Arab–Khazar wars - Knowledge (XXG)

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scheme of extraordinary ambition which hinges on two untenable assumptions: that the Muslims had concluded that a direct assault against Byzantium was without prospects of success, and that they had more detailed geographical knowledge than can be demonstrated for the time in question. Mako agrees that such a grand strategic plan is not borne out by the rather limited nature of the Arab–Khazar conflict until the 720s. It is more likely that the northward expansion of the Arabs beyond the Caucasus was, at least initially, the result of the onward momentum of the early Muslim conquests. Local Arab commanders of the period often exploited opportunities haphazardly and without an overall plan, sometimes pursuing expansion even against direct caliphal orders. From a strategic perspective, it is more probable that the Byzantines encouraged the Khazars to attack the Caliphate to relieve mounting pressure on their eastern frontier in the early eighth century. Byzantium profited from the diversion of Muslim armies northwards during the 720s and 730s, and the Byzantine–Khazar entente resulted in another marriage alliance between future emperor

1622: 2209:, but the process is not well documented and was apparently gradual; it was certainly underway in the last decades of the eighth century, according to historical sources, and numismatic evidence indicates that it was probably complete by the 830s. The conversion was primarily confined to the Khazar elites, and Christianity, Islam, and Tengrism and local pagan beliefs remained widespread among the Khazar subjects, and even members of the royal house are known to have professed Islam—and thus been barred from ascending the throne. Many modern scholars believe that the Khazar elites' conversion to Judaism was a means of stressing their own identity as separate from (and avoiding assimilation by) the Christian Byzantine and Muslim Arab empires with which they were in contact and was a direct result of the 737 events. 2252:

slowly and was likely superficial at first. For a period of some four centuries, while their power lasted, the Khazars remained an obstacle to the further northward expansion of Islam. Blankinship considers the Caliphate's limited gains in the second war as disproportionate to the resources expended; effective Arab control was limited to the lowlands and coast, and the land was too poor to replenish the Umayyad treasury. In addition, the large garrison at Derbent further depleted the already-overstretched Syro-Jaziran army, the main pillar of the Umayyad regime, whose dispersion across the Caliphate's far-flung fronts was eventually the major factor in the fall of the Umayyad dynasty during the civil wars of the 740s and the subsequent Abbasid Revolution.

1074:. After the Muslim conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries, their perceptions incorporated many of the cultural concepts of their new subjects. This was reflected in early Muslim geographic works, where the Caucasus was seen as part of a great continuous mountain chain that spanned the earth, and divided the civilized lands of the south from the 'Land of Darkness' beyond, an idea deriving from Persian and possibly ancient Babylonian traditions. Consequently, according to Mako, the caliphs soon adopted the notion that it was their duty "to protect the settled, i.e. the civilized world from the northern barbarian". This imperative was reinforced by the Muslim division of the world into the House of Islam ( 1174: 50: 1197:, not aimed at conquest. Rather, Golden writes, they were "typical of nomads testing the defenses of their sedentary neighbors" and a means of gathering booty, the acquisition and distribution of which was fundamental to tribal coalitions. According to Golden, for the Khazars the strategic stake of the conflict was control of the Caucasus passes. According to historian Boris Zhivkov, on the other hand, the Khazars contested the extension of Arab rule over Albania. Zhivkov considers that the Khazars laid special claim to the province, based on the ephemeral control exercised there by the Western Turks after the last Byzantine–Sasanian war. 1985: 2066: 2510:. The Khazar realm contracted to its core around the lower Volga, removed from the reach of the Muslim principalities of the Caucasus; Ibn al-Athir's reports of a war between the Shaddadids with the "Khazars" in 1030 probably refers, instead, to the Georgians. The last Khazars found refuge among their former enemies; Münejjim Bashi records that in 1064, "the remnants of the Khazars, consisting of three thousand households, arrived in Qahtan from the Khazar territory. They rebuilt it and settled in it". 1310: 783: 1698:, capitulated in exchange for tribute. Al-Jarrah intended to advance to Samandar, the next major Khazar settlement, but cut his campaign short when he learned that the Khazars were gathering large forces there. The Arabs had not yet defeated the main Khazar army, which (like all nomad forces) did not depend on cities for supplies. The presence of this force near Samandar and reports of rebellions among the mountain tribes in their rear forced the Arabs to retreat to 2295: 1149:, but relied primarily on their infantry. Arab cavalry was often limited to skirmishing early in a battle before dismounting and fighting on foot. The Arab armies resisted cavalry charges by digging trenches and forming a spear wall behind them. This tactic indicates the discipline of the Arab armies, particularly the elite Syrian troops, which in the Umayyad period served continuously rather than being called up for specific campaigns, and were a 1702:, south of the Caucasus. On his return, al-Jarrah reported on his campaign to the caliph and requested additional troops to defeat the Khazars. This is an indication of the severity of the fighting and, according to Blankinship, that the campaign was not necessarily the resounding success portrayed in Muslim sources. As Noonan comments, "though the sent his best wishes, no further forces were dispatched" to the Caucasus front. 1497:, on the other hand, the "cautious nature of Khazar policy in the Southern Caucasus" made them avoid direct confrontation with the Umayyads and intervene only during times of civil war. Noonan writes that this caution was because the Khazars were themselves preoccupied with consolidating their rule of the Pontic–Caspian steppe and were satisfied with the "limited goal of bringing Albania into the Khazar sphere of influence". 1690:. Al-Jarrah is said to have ransomed the wife and children of Balanjar's governor, and the governor began informing him about Khazar movements. Muslim sources also say that the governor accepted an offer to recover all his belongings (and Balanjar) if he submitted to Muslim rule, but this is probably false. At that time, so many Khazar prisoners were taken that al-Jarrah ordered some of them drowned in the Balanjar River. 1395:—about 800 kilometres (500 mi)—north, as far as al-Bayda on the Volga, the future Khazar capital. This dating, and the improbable claim that the Arabs suffered no casualties, have been disputed by modern scholars. Based at Derbent, Abd al-Rahman launched frequent raids against the Khazars and local tribes over the following years, but they were of small scale and no details about them are recorded in the sources. 2218:

