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546:
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1222:, after investigating six areas of ~3 km depth ~300 km off the Australian coast. They found the highly variable microplastic counts to be proportionate to plastic on the surface and the angle of the seafloor slope. By averaging the microplastic mass per cm, they estimated that Earth's seafloor contains ~14 million tons of microplastic – about double the amount they estimated based on data from earlier studies – despite calling both estimates "conservative" as coastal areas are known to contain much more
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size indicates the type of sediment and the environment in which it was created. Larger grains sink faster and can only be pushed by rapid flowing water (high energy environment) whereas small grains sink very slowly and can be suspended by slight water movement, accumulating in conditions where water is not moving so quickly. This means that larger grains of sediment may come together in higher energy conditions and smaller grains in lower energy conditions.
20:
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meters because at further depths the calcium dissolves. Similarly, Siliceous oozes are dominated by the siliceous shells of phytoplankton like diatoms and zooplankton such as radiolarians. Depending on the productivity of these planktonic organisms, the shell material that collects when these organisms die may build up at a rate anywhere from 1 mm to 1 cm every 1000 years.
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1040:
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Hydrogenous sediments are uncommon. They only occur with changes in oceanic conditions such as temperature and pressure. Rarer still are cosmogenous sediments. Hydrogenous sediments are formed from dissolved chemicals that precipitate from the ocean water, or along the mid-ocean ridges, they can form
689:
grow in ocean waters and create the materials that become oozes on the seabed. Calcareous oozes are predominantly composed of calcium shells found in phytoplankton such as coccolithophores and zooplankton like the foraminiferans. These calcareous oozes are never found deeper than about 4,000 to 5,000
737:
Another way that sediments are described is through their descriptive classification. These sediments vary in size, anywhere from 1/4096 of a mm to greater than 256 mm. The different types are: boulder, cobble, pebble, granule, sand, silt, and clay, each type becoming finer in grain. The grain
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is the most abundant sediment found on the seafloor. Terrigenous sediments come from the continents. These materials are eroded from continents and transported by wind and water to the ocean. Fluvial sediments are transported from land by rivers and glaciers, such as clay, silt, mud, and glacial
2254:
Muñoz-Royo, Carlos; Peacock, Thomas; Alford, Matthew H.; Smith, Jerome A.; Le Boyer, Arnaud; Kulkarni, Chinmay S.; Lermusiaux, Pierre F. J.; Haley, Patrick J.; Mirabito, Chris; Wang, Dayang; Adams, E. Eric; Ouillon, Raphael; Breugem, Alexander; Decrop, Boudewijn; Lanckriet, Thijs (2021-07-27).
1247:
Schematic of a polymetallic nodule mining operation. From top to bottom, the three zoom-in panels illustrate the surface operation vessel, the midwater sediment plume, and the nodule collector operating on the seabed. The midwater plume comprises two stages: (i) the dynamic plume, in which the
258:. Seafloor spreading creates mid-ocean ridges along the center line of major ocean basins, where the seabed is slightly shallower than the surrounding abyssal plain. From the abyssal plain, the seabed slopes upward toward the continents and becomes, in order from deep to shallow, the
606:
vary in origin, from eroded land materials carried into the ocean by rivers or wind flow, waste and decompositions of sea creatures, and precipitation of chemicals within the sea water itself, including some from outer space. There are four basic types of sediment of the sea floor:
1351:
and spread pollution from heavy metal-laden plumes. Critics have called for moratoria or permanent bans. Opposition campaigns enlisted the support of some industry figures, including firms reliant on the target metals. Individual countries with significant deposits within their
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Biogenous sediment is the next most abundant material on the seafloor. Biogenous sediments are biologically produced by living creatures. Sediments made up of at least 30% biogenous material are called "oozes." There are two types of oozes: Calcareous oozes and
Siliceous oozes.
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regions of the ocean are relatively flat and covered in many layers of sediments. Sediments in these flat areas come from various sources, including but not limited to: land erosion sediments from rivers, chemically precipitated sediments from hydrothermal vents,
957:, and the way sunlight diminishes when these landforms occupy increasing depths. Tidal networks depend on the balance between sedimentary processes and hydrodynamics however, anthropogenic influences can impact the natural system more than any physical driver.
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953:) when it interfaces with the ocean. These shapes are obvious along coastlines, but they occur also in significant ways underwater. The effectiveness of marine habitats is partially defined by these shapes, including the way they interact with and shape
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is a global phenomenon, and because the ocean is the ultimate destination for global waterways, much of the world's plastic ends up in the ocean and some sinks to the seabed. Exploitation of the seabed involves extracting valuable minerals from
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energy cause resuspension of seabed sediments. Biologically, microorganisms living within the seabed sediments change seabed chemistry. Marine organisms create sediments, both within the seabed and in the water above. For example,
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Most of the oceans have a common structure, created by common physical phenomena, mainly from tectonic movement, and sediment from various sources. The structure of the oceans, starting with the continents, begins usually with a
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sediment-laden discharge water rapidly descends and dilutes to a neutral buoyancy depth, and (ii) the subsequent ambient plume that is advected by the ocean current and subject to background turbulence and settling.
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by metallic elements binding onto rocks that have water of more than 300 °C circulating around them. When these elements mix with the cold sea water they precipitate from the cooling water. Known as
1328:, and then depositing extra discharge down the water column. Related technologies include robotic mining machines, as surface ships, and offshore and onshore metal refineries. Wind farms, solar energy,
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was the first country to approve a deep sea mining permit for the
Solwara 1 project, despite three independent reviews highlighting significant gaps and flaws in the environmental impact statement.
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The most common commercial model of deep sea mining proposed involves a caterpillar-track hydraulic collector and a riser lift system bringing the harvested ore to a production support vessel with
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volcanic island ridges are created by volcanic activity, erupting periodically, as the tectonic plates pass over a hotspot. In areas with volcanic activity and in the oceanic trenches there are
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Some children's play songs include elements such as "There's a hole at the bottom of the sea", or "A sailor went to sea... but all that he could see was the bottom of the deep blue sea".
293:), from biological organisms (biogenous), from chemical reactions (hydrogenous), and from space (cosmogenous). Categorized by size, these sediments range from very small particles called
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Each region of the seabed has typical features such as common sediment composition, typical topography, salinity of water layers above it, marine life, magnetic direction of rocks, and
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before it can reach deep ocean water, the energy source for deep benthic ecosystems is often organic matter from higher up in the water column that drifts down to the depths. This
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making up 2.5% of their weight. It is estimated that the global ocean floor holds more than 120 million tons of cobalt, five times the amount found in terrestrial reserves.
1933:
Giovanni Coco, Z. Zhou, B. van Maanen, M. Olabarrieta, R. Tinoco, I. Townend. Morphodynamics of tidal networks: Advances and challenges. Marine
Geology Journal. 1 December 2013.
2800:
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433:, the beginning of the seabed, and its main area. The border between the continental slope and the abyssal plain usually has a more gradual descent, and is called the
1097:, the original tectonic activity can be clearly seen as straight line "cracks" or "vents" thousands of kilometers long. These underwater mountain ranges are known as
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3019:
618:) describes the sediment from continents eroded by rain, rivers, and glaciers, as well as sediment blown into the ocean by the wind, such as dust and volcanic ash.
