56: 55: 49: 48: 45: 37: 36: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4895: 4884: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4874: 4871: 4870: 4868: 4853: 4850: 4848: 4845: 4843: 4840: 4838: 4835: 4833: 4830: 4829: 4827: 4823: 4811: 4808: 4806: 4803: 4802: 4801: 4798: 4796: 4793: 4791: 4788: 4787: 4785: 4781: 4775: 4772: 4770: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4757: 4755: 4752: 4750: 4747: 4745: 4742: 4740: 4737: 4735: 4732: 4730: 4727: 4725: 4722: 4720: 4717: 4716: 4714: 4710: 4704: 4701: 4699: 4696: 4694: 4691: 4689: 4686: 4684: 4681: 4679: 4676: 4674: 4671: 4669: 4666: 4664: 4661: 4660: 4658: 4654: 4651: 4649: 4643: 4633: 4630: 4629: 4627: 4623: 4617: 4616:Demersal zone 4614: 4612: 4609: 4607: 4604: 4602: 4599: 4597: 4594: 4592: 4589: 4587: 4584: 4582: 4579: 4577: 4574: 4572: 4569: 4567: 4564: 4562: 4559: 4558: 4556: 4550: 4540: 4537: 4535: 4532: 4530: 4527: 4525: 4522: 4521: 4519: 4515: 4509: 4506: 4504: 4501: 4499: 4496: 4495: 4493: 4489: 4483: 4480: 4478: 4475: 4473: 4470: 4468: 4465: 4463: 4460: 4459: 4457: 4451: 4445: 4442: 4440: 4437: 4435: 4432: 4430: 4427: 4426: 4424: 4420: 4414: 4413:Alpine tundra 4411: 4409: 4406: 4404: 4401: 4399: 4396: 4395: 4393: 4391:Polar/montane 4389: 4386: 4380: 4377: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4360: 4355: 4353: 4348: 4346: 4341: 4340: 4337: 4325: 4317: 4314: 4309: 4303: 4300: 4289: 4288: 4285: 4271: 4268: 4266: 4263: 4261: 4258: 4256: 4253: 4251: 4248: 4246: 4243: 4241: 4238: 4236: 4233: 4232: 4230: 4228: 4224: 4218: 4215: 4213: 4210: 4208: 4207:Sponge ground 4205: 4203: 4200: 4198: 4195: 4193: 4190: 4188: 4185: 4183: 4180: 4178: 4175: 4173: 4172:Marine biomes 4170: 4168: 4165: 4163: 4160: 4158: 4155: 4153: 4150: 4148: 4145: 4143: 4140: 4138: 4135: 4133: 4130: 4128: 4125: 4123: 4120: 4118: 4115: 4113: 4110: 4108: 4105: 4104: 4102: 4100: 4096: 4086: 4083: 4079: 4076: 4074: 4073:Demersal fish 4071: 4069: 4068:Deep-sea fish 4066: 4064: 4061: 4059: 4056: 4055: 4054: 4051: 4049: 4046: 4044: 4043:Marine mammal 4041: 4040: 4038: 4036: 4032: 4026: 4023: 4021: 4018: 4016: 4013: 4011: 4008: 4006: 4003: 4002: 4000: 3998: 3994: 3988: 3985: 3983: 3980: 3978: 3975: 3973: 3970: 3968: 3965: 3963: 3960: 3958: 3955: 3953: 3950: 3948: 3945: 3944: 3941: 3938: 3936: 3932: 3927: 3917: 3914: 3912: 3909: 3907: 3904: 3902: 3899: 3897: 3894: 3892: 3889: 3887: 3884: 3882: 3879: 3877: 3874: 3872: 3869: 3867: 3864: 3862: 3859: 3857: 3854: 3852: 3849: 3847: 3844: 3842: 3839: 3837: 3834: 3832: 3829: 3828: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3809: 3805: 3789: 3786: 3784: 3781: 3779: 3776: 3774: 3771: 3770: 3768: 3766: 3763: 3759: 3756: 3754: 3751: 3750: 3749: 3746: 3745: 3743: 3739: 3731: 3728: 3726: 3723: 3721: 3718: 3716: 3713: 3711: 3708: 3707: 3706: 3703: 3701: 3698: 3696: 3693: 3691: 3688: 3686: 3683: 3681: 3678: 3676: 