Dagestan. Blankinship says that these campaigns more closely resembled raids, designed to seize plunder and extract tribute to ensure the upkeep of the Arab army, than attempts at permanent conquest. Dunlop on the other hand writes that Marwan came "within an ace of succeeding" in his conquest of Khazaria, and suggests that the Arab commander "apparently intended to resume operations against the

1762:. Maslama's appointment is considered by modern historians to attest to the importance placed by the caliph on the Khazar front, since he was not only a member of the rulingy dynasty, but also one of the most distinguished generals of the Umayyad empire. Nevertheless, Maslama remained in the Jazira for the time being, more concerned with operations against the Byzantines. In his stead, he sent 2474:(whom the Khazars permitted to cross their lands unhindered) at about the same time. For the Khazars, peace on the southern border became more important as new threats to their hegemony emerged in the steppes. Caliphal authority also receded over the 9th and 10th centuries, allowing the re-emergence of native Christian states, initially as caliphal vassals, but de facto independent: Alania, 2552:, modern scholars have often overestimated the significance of this marriage. Noonan argues that Byzantium was more hard-pressed by the Arab attacks than the Khazars, both sides could provide little tangible help to one another, and there is no evidence of further Byzantine–Khazar relations for half a century. Noonan calls the marriage "purely symbolic, a gesture of solidarity and no more". 2307:

hold on its empire was too tenuous for a resumption of the ambitious Umayyad offensives. In Noonan's judgment, "he Khazar-Arab Wars ended in a stalemate", followed by a gradual rapprochement that encouraged the growth of trade between the two empires: large, stashed quantities of Arab coins in Eastern Europe suggest that the second half of the 8th century marks the start of the

6772: 1823:. Ardabil was the capital of Adharbayjan, and most of the Muslim settlers and their families (about 30,000) lived within its walls. Informed of Arab movements by the prince of Iberia, the Khazars moved around al-Jarrah and attacked Warthan. Al-Jarrah rushed to assist the town; he is next recorded as being at Ardabil again, however, confronting the main Khazar army. 1005:, around 630, the extension of Turkic control into the South Caucasus was abandoned, and the region returned to Sasanian influence by 632. The collapse of the West Turkic khaganate led to the independence of the Khazars, then living in the Middle Volga region, and their emergence as an imperial power in their own right between the 660s and 680s, when they defeated 2248:. According to Golden, during the long conflict the Arabs "had been able to maintain their hold over much of Transcaucasia"; despite occasional Khazar raids, this "had never really been seriously threatened". In their failure to push the border north of Derbent, however, the Arabs were clearly "reaching the outer limits of their imperial drive". 1427:

and their resistance (encouraged by Byzantium) could not be overcome. For several decades after the initial Arab conquest, considerable autonomy was left to local rulers; Arab governors worked with them, and they had small forces of their own. The Khazars refrained from large-scale interventions in the south; pleas for assistance by

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of its soldiers in the Caliphate's armies. According to Blankinship, this unique concession indicates the Caliphate's worsening manpower crisis. Around this time, the Khazars and Byzantines strengthened their ties and formalized their alliance against the Arabs with the marriage of Constantine V to the Khazar princess Tzitzak.