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On and under the seabed are archaeological sites of historic interest, such as shipwrecks and sunken towns. This underwater cultural heritage is protected by the
210:
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with special equipment. Hydrothermal vents were discovered in 1977 by researchers using an underwater camera platform. In recent years satellite measurements of
711:, they are composed of layers of different metals like manganese, iron, nickel, cobalt, and copper, and they are always found on the surface of the ocean floor.
337:
with silicate or calcium carbonate shells grow in abundance in the upper ocean, and when they die, their shells sink to the seafloor to become seabed sediments.
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1386:. The convention aims at preventing looting and the destruction or loss of historic and cultural information by providing an international legal framework.
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Cosmogenous sediments are the remains of space debris such as comets and asteroids, made up of silicates and various metals that have impacted the Earth.
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Human impacts on the seabed are diverse. Examples of human effects on the seabed include exploration, plastic pollution, and exploitation by mining and
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1226:. These estimates are about one to two times the amount of plastic thought – per Jambeck et al., 2015 – to currently enter the oceans annually.
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and by the biology of the creatures living in the seabed and in the ocean waters above. Physically, seabed sediments often come from the
3012:
1602:
Flood, Roger D.; Piper, D.J.W. (1997). "Preface: Depth Below
Seafloor Conventions". In Flood; Piper; Klaus, A.; Peterson, L.C. (eds.).
274:, is known as the "depth below seafloor". The ecological environment of the seabed and the deepest waters are collectively known, as a
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203:
489:– which includes the oceanic trenches, lies between 6,000 and 11,000 metres (20,000–36,000 ft) and is the deepest oceanic zone.
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showing many different grain sizes: A) gravel and sand, B) gravel, C) bioturbated mud and sand, and D) laminated clays and silts.
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John J. Gurney, Alfred A. Levinson, and H. Stuart Smith (1991) Marine mining of diamonds off the West Coast of
Southern Africa,
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and has granted 31 exploration licenses so far: 19 for polymetallic nodules, mostly in the CCZ; 7 for polymetallic sulphides in
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Hydrothermal vent fluids cause chemical reactions that precipitate out minerals that form sediments on the surrounding seafloor.
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2087:
Wefer, Gerold; Billet, David; Hebbeln, Dierk; Jorgensen, Bo Barker; SchlĂĽter, Michael; Weering, Tjeerd C. E. Van (2013-11-11).
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1124:. This marine life receives its energy both from the extreme temperature difference (typically a drop of 150 degrees) and from
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1435: – layer of water in the deep ocean basin, above the ocean floor, that contains significant amounts of suspended sediment
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Seabed
Minerals Authority (SBMA) granted three exploration licenses for cobalt-rich polymetallic nodules within their EEZ.
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As of July 2024, only exploratory licenses have been issued, with no commercial-scale deep sea mining operations yet. The
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2257:"Extent of impact of deep-sea nodule mining midwater plumes is influenced by sediment loading, turbulence and thresholds"
1854:
1577:
1871:
448:, as its name implies, is a mountainous rise through the middle of all the oceans, between the continents. Typically a
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to map water depths throughout the world. Submersible vehicles help researchers study unique seabed ecosystems such as
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1181:
1302:. There is a push for deep sea mining to commence by 2025, when regulations by the ISA are expected to be completed.
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Other seabed environments include hydrothermal vents, cold seeps, and shallow areas. Marine life is abundant in the
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Where the seafloor is actively spreading and sedimentation is relatively light, such as in the northern and eastern
784:
473:
Deep ocean water is divided into layers or zones, each with typical features of salinity, pressure, temperature and
460:– deep valleys, created by the mantle circulation movement from the mid-ocean mountain ridge to the oceanic trench.
403:(blue to purple). Like land terrain, the ocean floor has mountains including volcanoes, ridges, valleys, and plains.
289:. Categorized by where the materials come from or composition, these sediments are classified as either: from land (
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3478:
2195:; Zhang, Jing; Holl, Mark M. Banaszak; Willis, Kathryn; Williams, Alan; Hardesty, Britta D.; Wilcox, Chris (2020).
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3378:
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2793:"The Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) has refused an application by Chatham Rock Phosphate Limited (CRP)"
657:
Satellite image of wind-blown mineral dust over the
Atlantic. Dust may become terrigenous sediment on the seabed.
2959:
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2470:
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3508:
3448:
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470:– releasing high pressure and extremely hot water and chemicals into the typically freezing water around it.
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sediment is material that precipitates in the ocean when oceanic conditions change, or material created in
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1206:, and these satellite-derived maps are used extensively in the study and exploration of the ocean floor.
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3028:
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524:"mbsf" (meaning "meters below the seafloor") is a common convention used for depths below the seafloor.
1525:
Kump, Lee R.; Kasting, James F.; Crane, Robert G. (2010). "Chapter 7. Circulation of the Solid Earth".
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Phytoplankton grow shells which later sink to the seabed to become biogenous sediments. For example,
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1423: – Mineral concretion on the sea bottom made of concentric layers of iron/manganese hydroxides
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As of 2021, the majority of marine mining used dredging operations at depths of about 200 m, where
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798:
501:
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Seabed topography is flat where layers of sediments cover the tectonic features. For example, the
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3846:
3836:
3801:
3701:
3686:
3583:
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2226:
2033:
1944:
1838:
Haeckel, E. 1891. Plankton-Studien. Jenaische
Zeitschrift fĂĽr Naturwissenschaft 25 / (Neue Folge)
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2009:
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2735:"Google, BMW, Volvo, and Samsung SDI sign up to WWF call for temporary ban on deep-sea mining"
2650:
2294:
2218:
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2023:
1793:
Tripati, Aradhna, Lab 6-Marine
Sediments, Marine Sediments Reading, E&SSCI15-1, UCLA, 2012
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1271:(CCZ) alone contains over 21 billion metric tons of these nodules, with minerals such as
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31:
2559:
Costa, Corrado; Fanelli, Emanuela; Marini, Simone; Danovaro, Roberto; Aguzzi, Jacopo (2020).
1506:) – Technique for photographing the interface between the seabed and the overlying water
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via deep sea mining, as well as dredging sand from shallow environments for construction and
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3917:
3902:
3771:
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3513:
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2404:"Greenpeace responds to Norway's proposal to licence first Arctic areas for deep sea mining"
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2015:
1988:
1978:
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1478: – Partitioning of a seabed acoustic image into discrete physical entities or classes
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and the Deep Sea Mining
Campaign claimed that seabed mining has the potential to damage
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10 km with a mean depth of 3,682 m, resulting in an estimated volume of 1.332
997:
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Many organisms adapted to deep-water pressure cannot survive in the upper parts of the
730:
517:
457:
453:
379:
41:
2561:"Global Deep-Sea Biodiversity Research Trends Highlighted by Science Mapping Approach"
1689:
Chester, Roy; Jickells, Tim (2012). "Chapter 15. The components of marine sediments".
4270:
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4103:
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3806:
3741:
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2948:– Public outreach site for explorations sponsored by the Office of Ocean Exploration.
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are the main driver of the critical metals demand that incentivises deep sea mining.
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1023:, or about 1/4400 of the total mass of the Earth. The oceans cover an area of 3.618
872:
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27:
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2480:. Baker, E., and Beaudoin, Y. (Eds.) Vol. 2, Secretariat of the Pacific Community
1915:
Benthos und das redundant Benton: Neologismen in der deutschsprachigen Limnologie
1639:
1472: – Ship or boat designed, modified, or equipped to carry out research at sea
1214:
In 2020 scientists created what may be the first scientific estimate of how much
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flour. Aeolian sediments are transported by wind, such as dust and volcanic ash.