3673: 3671: 3668: 3664: 3661: 3660: 3659: 3656: 3654: 3651: 3649: 3646: 3644: 3641: 3639: 3636: 3634: 3631: 3629: 3626: 3624: 3621: 3619: 3616: 3614: 3611: 3610: 3608: 3604: 3599: 3589: 3586: 3584: 3581: 3579: 3576: 3574: 3573:Trophic level 3571: 3569: 3566: 3564: 3561: 3559: 3556: 3554: 3551: 3549: 3546: 3544: 3541: 3539: 3538:Sediment trap 3536: 3534: 3531: 3529: 3526: 3524: 3521: 3519: 3516: 3514: 3513:Phytoplankton 3511: 3509: 3506: 3504: 3501: 3499: 3496: 3494: 3491: 3489: 3486: 3484: 3481: 3479: 3476: 3474: 3471: 3469: 3466: 3464: 3461: 3459: 3456: 3454: 3451: 3449: 3446: 3444: 3441: 3439: 3436: 3434: 3431: 3429: 3426: 3424: 3421: 3419: 3416: 3414: 3411: 3409: 3406: 3404: 3401: 3399: 3396: 3394: 3391: 3389: 3386: 3384: 3381: 3379: 3376: 3374: 3371: 3369: 3366: 3364: 3363:Aquatic plant 3361: 3359: 3356: 3352: 3349: 3347: 3344: 3342: 3339: 3338: 3337: 3334: 3332: 3329: 3327: 3326:Anoxic waters 3324: 3322: 3319: 3317: 3314: 3313: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3278: 3273: 3271: 3266: 3264: 3259: 3258: 3255: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3188: 3184: 3177: 3171: 3169: 3165: 3153: 3152:The Fish Site 3149: 3143: 3140: 3129: 3128:SeafoodSource 3125: 3118: 3115: 3104: 3100: 3093: 3090: 3078: 3074: 3068: 3065: 3054: 3050: 3044: 3041: 3029: 3025: 3019: 3016: 3005: 3001: 2995: 2992: 2981: 2980: 2975: 2968: 2965: 2953: 2949: 2943: 2940: 2929: 2922: 2915: 2912: 2900: 2896: 2890: 2887: 2875: 2871: 2865: 2862: 2851: 2850: 2845: 2839: 2836: 2825: 2821: 2815: 2812: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2760: 2757: 2752: 2745: 2738: 2735: 2723: 2722: 2717: 2711: 2708: 2697: 2693: 2686: 2683: 2672: 2668: 2661: 2658: 2646: 2642: 2636: 2633: 2627: 2624: 2618: 2615: 2609: 2606: 2602: 2596: 2593: 2589: 2583: 2580: 2574: 2571: 2565: 2562: 2555: 2552: 2546: 2543: 2537: 2534: 2523: 2519: 2513: 2510: 2504: 2501: 2495: 2492: 2486: 2483: 2479: 2473: 2470: 2459: 2455: 2448: 2445: 2439: 2436: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2400: 2397: 2392: 2388: 2383: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2343: 2340: 2328: 2324: 2317: 2314: 2311: 2306: 2303: 2299: 2293: 2290: 2286: 2280: 2277: 2270: 2267: 2260: 2257: 2253: 2247: 2244: 2241:148: 491-502. 2240: 2234: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2217: 2215: 2211: 2204: 2201: 2195: 2192: 2186: 2183: 2177: 2174: 2168: 2165: 2158: 2155: 2151: 2145: 2142: 2136: 2133: 2127: 2124: 2118: 2115: 2109: 2106: 2102: 2096: 2093: 2087: 2084: 2078: 2076: 2072: 2066: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2042: 2039: 2033: 2031: 2027: 2021: 2018: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1974: 1971: 1965: 1962: 1956: 1954: 1952: 1950: 1948: 1944: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1892: 1889: 1883: 1880: 1874: 1871: 1865: 1862: 1856: 1854: 1850: 1843: 1840: 