1110:, which in political terms entailed "the struggle to establish God's rule in the earth through a continuous military effort against the non-Muslims". The early Muslim state was geared toward expansion, with all able-bodied adult male Muslims subject to conscription. Its manpower pool was accordingly enormous, with historian 1883:

was released (and rewarded) only after the caliph intervened on his behalf. Noonan points out that the jealousies between the Arab commanders, and their rapid turnover, adversely impacted their war effort, as it "inhibited the development and execution of a long-term strategy for dealing with the Khazar problem".

856:. According to historian Gerald Mako, the latter were stereotypical "northern barbarians" as conceived by the settled civilizations of Eurasia: "uncivilized savages who drank blood, who ate children, and whose greed and bestiality knew no limits". If Alexander's barrier failed and Gog and Magog broke through, the 1997:

year against Wartanis, another local prince, whose castle was sacked, and its defenders killed despite their surrender; Wartanis tried to flee but was captured and executed by the inhabitants of Khamzin. Marwan also subdued the Armenian factions who were hostile to the Arabs and Ashot III, their client. He then

1898:. Leaving their campfires burning, the Arabs withdrew in the middle of the night and quickly reached Derbent in a series of forced marches. The Khazars shadowed Maslama's march south and attacked him near Derbent, but the Arab army (augmented by local levies) resisted until a small, elite force attacked the 934:. After the latter's collapse, they emerged as an independent, dominant power in the northern Caucasus by the seventh century. As the most recent steppe power in the region, early medieval writers came to identify the Khazars with Gog and Magog and the Sasanian fortifications at Derbent as Alexander's wall. 1205:, they practised a mobile form of warfare and relied on skilled, hardy cavalry. The rapid movements and sudden attacks and counterattacks of the Khazar cavalry are emphasized in the medieval sources. In the few detailed descriptions of pitched battles, the Khazar cavalry launch the opening attacks. Heavy ( 1331:, the Arabs had reached Armenia. Arabic and Armenian sources differ considerably on the details and chronology of the Arab conquest of Armenia, but by 655, the Armenian princes had capitulated, and both the Byzantine and Persian halves of Armenia had been subjugated. Arab rule was overthrown during the 2251:

Arab control in most of the territories under their nominal rule remained thin on the ground, being exercised mostly through local princes who had submitted to Muslim rule. This submission was often only nominal, unless it could be enforced by Arab governors by force. Likewise, Islamization proceeded

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Despite the Umayyad establishment of a more-or-less stable frontier anchored at Derbent, they could not advance any further (despite repeated efforts) in the face of Khazar resistance. Dunlop drew parallels between the Umayyad–Khazar confrontation in the Caucasus and that between the Umayyads and the

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In the meantime, Marwan consolidated his rear. In 735, the Umayyad general captured three fortresses in Alania (near the Darial Pass). The Arabs also seized Tuman Shah, the ruler of a North Caucasian principality who was restored to his lands by the caliph as a client. Marwan campaigned the following

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via the Darial Pass. Sources say that he marched "beyond Balanjar", conquering several fortresses and capturing much loot, but offer few details. However, modern scholars consider this to probably be an echo (or, possibly, the actual date) of the 722 Balanjar campaign. The Khazars raided south of the

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The Khazars are mentioned in medieval histories as being present in the Caucasus since the first centuries CE, but these are rejected as anachronistic by modern scholars. Some scholars have argued that the Khazars are to be identified with Turks who raided Sasanian Persia in the late 6th century, but

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succession in 750, reaching deep into the South Caucasus. Although the Khazars had re-consolidated control of Dagestan almost to the gates of Derbent by the ninth century, they never seriously attempted to challenge Muslim control of the southern Caucasus. At the same time, the new Abbasid dynasty's

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reports that Marwan led a far more limited campaign on the region just north of Derbent, retiring there for the winter. Marwan was more active in the south, appointing Ashot III Bagratuni as the presiding prince of Armenia; this effectively gave the country broad autonomy in exchange for the service

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and the lands of the Alans under Muslim suzerainty. These campaigns made al-Jarrah the first Muslim commander to cross the Darial Pass, secured the Muslim flank against a possible Khazar attack through the pass, and gave the Arabs a second invasion route into Khazar territory. AL-Jarrah was also the

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of 300 wagons tied together with ropes, a common tactic among nomads. The Arabs broke through, storming the city on 21 August 722. Most of Balanjar's inhabitants were killed or enslaved, but a few (including its governor) fled north. The booty seized by the Arabs was so large that each of the 30,000