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3932:
3861:
3726:
3666:
3633:
3623:
3618:
3503:
3438:
3398:
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3199:
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1450: – Sub-field of engineering concerned with human-made structures in the sea
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1121:
1083:
474:
408:
82:
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4018:
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3308:
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3266:
3261:
3256:
3154:
2633:
Halfar, Jochen; Fujita, Rodney M. (18 May 2007). "Danger of Deep-Sea Mining".
2417:
2213:
2197:"Microplastic Pollution in Deep-Sea Sediments From the Great Australian Bight"
2196:
2019:
1616:
we follow Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) meters below seafloor (mbsf) convention
1344:
1263:, which are found at depths of 4–6 km (2.5–3.7 mi) primarily on the
1133:
1020:
977:
950:
921:
868:
864:
826:
755:
486:
384:
87:
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2222:
988:. The submerged surface has mountainous features, including a globe-spanning
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3937:
3851:
3696:
3535:
3530:
3313:
3241:
3169:
3089:
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2646:
2312:
2142:"Hidden Beneath the Ocean's Surface, Nearly 16 Million Tons of Microplastic"
2056:
2054:
1983:
1966:
1818:
US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
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1137:
969:
767:
624:
material is the sediment made up of the hard parts of sea creatures, mainly
513:
169:
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2289:
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of deep sea mining is controversial. Environmental advocacy groups such as
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3766:
3658:
3648:
3593:
3069:
1367:
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1219:
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907:, such as lakes, rivers, and streams. There is also a redundant synonym,
860:
802:
726:
686:
670:
438:
341:
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285:
Most of the seabed throughout the world's oceans is covered in layers of
159:
2997:
2587:
2514:
Kim, Rakhyun E. (August 2017). "Should deep seabed mining be allowed?".
2361:"Deep-sea mining's future still murky as negotiations end on mixed note"
1805:
1039:
485:, whose lower boundary lies at about 6,000 m (20,000 ft). The
4054:
4044:
3214:
3184:
2544:
2236:
1384:
UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage
1144:
such as corals, fish, algae, crabs, marine plants and other organisms.
1086:
eroding the seabed and transporting sediments to the deeper ocean, and
993:
965:
882:
773:
759:
748:
666:
521:
324:. Sea currents transport sediments, especially in shallow waters where
317:
279:
275:
270:. The depth within the seabed itself, such as the depth down through a
67:
2835:
1529:(3rd ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. pp. 122–148.
1411: – Human habitats located in environments inhospitable for humans
1405: – Fish that live and feed on or near the bottom of seas or lakes
3174:
2980:
2677:"Collapse of PNG deep-sea mining venture sparks calls for moratorium"
2380:"China is set to dominate the deep sea and its wealth of rare metals"
1993:
1310:
1280:
1276:
1272:
848:. The pressure difference can be very significant (approximately one
814:
790:
763:
2320:
1714:
Chester, Roy; Jickells, Tim (2012). "Chapter 13. Marine sediments".
2977:– Explore the volcanoes of the Mariana Arc, Submarine Ring of Fire.
2884:
Sea Floor Exploration: Scientific Adventures Diving into the Abyss.
2706:"David Attenborough calls for ban on 'devastating' deep sea mining"
2167:"14 million tonnes of microplastics on sea floor: Australian study"
254:. Most of the ocean is very deep, where the seabed is known as the
4123:
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3721:
3676:
1242:
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1038:
929:
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18:
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449:
329:
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Sulphate-reducing bacteria environmental and engineered systems
250:
The structure of the seabed of the global ocean is governed by
2604:"Out of Our Depth: Mining the Ocean Floor in Papua New Guinea"
1772:
Grobe, Hannes; Kiekmann, Bernhard; Hillenbrand, Claus-Dieter.
425:– which is a steep descent into the ocean, until reaching the
2907:
Electromagnetic Seabed Logging. A new tool for geoscientists.
2011:
Chapter 1 Characterizing the Seabed: a Geoscience Perspective
1855:
1628:
Parkes, R. John; Henrik Sass (2007). Barton, Larry L. (ed.).
1604:
Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results
1140:. In shallow areas, the seabed can host sediments created by
980:. Further out in the open ocean, they include underwater and
890:
1718:(3rd ed.). Blackwell Publishing Ltd. pp. 273–289.
1693:(3rd ed.). Blackwell Publishing Ltd. pp. 321–351.
1332:, and battery technologies use many of the deep-sea metals.
2763:
2465:
2463:
2471:
Deep Sea Minerals: Deep Sea Minerals and the Green Economy
1945:"Exploring the Ocean Basins with Satellite Altimeter Data"
320:
of material on land and from other rarer sources, such as
1496: – Mineral deposits from seafloor hydrothermal vents
1487: – Study of underwater depth of lake or ocean floors
1399: – Fishing method by towing a net along the seafloor
2942:– the Center for Ocean Sciences Educational Excellence.
1965:
Charette, Matthew A.; Smith, Walter H. F. (June 2010).
1489:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1480:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
821:. This community lives in or near marine or freshwater
477:, according to their depth. Lying along the top of the
2443:"Campaign Reports | Deep Sea Mining: Out Of Our Depth"
312:
Features of the seabed are governed by the physics of
1684:
1682:
1255:
is the extraction of minerals from the seabed of the
1188:
The seabed has been explored by submersibles such as
2315:(Report). U.S. Geological Survey. 2024. p. 63.
1437:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
1120:— vents emitting chemicals toxic to humans and most
797: 'the depths '), also known as benthon, is the
4063:
4037:
3999:
3951:
3890:
3785:
3657:
3554:
3349:
3035:
595:Total sediment thickness of the world's oceans and
2610:. MiningWatch Canada, CELCoR, Packard Foundation.
2008:Braathen, Alvar; Brekke, Harald (7 January 2020).
1290:(ISA) regulates all mineral-related activities in
903:to refer to organisms at the bottom of freshwater
247:. All floors of the ocean are known as 'seabeds'.
3971:North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System
1136:are another seabed feature, usually connected to
2962:– A rich collection of images, video, audio and
1808:from the Census of Antarctic Marine Life website
1634:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 329–358.
3961:Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis
1943:Sandwell, D. T.; Smith, W. H. F. (2006-07-07).
1801:
1799:
1582:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
1180:A video describing the operation and use of an
805:that live on, in, or near the bottom of a sea,
2418:"Cook Islands Seabed Minerals Authority - Map"
1890:"North American Benthological Society website"
1417: – Water outside of national jurisdiction
3013:
2864:Safeguarding the Underwater Cultural Heritage
644:sediment comes from extraterrestrial sources.
628:, that accumulate on the bottom of the ocean.
204:
8:
1836:
1820:"How does pressure change with ocean depth?"
1551:"Open Ocean – Oceans, Coasts, and Seashores"
1442:New Zealand foreshore and seabed controversy
1360:sand, silt and mud for construction purposes
1015:The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35
2946:Ocean Explorer (www.oceanexplorer.noaa.gov)
1741:
1739:
1737:
1735:
1313:, where it has been approved. In 2022, the
1259:. The main ores of commercial interest are
1116:of marine life have been discovered around
1054:. Some features of the seabed include flat
3020:
3006:
2998:
211:
197:
37:
2764:"SPC-EU Deep Sea Minerals Project - Home"
2586:
2576:
2543:
2288:
2212:
2093:. Springer Science & Business Media.