1834: 1832: 1830: 1826: 1820: 1817: 1813: 1807: 1804: 1798: 1795: 1791: 1785: 1782: 1778: 1772: 1770: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1755: 1753: 1749: 1743: 1741: 1737: 1731: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1715: 1712: 1708: 1702: 1699: 1693: 1691: 1687: 1681: 1679: 1677: 1673: 1667: 1664: 1660: 1654: 1651: 1647: 1641: 1638: 1632: 1629: 1625: 1619: 1616: 1610: 1608: 1604: 1598: 1595: 1591: 1586: 1583: 1572: 1568: 1561: 1558: 1547: 1543: 1536: 1533: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1489: 1486: 1480: 1477: 1471: 1469: 1467: 1465: 1463: 1461: 1459: 1457: 1453: 1447: 1445: 1443: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1423: 1421: 1419: 1417: 1415: 1411: 1405: 1402: 1395: 1392: 1388: 1382: 1379: 1372: 1370: 1366: 1360: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1335: 1332: 1327: 1323: 1318: 1313: 1308: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1276: 1273: 1267: 1265: 1261: 1255: 1251: 1248: 1247: 1243: 1241: 1239: 1235: 1229: 1227: 1223: 1218: 1210: 1208: 1206: 1205:Faroe Islands 1201: 1199: 1194: 1191: 1187: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1172: 1170: 1169: 1163: 1161: 1157: 1152: 1146: 1141: 1134: 1132: 1130: 1124: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1108:water quality 1104: 1097: 1096: 1091: 1090: 1084: 1077: 1075: 1073: 1072:seagrass beds 1069: 1065: 1064:tidal marshes 1061: 1057: 1048: 1046: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1015: 1007: 1000: 998: 996: 992: 982: 978: 974: 971: 967: 964: 960: 956: 952: 948: 944: 939: 935: 934: 933: 931: 922: 920: 917: 913: 909: 905: 900: 898: 893: 891: 887: 883: 879: 874: 870: 866: 862: 858: 850: 849: 843: 837: 833: 828: 822: 818: 813: 806: 804: 802: 798: 794: 790: 786: 782: 781: 776: 775:brittle stars 772: 771: 766: 762: 759: 755: 754: 750: 747:forests, the 746: 741: 737: 733: 725: 722: 718: 715: 711: 708: 704: 700: 697: 693: 689: 688: 687: 680: 676: 668: 661: 658:A diver in a 656: 650: 646: 642: 635: 633: 631: 626: 622: 617: 615: 611: 607: 603: 602:Pacific Ocean 599: 595: 591: 587: 583: 579: 575: 571: 567: 563: 559: 554: 552: 548: 544: 540: 536: 532: 528: 524: 519: 517: 516:pneumatocysts 509: 505: 502: 498: 495: 491: 490: 489: 487: 483: 479: 475: 470: 468: 464: 460: 456: 455:brittle stars 452: 451:bristle worms 448: 447:marine snails 444: 440: 436: 435:invertebrates 432: 427: 425: 424: 419: 418: 413: 412: 407: 406: 401: 400: 395: 394: 389: 388: 383: 379: 375: 371: 365: 357: 355: 353: 349: 345: 341: 337: 333: 329: 325: 321: 317: 312: 310: 306: 305:oceanographic 302: 298: 292: 289: 282: 271: 267: 265: 261: 257: 253: 249: 245: 241: 237: 233: 229: 218: 213: 211: 206: 204: 199: 198: 196: 195: 190: 187: 185: 182: 180: 179:Demersal zone 177: 175: 172: 170: 167: 165: 162: 161: 160: 159: 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