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Relations between the two powers remained relatively quiet until the early eighth century, when the stage for a new and more intense round of conflict was set. At the turn of the century, Byzantine political authority was marginalized in the Caucasus: the civil war in the Caliphate ended in 693, and

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Due to the First Muslim Civil War and priorities on other fronts, the Arabs did not again attack the Khazars until the early eighth century. Despite the re-establishment of Arab suzerainty after the end of the civil war, the tributary South Caucasus principalities were not yet firmly under Arab rule

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and who were Khazar subjects, taking 20,000 families (40,000 people in other accounts) captive. The Khazars avoided battle, and Marwan sent a detachment of 40,000 troops across the Volga under al-Kawthar ibn al-Aswad al-Anbari. The Khazars were surprised in a swamp; ten thousand Khazars were killed

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After Marwan's 732 expedition, a period of quiet began. Sa'id al-Harashi replaced Marwan as governor of Armenia and Adharbayjan in spring 733, but undertook no campaigns during the two years of his governorship. Blankinship attributes this inactivity to the exhaustion of the Arab armies and draws a

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Maslama took command of a large army, and immediately took the offensive. He restored the provinces of Albania to Muslim allegiance (after punishing the inhabitants of Khaydhan who resisted him) and reached Derbent, where he found a Khazar garrison of 1,000 men and their families. Leaving al-Harith

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and defeated it in a surprise night attack, killing most of the Khazars and rescuing their 5,000 Muslim prisoners (who included al-Jarrah's daughter). The surviving Khazars fled north, with Sa'id in pursuit. Muslim sources record a number of other, heavily embellished attacks by Sa'id on improbably

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himself, as both sides escalated the conflict. Maslama took the offensive, probably reinforced with Syrian and Jaziran troops. He recovered the Darial Pass (which had been apparently lost after al-Jarrah's 724 expedition) and pushed into Khazar territory, campaigning there until the onset of winter

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says that it was defended by 3,000 Khazars, and Maslama captured it only after a resident showed him a secret underground passage. Łewond also says that the Arabs, realizing that they could not hold the fortress, razed its walls. Maslama then drove deeper into Khazar territory, trying to subdue the

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The only recorded hostilities in the second half of the 7th century were a few Khazar raids into the South Caucasus principalities that were loosely under Muslim dominion. These raids were primarily in search of plunder rather than attempts at conquest. In one such raid into Albania in 661–62, they

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Sa'id's unexpected success angered Maslama; Łewond writes that Sa'id had won the war and received what glory (and booty) there was to be had. Sa'id was relieved of his command in early 731 by Maslama and imprisoned at Qabala and Bardha'a, charged with endangering the army by disobeying orders, and

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suggested that the Arab expansion in the Caucasus was motivated by a desire to outflank the Byzantine defences from the north and envelop the Byzantine Empire in a pincer movement, but this idea is rejected as far-fetched by more recent scholars. Wasserstein objects to Obolensky's proposition as a

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The 737 campaign marked the end of large-scale warfare between the two powers, establishing Derbent as the northernmost outpost of the Muslim world and securing Muslim dominance of the South Caucasus, but leaving the North Caucasus in Khazar hands. At the same time, continuing warfare weakened the

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advanced north along the Caspian coast, and Marwan crossed the Darial Pass with the bulk of his forces. The invasion met little resistance; Arab sources report that Marwan had detained the Khazar envoy and only released him (with a declaration of war) when he was deep in Khazar territory. The two

1859:. The forces he could muster immediately were apparently small, but he set out to meet the Khazars (possibly disobeying orders to maintain a defensive stance). Sa'id encountered refugees from Ardabil along the way and enlisted them into his army, paying each recruit ten gold dinars as inducement. 1846:

The defeat at Ardabil—news of which spread even to Byzantium—was a shock to the Muslims, who faced an army penetrating deep into the Caliphate for the first time. Caliph Hisham again appointed Maslama to fight the Khazars as governor of Armenia and Adharbayjan. Until Maslama could assemble enough

1209:) cavalry is not recorded, but archaeological evidence attests to the use of heavy armour for riders and (possibly) horses. The presence of Khazar infantry must be assumed (especially during siege operations), although it is not explicitly mentioned. Modern historians point to the use of advanced 1800:

In 729/30, al-Jarrah returned to the offensive through Tiflis and the Darial Pass. Ibn al-Athir reports that he reached the Khazar capital, al-Bayda on the lower Volga, but no other source mentions this; modern historians generally consider this improbable, possibly resulting from confusion with