1992:
1982:
867:; most organisms in the benthic zone are
452:runs along the edge of this ridge. Along
344:operations. To map the seabed, ships use
301:, known as mud, to larger particles from
1454:Petrological Database of the Ocean Floor
1305:Deep sea mining is also possible in the
1913:Nehring, S. & Albrecht, U. (1997).
1517:
1466: – Movement of Earth's lithosphere
528:Different seabeds in the world's oceans
526:
149:
128:
105:
47:
40:
3292:one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations
2602:Rosenbaum, Dr. Helen (November 2011).
2261:Communications Earth & Environment
1429: – Methane-water lattice compound
1298:; and 5 for cobalt-rich crusts in the
441:cascading down the continental slope.
2614:from the original on 13 December 2019
2062:"The Discovery of Hydrothermal Vents"
1444: – Indigenous rights controversy
852:for every 10 metres of water depth).
7:
4239:
2970:NOAA, Ocean Explorer YouTube Channel
2066:Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
673:shells, which become siliceous ooze.
2975:Submarine Ring of Fire, Mariana Arc
2960:Submarine Ring of Fire 2004 Gallery
2956:Submarine Ring of Fire 2006 Gallery
949:) refers to the shape of the land (
4119:National Oceanographic Data Center
3546:World Ocean Circulation Experiment
3434:Global Ocean Data Analysis Project
14:
3966:Global Sea Level Observing System
2014:. Brill Nijhoff. pp. 21–35.
1557:. U.S. Department of the Interior
1494:Seafloor massive sulfide deposits
1448:Offshore geotechnical engineering
984:features such as ocean rises and
4249:
4238:
4229:
4228:
3424:Geochemical Ocean Sections Study
3340:
3329:
2984:National Geophysical Data Center
2313:Mineral commodity summaries 2024
2235:
1661:metres below the seafloor (mbsf)
1612:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.155.200.1997
1354:exclusive economic zones (EEZ's)
1235:This section is an excerpt from
747:This section is an excerpt from
568:
556:
544:
532:
4154:Ocean thermal energy conversion
3877:Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis
2846:from the original on 2021-09-08
2803:from the original on 2016-01-24
2774:from the original on 2021-09-06
2745:from the original on 2021-09-06
2716:from the original on 2021-09-06
2687:from the original on 2021-04-11
2449:from the original on 2019-12-13
2424:from the original on 2022-06-30
2140:May, Tiffany (7 October 2020).
934:World map with ocean topography
387:of the ocean floor showing the
2869:. Retrieved 12 September 2012.
2378:Kuo, Lily (October 19, 2023).
2339:International Seabed Authority
1288:International Seabed Authority
1:
1967:"The Volume of Earth's Ocean"
1218:currently resides in Earth's
962:coastal and oceanic landforms
3414:El Niño–Southern Oscillation
3384:Craik–Leibovich vortex force
3140:Luke's variational principle
2952:NOAA, Ocean Explorer Gallery
2536:10.1016/j.marpol.2017.05.010
1774:"The memory of polar oceans"
1640:10.1017/CBO9780511541490.012
1606:. Vol. 155. p. 3.
1309:(EEZ) of countries, such as
992:system, as well as undersea
960:Marine topographies include
2565:Frontiers in Marine Science
2491:"Breaking Free From Mining"
2201:Frontiers in Marine Science
2119:Science Mission Directorate
1356:are exploring the subject.
1163:Oceanography § History
694:Hydrogenous and cosmogenous
551:white sand seabed in Mexico
412:The major oceanic divisions
4298:
3479:Ocean dynamical thermostat
3327:
2936:Understanding the Seafloor
2281:10.1038/s43247-021-00213-8
2115:"Ocean Surface Topography"
1856:
1334:Electric vehicle batteries
1234:
1156:
919:
891:
783:
746:
584:
456:edges there are typically
372:
4224:
4014:Ocean acoustic tomography
3827:Mohorovičić discontinuity
3419:General circulation model
3055:Benjamin–Feir instability
2989:Astonishing deep sea life
2214:10.3389/fmars.2020.576170
2020:10.1163/9789004391567_003
1760:Types of Marine Sediments
649:Terrigenous and biogenous
4144:Ocean surface topography
3519:Thermohaline circulation
3509:Subsurface ocean current
3449:Hydrothermal circulation
3282:Wave–current interaction
3060:Boussinesq approximation
2608:Deep Sea Mining Campaign
2578:10.3389/fmars.2020.00384
1500:Sediment Profile Imagery
1362:is abundant, along with
1200:ocean surface topography
926:Ocean surface topography
885:in 1891, comes from the
861:dead and decaying matter
823:sedimentary environments
4181:Sea surface temperature
4164:Outline of oceanography
3359:Atmospheric circulation
3297:shallow water equations
3287:Waves and shallow water
3180:Significant wave height
2647:10.1126/science.1138289
2335:"Exploration Contracts"
1984:10.5670/oceanog.2010.51
1872:A Greek–English Lexicon
1747:The Bottom of the Ocean
1476:Seabed characterization
1307:exclusive economic zone
1269:Clarion-Clipperton Zone
1118:black and white smokers
837:, and then down to the
604:Sediments in the seabed
399:(yellow-green) and the
278:for creatures, as the "
243:) is the bottom of the
4176:Sea surface microlayer
3541:Wind generated current
2981:Age of the Ocean Floor
1837:
1578:"Ocean floor features"
1249:
1224:microplastic pollution
1185:
1047:
935:
770:
734:
703:
674:
658:
600:
539:gravel seabed in Italy
413:
405:
35:
16:The bottom of an ocean
4009:Deep scattering layer
3991:World Geodetic System
3499:Princeton Ocean Model
3379:Coriolis–Stokes force
3029:Physical oceanography
1863:Liddell, Henry George
1824:oceanservice.NOAA.gov
1676:," Water Encyclopedia
1674:Ocean-Floor Sediments
1555:National Park Service
1300:Western Pacific Ocean
1246:
1194:and, to some extent,
1184:in deep sea research.
1179:
1042:
964:ranging from coastal
933:
863:sustains the benthic
758:
725:
701:
664:
656:
594:
563:sand seabed in Greece
493:Depth below seafloor
437:, which is caused by
411:
382:
22:
4029:Underwater acoustics
3589:Perigean spring tide
3454:Langmuir circulation
3165:Rossby-gravity waves
2840:The Ocean Foundation
2090:Ocean Margin Systems
1672:Murray, Richard W. "
1415:International waters
1341:environmental impact
1292:international waters
1261:polymetallic nodules
1159:Deep-sea exploration
1114:deep sea communities
895:'depth of the sea'.
817:, also known as the
678:Terrigenous sediment
498:Depth below seafloor
4191:Science On a Sphere
3797:Convergent boundary
3469:Modular Ocean Model
3429:Geostrophic current
3145:Mild-slope equation
2823:Gems & Gemology
2528:2017MarPo..82..134K
2273:2021ComEE...2..148M
1716:Marine Geochemistry
1691:Marine Geochemistry
1349:deep sea ecosystems
1326:dynamic positioning
974:continental shelves
718:Size classification
597:continental margins
502:vertical coordinate
421:, continues to the
389:continental shelves
346:acoustic technology
227:(also known as the
3847:Seafloor spreading
3837:Outer trench swell
3802:Divergent boundary
3702:Continental margin
3687:Carbonate platform
3584:Lunitidal interval
2938:presentation from
2905:Stéphane Sainson:
2476:2021-11-04 at the
2191:Barrett, Justine;
2146:The New York Times
1375:In art and culture
1364:mineral rich sands
1250:
1204:maps of the seabed
1186:
1110:hydrothermal vents
1068:hydrothermal vents
1048:
936:
901:freshwater biology
771:
735:
704:
675:
659:
601:
575:hydrothermal vents
468:hydrothermal vents
414:
406:
375:Seafloor spreading
350:hydrothermal vents
314:sediment transport
165:Hydrothermal vents
116:Surface microlayer
36:
4282:Fisheries science
4264:
4263:
4256:Oceans portal
4216:World Ocean Atlas
4206:Underwater glider
4149:Ocean temperature
3812:Hydrothermal vent
3777:Submarine volcano
3712:Continental shelf
3692:Coastal geography
3682:Bathymetric chart
3564:Amphidromic point
3252:Wave nonlinearity
3110:Infragravity wave
2923:978-3-319-45355-2
2915:978-3-319-45353-8
2900:978-3-319-03203-0
2892:978-3-319-03202-3
2100:978-3-662-05127-6
1762:", Article Myriad
1749:," Marine Science
1725:978-1-4051-8734-3
1700:978-1-4051-8734-3
1649:978-0-521-85485-6
1536:978-0-321-59779-3
1427:Methane clathrate
1330:electric vehicles
1210:Plastic pollution
1182:autonomous lander
1177:
1090:shell materials.
1002:submarine canyons
947:marine topography
939:Seabed topography
855:Because light is
835:continental shelf
709:manganese nodules
636:hydrothermal vent
504:used in geology,
423:continental slope
419:continental shelf
363:beach nourishment
354:Plastic pollution
221:
220:
93:Continental shelf
32:seafloor sediment
4289:
4254:
4253:
4242:
4241:
4232:
4231:
4171:Pelagic sediment
4109:Marine pollution
3903:Deep ocean water
3772:Submarine canyon
3707:Continental rise
3599:Rule of twelfths
3514:Sverdrup balance
3444:Humboldt Current
3369:Boundary current
3344:
3333:
3150:Radiation stress
3120:Iribarren number
3095:Equatorial waves
3050:Ballantine scale
3045:Airy wave theory
3022:
3015:
3008:
2999:
2993:TED (conference)
2909:Springer, 2016.
2886:Springer, 2014.
2882:Roger Hekinian:
2870:
2861:
2855:
2854:
2852:
2851:
2832:
2826:
2819:
2813:
2812:
2810:
2808:
2789:
2783:
2782:
2780:
2779:
2760:
2754:
2753:
2751:
2750:
2731:
2725:
2724:
2722:
2721:
2702:
2696:
2695:
2693:
2692:
2673:
2667:
2666:
2630:
2624:
2623:
2621:
2619:
2599:
2593:
2592:
2590:
2580:
2556:
2550:
2549:
2547:
2511:
2505:
2504:
2502:
2496:. Archived from
2495:
2487:
2481:
2467:
2458:
2457:
2455:
2454:
2439:
2433:
2432:
2430:
2429:
2414:
2408:
2407:
2400:
2394:
2393:
2391:
2390:
2375:
2369:
2368:
2357:
2351:
2350:
2348:
2346:
2331:
2325:
2324:
2309:
2303:
2302:
2292:
2251:
2245:
2240:Available under
2239:
2234:
2216:
2188:
2182:
2181:
2179:
2177:
2163:
2157:
2156:
2154:
2152:
2137:
2131:
2130:
2128:
2126:
2111:
2105:
2104:
2084:
2078:
2077:
2075:
2073:
2058:
2049:
2048:
2046:
2044:
2005:
1999:
1998:
1996:
1986:
1962:
1956:
1955:
1953:
1952:
1940:
1934:
1931:
1925:
1911:
1905:
1904:
1902:
1901:
1892:. Archived from
1886:
1880:
1859:
1858:
1852:
1846:
1840:
1834:
1828:
1827:
1815:
1809:
1803:
1794:
1791:
1785:
1784:
1778:
1769:
1763:
1756:
1750:
1743:
1730:
1729:
1711:
1705:
1704:
1686:
1677:
1670:
1664:
1663:
1658:
1656:
1625:
1619:
1618:
1599:
1593:
1592:
1590:
1588:
1573:
1567:
1566:
1564:
1562:
1547:
1541:
1540:
1527:The Earth System
1522:
1505:
1490:
1485:Seafloor mapping
1481:
1459:
1438:
1421:Manganese nodule
1319:Papua New Guinea
1296:mid-ocean ridges
1202:show very clear
1178:
1099:mid-ocean ridges
1060:mid-ocean ridges
1030:
1026:
1018:
1006:oceanic plateaus
998:oceanic trenches
943:ocean topography
894:
893:
794:
787:
572:
560:
548:
536:
458:oceanic trenches
435:continental rise
429:– a topographic
397:mid-ocean ridges
393:oceanic plateaus
359:sulfide deposits
287:marine sediments
260:continental rise
213:
206:
199:
78:Seagrass meadows
73:Mangrove forests
49:Coastal habitats
38:
4297:
4296:
4292:
4291:
4290:
4288:
4287:
4286:
4267:
4266:
4265:
4260:
4248:
4220:
4059:
4033:
3995:
3976:Sea-level curve
3947:
3886:
3872:Transform fault
3822:Mid-ocean ridge
3788:
3781:
3747:Oceanic plateau
3653:
3639:Tidal resonance
3609:Theory of tides
3550:
3459:Longshore drift
3409:Ekman transport
3345:
3339:
3338:
3337:
3336:
3335:
3334:
3325:
3277:Wave turbulence
3210:Trochoidal wave
3135:Longshore drift
3031:
3026:
2932:
2879:
2877:Further reading
2874:
2873:
2862:
2858:
2849:
2847:
2836:"Seabed Mining"
2834:
2833:
2829:
2820:
2816:
2806:
2804:
2797:Deepwater group
2791:
2790:
2786:
2777:
2775:
2768:dsm.gsd.spc.int
2762:
2761:
2757:
2748:
2746:
2733:
2732:
2728:
2719:
2717:
2704:
2703:
2699:
2690:
2688:
2675:
2674:
2670:
2632:
2631:
2627:
2617:
2615:
2601:
2600:
2596:
2558:
2557:
2553:
2513:
2512:
2508:
2500:
2493:
2489:
2488:
2484:
2478:Wayback Machine
2468:
2461:
2452:
2450:
2441:
2440:
2436:
2427:
2425:
2416:
2415:
2411:
2406:. 26 June 2024.
2402:
2401:
2397:
2388:
2386:
2384:Washington Post
2377:
2376:
2372:
2367:. 2 April 2024.