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on 17 September 728. The impact of their victory is questionable, however, as Maslama was ambushed by the Khazars upon his return, and the Arabs abandoned their baggage train and fled through the Darial Pass to safety. After this campaign, Maslama was replaced yet again by al-Jarrah. Despite his

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chief was in contact with the Khazars, al-Jarrah set up camp on the river Rubas and announced that the army would remain there for several days. Instead, he arrived at Derbent in a night march and entered it without resistance. From there, al-Jarrah launched raiding columns into Khazar territory

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The Khazar army was composed of Khazar troops and those of vassal princes and allies. Its overall size is unclear, and references to 300,000 men in the invasion of 730 are clearly exaggerated. Historian Igor Semyonov observes that the Khazars "never entered into battle without having a numerical

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While their Byzantine and Sasanian predecessors simply sought to contain the steppe peoples through fortifications and political alliances, historian David Wasserstein writes that the leaders of the Arab caliphate were "expansionists interested in conquest"; their northward thrust threatened the

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The sources do not provide details of the composition or tactics of Khazar armies, and the names of Khazar commanders are rarely recorded. Although the Khazars adopted elements of the civilizations to their south and possessed towns, they remained a tribal, semi-nomadic power. Like other steppe

759:. Relations between the Muslims of the Caucasus and the Khazars remained largely peaceful thereafter and the Caucasus became an avenue of trade linking the Middle East to Eastern Europe; peace was interrupted by two Khazar raids in the 760s and in 799 resulting from failed efforts to secure an 1962:(another Turkic steppe power). Marwan reportedly criticised the policy followed in the Caucasus to Caliph Hisham, recommending that he be sent to deal with the Khazars with an army of 120,000 men. When Sa'id asked to be relieved due to failing eyesight, Hisham appointed Marwan to replace him. 1910:

Taking advantage of his victory, Maslama poisoned the water supply of Derbent to drive the Khazar garrison out. He re-established the city as an Arab military colony, restoring its fortifications and garrisoning it with 24,000 troops, mostly from Syria, divided into quarters by their district

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to indicate that Khazar military sophistication was equal to that of other contemporary armies. The less-rigidly organized, semi-nomadic nature of the Khazar state also worked to their advantage against the Arabs, as they lacked a permanent administrative centre, whose loss would paralyze the

721:, the Arabs recaptured Derbent and the southern Khazar capital of Balanjar; these successes had little impact on the nomadic Khazars, however, who continued to launch devastating raids deep into the South Caucasus. In a major 730 invasion, the Khazars decisively defeated Umayyad forces at the 2217:

Whatever the real events of Marwan's campaigns, warfare between the Khazars and the Arabs ceased for more than two decades after 737. Arab military activity in the Caucasus continued until 741, with Marwan launching repeated expeditions against minor principalities in the area of present-day

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proved loath to answer summons if the prospects for an easy victory and plunder were low, but on the other hand, these numbers could be supplemented by unregistered Arab volunteers. This put the Arabs at a distinct advantage over their enemies: the entire nominal strength of the contemporary

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advantage" over their Arab opponents, which often forced the latter to withdraw. According to Semyonov, this attests to the Khazars' skill in logistics and their ability to gather accurate information about their opponents' movements, the layout of the country, and the condition of roads.

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volunteers, Armenian troops under Ashot III, and armed camp followers and servants. Whatever the size of Marwan's army, it was the largest ever sent against the Khazars. He attacked simultaneously from two directions. Thirty thousand men (including most of the levies from the Caucasian

1042:. Their locations have yet to be established with certainty by modern researchers, but both cities are referred to as Khazar capitals by Arab writers and may have been winter and summer capitals, respectively. Due to Arab attacks, the Khazars later moved their capital further north to 1892:

ibn Amr al-Ta'i at Derbent, Maslama advanced north. Although details of this campaign may be conflated in the sources with the 728 campaign, he apparently took Khamzin, Balanjar, and Samandar before being forced to retreat after a confrontation with the main Khazar army under the

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Arab armies converged on Samandar, where a review was held; according to Ibn A'tham, the troops were issued new white clothing—the Umayyad dynastic colour—and new spears. Marwan then advanced, according to some Arab sources, to the Khazar capital of al-Bayda on the Volga. The

1261:. This did not materialize; Armenia was left largely quiet, with the Umayyads granting it wide-ranging autonomy and the Byzantines refraining from actively campaigning there. Given the common threat of the Khazar raids, the Umayyads found the Armenians (and the neighbouring 1785:

forced him to return to Adharbayjan. His second invasion, the following year, was less successful; Blankinship calls it a "near disaster". Arab sources report that the Umayyad troops fought for thirty or forty days in the mud, with continuous rain, before defeating the