2359:
2358:
2354:
2344:
2342:
2341:. 17 March 2022
2333:
2332:
2328:
2321:10.3133/mcs2024
2311:
2310:
2306:
2290:1721.1/138864.2
2253:
2252:
2248:
2190:
2189:
2185:
2175:
2173:
2165:
2164:
2160:
2150:
2148:
2139:
2138:
2134:
2124:
2122:
2121:. 31 March 2010
2113:
2112:
2108:
2101:
2086:
2085:
2081:
2071:
2069:
2060:
2059:
2052:
2042:
2040:
2030:
2007:
2006:
2002:
1964:
1963:
1959:
1950:
1948:
1942:
1941:
1937:
1932:
1928:
1912:
1908:
1899:
1897:
1888:
1887:
1883:
1877:Perseus Project
1853:
1849:
1835:
1831:
1817:
1816:
1812:
1804:
1797:
1792:
1788:
1776:
1771:
1770:
1766:
1757:
1753:
1744:
1733:
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1713:
1712:
1708:
1701:
1688:
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1680:
1671:
1667:
1654:
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1627:
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1622:
1601:
1600:
1596:
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1584:
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1574:
1570:
1560:
1558:
1549:
1548:
1544:
1537:
1524:
1523:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1503:
1488:
1479:
1470:Research vessel
1464:Plate tectonics
1457:
1436:
1433:Nepheloid layer
1397:Bottom trawling
1392:
1377:
1372:
1371:
1253:Deep sea mining
1240:
1237:Deep sea mining
1232:
1212:
1167:
1165:
1157:Main articles:
1155:
1150:
1037:
1028:
1024:
1016:
990:mid-ocean ridge
928:
918:
913:
912:
905:bodies of water
752:
744:
729:types from the
720:
696:
651:
589:
587:Marine sediment
583:
576:
573:
564:
561:
552:
549:
540:
537:
495:
446:mid-ocean ridge
404:
377:
371:
252:plate tectonics
217:
185:Marine sediment
121:Epipelagic zone
63:Intertidal zone
42:Marine habitats
24:Common stingray
17:
12:
11:
5:
4295:
4293:
4285:
4284:
4279:
4269:
4268:
4262:
4261:
4259:
4258:
4246:
4236:
4225:
4222:
4221:
4219:
4218:
4213:
4208:
4203:
4198:
4196:Stratification
4193:
4188:
4183:
4178:
4173:
4168:
4167:
4166:
4156:
4151:
4146:
4141:
4136:
4131:
4126:
4121:
4116:
4111:
4106:
4101:
4096:
4088:
4086:Color of water
4083:
4081:Benthic lander
4078:
4073:
4067:
4065:
4061:
4060:
4058:
4057:
4052:
4047:
4041:
4039:
4035:
4034:
4032:
4031:
4026:
4021:
4016:
4011:
4005:
4003:
3997:
3996:
3994:
3993:
3988:
3986:Sea level rise
3983:
3981:Sea level drop
3978:
3973:
3968:
3963:
3957:
3955:
3949:
3948:
3946:
3945:
3940:
3935:
3930:
3925:
3920:
3915:
3910:
3905:
3900:
3894:
3892:
3888:
3887:
3885:
3884:
3879:
3874:
3869:
3864:
3859:
3854:
3849:
3844:
3839:
3834:
3829:
3824:
3819:
3817:Marine geology
3814:
3809:
3804:
3799:
3793:
3791:
3783:
3782:
3780:
3779:
3774:
3769:
3764:
3759:
3757:Passive margin
3754:
3752:Oceanic trench
3749:
3744:
3739:
3734:
3729:
3724:
3719:
3714:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3694:
3689:
3684:
3679:
3674:
3669:
3663:
3661:
3655:
3654:
3652:
3651:
3646:
3641:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3571:
3566:
3560:
3558:
3552:
3551:
3549:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3527:
3526:
3516:
3511:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3484:Ocean dynamics
3481:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3461:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3436:
3431:
3426:
3421:
3416:
3411:
3406:
3401:
3396:
3391:
3386:
3381:
3376:
3374:Coriolis force
3371:
3366:
3361:
3355:
3353:
3347:
3346:
3328:
3326:
3324:
3323:
3322:
3321:
3311:
3306:
3301:
3300:
3299:
3294:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3269:
3264:
3259:
3254:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3223:
3222:
3212:
3207:
3202:
3197:
3195:Stokes problem
3192:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3172:
3167:
3162:
3157:
3152:
3147:
3142:
3137:
3132:
3130:Kinematic wave
3127:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3092:
3087:
3082:
3077:
3072:
3067:
3062:
3057:
3052:
3047:
3041:
3039:
3033:
3032:
3027:
3025:
3024:
3017:
3010:
3002:
2996:
2995:
2986:
2978:
2972:
2967:
2949:
2943:
2931:
2930:External links
2928:
2927:
2926:
2903:
2878:
2875:
2872:
2871:
2856:
2842:. 2010-08-07.
2827:
2814:
2784:
2755:
2741:. 2021-03-31.
2726:
2712:. 2020-03-12.
2697:
2683:. 2019-09-15.
2668:
2625:
2594:
2551:
2506:
2503:on 2021-12-23.
2482:
2459:
2445:. 2011-11-19.
2434:
2409:
2395:
2370:
2352:
2326:
2304:
2246:
2183:
2158:
2132:
2106:
2099:
2079:
2068:. 11 June 2018
2050:
2028:
2000:
1977:(2): 112–114.
1957:
1935:
1926:
1906:
1881:
1847:
1829:
1810:
1795:
1786:
1764:
1751:
1731:
1724:
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1678:
1665:
1648:
1620:
1594:
1568:
1542:
1535:
1516:
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1510:
1508:
1507:
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1430:
1424:
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1388:
1376:
1373:
1241:
1233:
1231:
1228:
1211:
1208:
1154:
1151:
1149:
1146:
1126:chemosynthesis
1095:Atlantic Ocean
1056:abyssal plains
1043:Layers of the
1036:
1033:
1010:abyssal plains
955:ocean currents
917:
914:
839:abyssal depths
753:
745:
743:
740:
731:Southern Ocean
719:
716:
695:
692:
650:
647:
646:
645:
639:
629:
619:
585:Main article:
582:
579:
578:
577:
574:
567:
565:
562:
555:
553:
550:
543:
541:
538:
531:
529:
518:ocean drilling
494:
491:
454:tectonic plate
401:abyssal plains
383:
370:
367:
219:
218:
216:
215:
208:
201:
193:
190:
189:
188:
187:
182:
177:
172:
167:
162:
154:
153:
147:
146:
145:
144:
139:
131:
130:
126:
125:
124:
123:
118:
110:
109:
103:
102:
101:
100:
95:
90:
85:
80:
75:
70:
65:
60:
52:
51:
45:
44:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4294:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4275:
4274:
4272:
4257:
4252:
4247:
4245:
4237:
4235:
4227:
4226:
4223:
4217:
4214:
4212:
4209:
4207:
4204:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4184:
4182:
4179:
4177:
4174:
4172:
4169:
4165:
4162:
4161:
4160:
4157:
4155:
4152:
4150:
4147:
4145:
4142:
4140:
4137:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4127:
4125:
4122:
4120:
4117:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4107:
4105:
4104:Marine energy
4102:
4100:
4097:
4095:
4094:
4089:
4087:
4084:
4082:
4079:
4077:
4074:
4072:
4071:Acidification
4069:
4068:
4066:
4062:
4056:
4053:
4051:
4048:
4046:
4043:
4042:
4040:
4036:
4030:
4027:
4025:
4024:SOFAR channel
4022:
4020:
4017:
4015:
4012:
4010:
4007:
4006:
4004:
4002:
3998:
3992:
3989:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3958:
3956:
3954:
3950:
3944:
3941:
3939:
3936:
3934:
3931:
3929:
3926:
3924:
3921:
3919:
3916:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3895:
3893:
3889:
3883:
3880:
3878:
3875:
3873:
3870:
3868:
3865:
3863:
3860:
3858:
3855:
3853:
3850:
3848:
3845:
3843:
3840:
3838:
3835:
3833:
3832:Oceanic crust
3830:
3828:
3825:
3823:
3820:
3818:
3815:
3813:
3810:
3808:
3807:Fracture zone
3805:
3803:
3800:
3798:
3795:
3794:
3792:
3790:
3784:
3778:
3775:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3748:
3745:
3743:
3742:Oceanic basin
3740:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3705:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3683:
3680:
3678:
3675:
3673:
3672:Abyssal plain
3670:
3668:
3665:
3664:
3662:
3660:
3656:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3579:Internal tide
3577:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3561:
3559:
3557:
3553:
3547:
3544:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3525:
3522:
3521:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3507:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3474:Ocean current
3472:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3415:
3412:
3410:
3407:
3405:
3402:
3400:
3397:
3395:
3392:
3390:
3387:
3385:
3382:
3380:
3377:
3375:
3372:
3370:
3367:
3365:
3362:
3360:
3357:
3356:
3354:
3352:
3348:
3343:
3332:
3320:
3317:
3316:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3289:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3272:Wave shoaling
3270:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3260:
3258:
3255:
3253:
3250:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3232:Ursell number
3230:
3228:
3225:
3221:
3218:
3217:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3208:
3206:
3203:
3201:
3198:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3138:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3115:Internal wave
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3065:Breaking wave
3063:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3042:
3040:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3023:
3018:
3016:
3011:
3009:
3004:
3003:
3000:
2994:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2979:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2950:
2947:
2944:
2941:
2937:
2934:
2933:
2929:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2880:
2876:
2868:
2865:
2860:
2857:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2831:
2828:
2824:
2818:
2815:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2788:
2785:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2759:
2756:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2730:
2727:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2701:
2698:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2672:
2669:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2641:(5827): 987.