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also launched attacks on Albania in 664 and 680. In the first incursion, Prince Juansher was obliged to marry the daughter of the Hunnic king. Modern scholars debate whether the Huns acted independently or as Khazar proxies, but several historians consider Hunnic ruler

1529:, in 717–718. In the same period, the Caliphate tightened its grip on the Christian principalities of Transacaucasia. After the suppression of a large-scale Armenian rebellion in 705, Armenia, Iberia and Albania finally came under direct Arab rule as the province of 1935:

records that he reached Balanjar and returned to Derbent with much captured livestock, but the campaign also experienced heavy rain and mud. Highly reminiscent of descriptions of Maslama's 728 and 731 expeditions, the veracity of Ibn A'tham's account is doubtful.

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In the 8th century, Arab armies were often accompanied by local forces provided by the various local potentates, who not only were under Arab suzerainty, but often enough had suffered themselves by Khazar raids. Thus in 732 the presiding prince of Armenia,

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energy, Maslama's campaigns failed to produce the desired results; by 729, the Arabs had lost control of the northeastern parts of the South Caucasus and were again on the defensive, with al-Jarrah having to defend Adharbayjan against a Khazar invasion.

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contingents) south of the Caucasus for the winter; the Khazars returned to their abandoned towns. Maslama's record (despite the capture of Derbent) was apparently unsatisfactory to Hisham, who replaced his brother in March 732 with Marwan ibn Muhammad.

1879:, they may be contemporary, but imaginative, retellings of Sa'id's campaign. According to Blankinship, "The various battles fought and rescues of Muslim prisoners achieved by Sa'id in these sources seem to all go back to a single battle near Bajarwan". 1636:

In 721/22, the main phase of the war began. Thirty thousand Khazars invaded Armenia that winter, and decisively defeated the mostly Syrian army of local governor Ma'laq ibn Saffar al-Bahrani at Marj al-Hijara (Rocky Meadow) in February and March 722.

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s daughters, who died on the journey south. A completely different story is reported by al-Tabari; the Khazars were invited to attack by a local Arab magnate in retaliation for the execution of his father, the governor of Derbent, by the general

1598:, the Khazars invaded and raided Albania with an army claimed to be 80,000 strong. In 717, the Khazars raided Adharbayjan in force. With the bulk of the Umayyad army, under the command of Maslama, occupied at the siege of Constantinople, Caliph 725:, killing al-Jarrah; in turn, they were defeated the following year and pushed back north. Maslama then recovered Derbent, which became a major Arab military outpost and colony, before he was replaced by Marwan ibn Muhammad (the future caliph 1830:

from 7 to 9 December 730, al-Jarrah's 25,000-man army was all but annihilated by the Khazars. Al-Jarrah was among the fallen; command passed to his brother, al-Hajjaj, who could not prevent the sacking of Ardabil. The 10th-century historian

769:. Occasional warfare between the Khazars and the Muslim principalities of the Caucasus continued until the collapse of the Khazar state in the late 10th century, but it never matched again the intensity and scale of the eighth-century war. 973:) invaded Persia proper in the next year, 40,000 Turks joined him. Their contribution was decisive for ending the war in a Byzantine victory. For a short while afterwards, as Sasanian power collapsed, the Turks exercised some control over 897:), this stretched over 45 kilometres (28 mi) from the eastern foothills of the Caucasus to the Caspian Sea. The fortress of Derbent was the strategically crucial centre point of this fortification complex, as seen in its Persian name 2574:

The task of facing the Khazars during the Second Arab–Khazar War fell on the Umayyad governors of Arminiya and Adharbayjan, the two provinces being governed in tandem at the time and usually combined with the governorship of the Jazira

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Marwan's 737 expedition was the climax of the Arab–Khazar wars, but its results were meagre. Although the Arab campaigns after Ardabil may have discouraged the Khazars from further warfare, recognition of Islam or Arab supremacy by the

1368:, written in the early 10th century, reports that Shahrbaraz, the Persian governor of Derbent, offered to surrender the fortress to the Arabs and aid them against the Caucasian peoples if he and his followers were relieved of the 2383:

Peace reigned in the Caucasus between the Arabs and Khazars until 799, and the last major Khazar attack into the South Caucasus. Chroniclers again attribute the attack to a failed marriage alliance. Georgian sources say that the

1655:, one of his most celebrated generals, north with 25,000 Syrian troops in response. The Khazars retreated to the area of Derbent (whose Muslim garrison was still holding out) at the news of his approach. Learning that the local 1674:'s sons), reportedly numbered 40,000. The Arabs were victorious, losing 4,000 men to the Khazars' 7,000. Advancing north, the Arab army captured the settlements of Khamzin and Targhu and resettled their inhabitants elsewhere. 2265: 1295:

by the Caliphate has been suggested as a further motive for the conflict. Mako disputes this claim, pointing out that warfare declined precisely at the time of greatest Silk Road expansion, after the mid-eighth century.