2640:
2636:
2629:
2626:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2598:
2595:
2589:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2555:
2552:
2546:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2516:Marine Policy
2510:
2507:
2499:
2492:
2486:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2472:
2466:
2464:
2460:
2448:
2444:
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2423:
2419:
2413:
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2362:
2356:
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2340:
2336:
2330:
2327:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2308:
2305:
2300:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2250:
2247:
2243:
2238:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2187:
2184:
2172:
2168:
2162:
2159:
2147:
2143:
2136:
2133:
2120:
2116:
2110:
2107:
2102:
2096:
2092:
2091:
2083:
2080:
2067:
2063:
2057:
2055:
2051:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2029:9789004391567
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2012:
2004:
2001:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1961:
1958:
1946:
1939:
1936:
1930:
1927:
1923:
1920:
1916:
1910:
1907:
1896:on 2008-07-05
1895:
1891:
1885:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1873:
1868:
1867:Scott, Robert
1864:
1860:
1851:
1848:
1844:
1841:18: 232-336.
1839:
1833:
1830:
1825:
1821:
1814:
1811:
1807:
1802:
1800:
1796:
1790:
1787:
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1748:
1742:
1740:
1738:
1736:
1732:
1727:
1721:
1717:
1710:
1707:
1702:
1696:
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1679:
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1641:
1637:
1633:
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1624:
1621:
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1583:
1579:
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1521:
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1471:
1468:
1465:
1462:
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1452:
1449:
1446:
1443:
1440:
1434:
1431:
1428:
1425:
1422:
1419:
1416:
1413:
1410:
1409:Human outpost
1407:
1404:
1403:Demersal fish
1401:
1398:
1395:
1394:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1380:
1374:
1370:and diamonds.
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1355:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1337:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1322:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1303:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1284:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1265:abyssal plain
1262:
1258:
1254:
1245:
1238:
1229:
1227:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1209:
1207:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1192:
1183:
1164:
1160:
1152:
1147:
1145:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1102:
1100:
1096:
1091:
1089:
1088:phytoplankton
1085:
1081:
1080:Microorganism
1076:
1075:abyssal plain
1071:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1052:sedimentation
1046:
1041:
1034:
1032:
1022:
1013:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
958:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
932:
927:
923:
915:
910:
906:
902:
898:
888:
884:
880:
876:
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
853:
851:
847:
842:
840:
836:
833:, out to the
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
804:
800:
796:
793:
786:
782:
779:
778:Ancient Greek
775:
769:
765:
761:
757:
750:
741:
739:
732:
728:
724:
717:
715:
712:
710:
700:
693:
691:
688:
682:
679:
672:
668:
663:
655:
648:
643:
640:
637:
633:
630:
627:
626:phytoplankton
623:
620:
617:
613:
610:
609:
608:
605:
598:
593:
588:
580:
571:
566:
559:
554:
547:
542:
535:
530:
527:
525:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
492:
490:
488:
484:
480:
479:abyssal plain
476:
471:
469:
465:
461:
459:
455:
451:
447:
442:
440:
436:
432:
428:
427:abyssal plain
424:
420:
410:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
381:
376:
368:
366:
364:
360:
355:
351:
347:
343:
338:
336:
335:phytoplankton
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
310:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
283:
281:
277:
273:
272:sediment core
269:
265:
261:
257:
256:abyssal plain
253:
248:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
214:
209:
207:
202:
200:
195:
194:
192:
191:
186:
183:
181:
178:
176:
175:Demersal zone
173:
171:
168:
166:
163:
161:
158:
157:
156:
155:
152:
148:
143:
140:
138:
135:
134:
133:
132:
127:
122:
119:
117:
114:
113:
112:
111:
108:
107:Ocean surface
104:
99:
96:
94:
91:
89:
86:
84:
81:
79:
76:
74:
71:
69:
66:
64:
61:
59:
58:Littoral zone
56:
55:
54:
53:
50:
46:
43:
39:
33:
29:
28:invertebrates
26:foraging for
25:
21:
4277:Oceanography
4211:Water column
4159:Oceanography
4134:Observations
4129:Explorations
4099:Marginal sea
4092:
4050:OSTM/Jason-2
3882:Volcanic arc
3857:Slab suction
3761:
3574:Head of tide
3464:Loop Current
3404:Ekman spiral
3190:Stokes drift
3100:Gravity wave
3075:Cnoidal wave
2906:
2883:
2866:
2859:
2848:. Retrieved
2839:
2830:
2822:
2817:
2805:. Retrieved
2796:
2787:
2776:. Retrieved
2767:
2758:
2747:. Retrieved
2738:
2729:
2718:. Retrieved
2710:the Guardian
2709:
2700:
2689:. Retrieved
2681:the Guardian
2680:
2671:
2638:
2634:
2628:
2616:. Retrieved
2607:
2597:
2588:10261/216646
2568:
2564:
2554:
2519:
2515:
2509:
2498:the original
2485:
2469:SPC (2013).