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record that the Arabs and Khazars concluded a peace during this period, which Muslim sources ignore or explain as a short-lived ruse by Marwan to buy time for preparations and mislead the Khazars about his intentions.

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It is unclear whether the Khazar invasion was through the Darial Pass, the Caspian Gates, or both. Different commanders are mentioned for the Khazar forces; Arab sources say that the invasion was led by Barjik (the

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Artamonov notes that most Arabic sources about the campaign are vague, with little detail, and that Armenian historians only mention Arab attacks on the lands of the North Caucasus Huns and the capture of Barachan

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Arabs and Khazars continued to clash sporadically in the North Caucasus during the ninth and tenth centuries, but the warfare was localized and far less intense than the eighth-century wars. The Ottoman historian

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The first Arab advance came as early a 692/93, with an expedition to secure the pass of Derbent; but the Arab forces were soon forced to withdraw. The conflict resumed in 707, with a campaign by Umayyad general

1438:), the last Sasanian shah, were unanswered. After the Arab attacks, the Khazars abandoned Balanjar and moved their capital further north in an attempt to evade the Arab armies. However, Khazar auxiliaries and 1770:

and Khasmadan, and was probably also preoccupied with supervising that year's census. The following year, Barjik launched a major invasion of Albania and Adharbayjan. The Khazars laid siege to Warthan with

1972:, determined to launch a decisive blow against the Khazars, but was apparently unable to launch anything but local expeditions for some time. He established a new base of operations at Kasak, about twenty 2670:

According to Semyonov, these events are mis-dated and should be attributed to the 730 Khazar invasion; Semyonov also suggests that Juansher's seven-year captivity coincides with the end of the second war.

1693:

Al-Jarrah's army also reduced the neighbouring fortresses and continued their march north. The strongly garrisoned fortress city of Wabandar, with 40,000 households reported by the 13th-century historian

1621: 2362:, the Khazars devastated Albania, Armenia and Iberia, and captured Tiflis. Yazid escaped capture, but the Khazars returned north with thousands of captives and much booty. When the deposed Iberian ruler 2240:; according to Dunlop, like the Franks in the west, the Khazars played a crucial role in stemming the tide of early Muslim conquest. This view was also shared by the Soviet historian and Khazar expert 1406:) his brother Salman led a large army north in 652, aiming to take Balanjar. The town was besieged for several days, with both sides using catapults, until the arrival of a Khazar relief force and a 1391:). Al-Tabari reports that the first Arab advance into Khazar lands occurred after the capture of Derbent. Abd al-Rahman ibn Rabi'a reached Balanjar with no losses, and his cavalry advanced up to 200 406: 2140:

is especially noted. Marwan also brought a large number of Slav and Khazar captives south, whom he resettled in the eastern Caucasus; al-Baladhuri reports that about 20,000 Slavs were settled at

2609:

Later Arabic accounts of Maslama's fortification activity have deliberate echoes of the similar endeavours under Khosrow I, as well as the legendary Wall of Alexander against the Gog and Magog.

1677:

Finally, the Arab army reached Balanjar. The city had had strong fortifications during the first Muslim attacks in the mid-seventh century, but apparently, they had been neglected; the Khazars

1976:(roughly 120 km or 75 mi) from Tiflis and forty from Bardha'a, and his initial expeditions were against minor local potentates. Agapius of Hierapolis and the 12th-century historian 314: 2641:

The Arabic sources list expeditions to extract tribute (a levy of slaves and annual grain supplies for Derbent) and impose obligations of military assistance against the principalities of

2054:, but left a considerable force to protect the capital. This was a "spectacularly deep penetration", according to Blankinship, but of little strategic value; the 10th-century travellers 1875:

large Khazar armies; in one, Barjik was reportedly killed in single combat with the Umayyad general. Generally considered "romance rather than history", according to British orientalist

1801:

other events. Al-Jarrah's attacks were followed by a massive Khazar invasion (reportedly 300,000 men), which forced the Arabs to again retreat south of the Caucasus and defend Albania.