2451:. Retrieved
2437:
2426:. Retrieved
2412:
2398:
2387:. Retrieved
2383:
2373:
2364:
2355:
2343:. Retrieved
2338:
2329:
2307:
2264:
2260:
2249:
2204:
2200:
2193:Chase, Zanna
2186:
2174:. Retrieved
2170:
2161:
2149:. Retrieved
2145:
2135:
2123:. Retrieved
2118:
2109:
2089:
2082:
2070:. Retrieved
2065:
2041:. Retrieved
2010:
2003:
1974:
1971:Oceanography
1970:
1960:
1949:. Retrieved
1938:
1929:
1919:Lauterbornia
1918:
1914:
1909:
1898:. Retrieved
1894:the original
1884:
1870:
1850:
1832:
1823:
1813:
1789:
1780:
1767:
1754:
1715:
1709:
1690:
1668:
1660:
1653:. Retrieved
1630:
1623:
1615:
1603:
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1585:. Retrieved
1581:
1571:
1559:. Retrieved
1554:
1545:
1526:
1520:
1381:
1378:
1338:
1323:
1315:Cook Islands
1304:
1285:
1251:
1230:Exploitation
1216:microplastic
1213:
1196:scuba divers
1189:
1187:
1148:Human impact
1103:
1092:
1084:sea currents
1072:
1049:
1045:pelagic zone
1031:10 km.
1014:
959:
946:
942:
938:
937:
908:
896:
881:, coined by
878:
873:detritivores
854:
846:water column
843:
819:benthic zone
791:
788:
781:
772:
736:
713:
705:
683:
676:
641:
631:
621:
615:
611:
602:
510:oceanography
506:paleontology
497:
496:
483:abyssal zone
472:
462:
443:
415:
339:
326:tidal energy
322:volcanic ash
311:
284:
249:
241:ocean bottom
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
222:
180:Benthic zone
150:
142:Oceanic zone
137:Pelagic zone
98:Neritic zone
83:Kelp forests
4201:Thermocline
3918:Mesopelagic
3891:Ocean zones
3862:Slab window
3727:Hydrography
3667:Abyssal fan
3634:Tidal range
3624:Tidal power
3619:Tidal force
3504:Rip current
3439:Gulf Stream
3399:Ekman layer
3389:Downwelling
3364:Baroclinity
3351:Circulation
3247:Wave height
3237:Wave action
3220:megatsunami
3200:Stokes wave
3160:Rossby wave
3125:Kelvin wave
3105:Green's law
2807:6 September
2545:1874/358248
2522:: 134–137.
2151:30 November
1947:. NOAA/NGDC
1921:31: 17-30,
1366:containing
1153:Exploration
1142:marine life
1134:Brine pools
1122:vertebrates
1021:metric tons
978:coral reefs
899:is used in
827:tidal pools
642:Cosmogenous
632:Hydrogenous
616:lithogenous
612:Terrigenous
475:marine life
395:(red), the
291:terrigenous
237:ocean floor
88:Coral reefs
4271:Categories
4139:Reanalysis
4038:Satellites
4019:Sofar bomb
3867:Subduction
3842:Ridge push
3737:Ocean bank
3717:Contourite
3644:Tide gauge
3629:Tidal race
3614:Tidal bore
3604:Slack tide
3569:Earth tide
3489:Ocean gyre
3309:Wind setup
3304:Wind fetch
3267:Wave setup
3262:Wave radar
3257:Wave power
3155:Rogue wave
3085:Dispersion
2850:2021-09-06
2778:2021-09-06
2749:2021-09-06
2720:2021-09-06
2691:2021-04-02
2453:2021-09-06
2428:2022-07-06
2389:2024-02-14
2267:(1): 148.
2176:9 November
2125:13 October
2072:13 October
2043:13 October
1951:2007-04-21
1900:2008-08-16
1587:13 October
1561:13 October
1512:References
1345:Greenpeace
1138:cold seeps
1082:activity,
970:shorelines
951:topography
922:Bathymetry
920:See also:
916:Topography
869:scavengers
865:food chain
850:atmosphere
829:along the
776:(from
599:in meters.
487:hadal zone
385:Bathymetry
373:See also:
170:Cold seeps
129:Open ocean
4001:Acoustics
3953:Sea level
3852:Slab pull
3789:tectonics
3697:Cold seep
3659:Landforms
3536:Whirlpool
3531:Upwelling
3314:Wind wave
3242:Wave base
3170:Sea state
3090:Edge wave
3080:Cross sea
2917:(print);
2894:(print);
2663:128645876
2299:2662-4435
2242:CC BY 4.0
2231:222125532
2223:2296-7745
2038:210979539
1994:1912/3862
994:volcanoes
986:seamounts
966:estuaries
877:The term
831:foreshore
803:organisms
799:community
768:tide pool
622:Biogenous
581:Sediments
514:petrology
369:Structure
233:sea floor
160:Seamounts
151:Sea floor
68:Estuaries
4234:Category
4186:Seawater
3913:Littoral
3908:Deep sea
3767:Seamount
3649:Tideline
3594:Rip tide
3524:shutdown
3494:Overflow
3227:Undertow
3070:Clapotis
2844:Archived
2825:, p. 206
2801:Archived
2799:. 2015.
2772:Archived
2743:Archived
2714:Archived
2685:Archived
2655:17510349
2612:Archived
2474:Archived
2447:Archived
2422:Archived
2365:Mongabay
2171:phys.org
1783:: 37–45.
1390:See also
1368:ilmenite
1257:deep sea
1220:seafloor
1130:bacteria
1112:. Large
1106:deep sea
1064:trenches
1035:Features
1019:10
982:deep sea
857:absorbed
762:and two
727:Sediment
687:Plankton
671:silicate
638:systems.
439:sediment
342:dredging
307:boulders
229:seafloor
4244:Commons
4114:Mooring
4064:Related
4055:Jason-3
4045:Jason-1
3928:Pelagic
3923:Oceanic
3898:Benthic
3215:Tsunami
3185:Soliton
2964:podcast
2925:(eBook)
2902:(eBook)
2739:Reuters
2635:Science
2571:: 384.
2524:Bibcode
2345:31 July
2269:Bibcode
1875:at the
1806:Benthos
1655:11 June
1108:around
1062:, deep
897:Benthos
883:Haeckel
879:benthos
825:, from
792:bénthos
774:Benthos
764:chitons
760:Seaweed
749:Benthos
742:Benthos
667:diatoms
522:acronym
520:). The
481:is the
464:Hotspot
318:erosion
280:benthos
276:habitat
3933:Photic
3762:Seabed
3175:Seiche
2921:
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2867:UNESCO
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1281:cobalt
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1277:nickel
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909:Benton
892:βÎνθος
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785:βÎνθος
614:(also
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239:, and
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3787:Plate
3732:Knoll
3722:Guyot
3677:Atoll
3556:Tides
3319:model
3205:Swell
3037:Waves
2940:Cosee
2659:S2CID
2618:2 May
2501:(PDF)
2494:(PDF)
2227:S2CID
2034:S2CID
1777:(PDF)
1458:PetBD
1191:Alvin
889:noun
887:Greek
813:, or
807:river
780:
766:in a
669:make
516:(see
500:is a
431:plain
299:silts
295:clays
268:shelf
264:slope
245:ocean
4091:DSV
4076:Argo
3938:Surf
3394:Eddy
2919:ISBN
2911:ISBN
2896:ISBN
2888:ISBN
2809:2021
2651:PMID
2620:2020
2347:2024
2295:ISSN
2219:ISSN
2178:2020
2153:2020
2127:2021
2095:ISBN
2074:2021
2045:2021
2024:ISBN
1720:ISBN
1695:ISBN
1657:2010
1644:ISBN
1589:2021
1563:2021
1531:ISBN
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1008:and
976:and
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924:and
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330:wave
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303:sand
297:and
223:The
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