1862:

Sa'id was fortunate. The Khazars had dispersed in small detachments after their victory at Ardabil, plundering the countryside, and the Arabs defeated them one by one. Sa'id recovered

1533:. Only the western South Caucasus (present-day Georgia) remained free from direct control by either of the two rival powers, who now confronted each other for control of the Caucasus. 2561:

Nothing else is known about Suraqa ibn Amr other than his overall command of the 642 Derbent campaign and that he shared the nickname 'Dhu al-Nur' (after his sword) with his deputy,

2482:. The final disintegration of the Abbasid empire during the early 10th century also led to the establishment of large Muslim principalities in the region, often ruled by non-native ( 2084:

The subsequent course of the campaign is only chronicled by Ibn A'tham and other sources drawing from his work. According to this account, Marwan ignored al-Bayda and pursued the

1493:) tried to counter Khazar influence by inviting Juansher to Damascus twice, and the 683/685 Khazar raid may have been a reaction to those invitations. According to the historian 2259:—probably descendants of the original tribe which gave the town its name and resettled there as a result of the wars. Soviet and Russian archaeologists and historians such as 637:

to 799 CE. Smaller native principalities were also involved in the conflict as vassals of the two empires. Historians usually distinguish two major periods of conflict, the

1835:

reports that the Khazars took as many as 40,000 prisoners from the city, al-Jarrah's army, and the surrounding countryside. The Khazars raided the province at will, sacking

2144:, and the Khazars were resettled at al-Lakz, where they embraced Islam. The Slavs soon killed their appointed governor and fled north, and Marwan pursued and killed them. 1153:

professional, standing army. According to Kennedy, the Arabs' higher degree of training and discipline gave them an advantage against nomadic peoples such as the Khazars.

2594:

as ruler over the Khazars. Consequently, Semyonov suggests that al-Jarrah's raid against al-Bayda may indeed have reached al-Bayda, or at least succeeded in killing the

1343:(on the Black Sea coast) remained under Byzantine influence. Neighbouring Adharbayjan was conquered in 639–643; raids were launched into Arran (Caucasian Albania) under 399: 682:, where the Khazars were already established since the late 6th century. The first Arab invasion began in 642 with the capture of the strategically important city of 1351:

during the early 640s, leading to the submission of its cities. As in Armenia, Arab rule was not securely established there until after the First Muslim Civil War.

307: 6483: 6442: 6643: 1998: 1660:

ahead of the bulk of his army. His army met a Khazar army at the river al-Ran, one day's march north of Derbent, after joining the columns. According to the

392: 2171:

conversion to Islam is disputed by modern scholars; al-Baladhuri's account, which is probably closest to the original sources, suggests that it was not the

938:

again the evidence is unreliable, being derived from much later Arabic sources. Modern scholarship generally holds that the Khazars first campaigned in the

2177:

but a minor lord who converted to Islam and was placed in charge of the Khazars at al-Lakz. Blankinship cites this as indicating the implausibility of the

1766:

to the Caucasus front. Al-Harith spent his first year consolidating Muslim rule in Caucasian Albania: he campaigned along the Cyrus against the regions of

5810:

The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XXX: The ʿAbbāsid Caliphate in Equilibrium: The Caliphates of Mūsā al-Hādī and Hārūn al-Rashīd, A.D. 785–809/A.H. 169–192

2502:, to name the most prominent. The Khazar presence also diminished with the progressive collapse of their authority in the 10th century and defeats by the 1613:

nevertheless defeated and drove back the Khazars. Hatim returned to the caliph with fifty Khazar prisoners, the first such event recorded in the sources.

2154:

was evidently based on the presence of Arab troops deep in Khazar territory, which was unsustainable. The withdrawal of the Arab armies, followed by the

1907:

s tent and wounded him. The Muslims, encouraged, then defeated the Khazars. The Khazar commander Barjik may have been killed in this battle or campaign.

1327:

The Khazars and the Arabs came into conflict as a result of the first phase of Muslim expansion; by 640, following their conquest of Byzantine Syria and

943: 300: 1923:(later the last Umayyad caliph, from 744 to 750) in command at Derbent, Maslama returned with the rest of his army (primarily the favoured Jaziran and 7368: 6360:(1998). "Why dirhams first reached Russia: the role of Arab-Khazar relations in the development of the earliest Islamic trade with Eastern Europe". 6336:(1984). "Why Dirhams First Reached Russia: The Role of Arab-Khazar Relations in the Development of the Earliest Islamic Trade with Eastern Europe". 2062:

describe the Khazar capital as little more than a large encampment, and there is no evidence that it had been larger or more urbanized in the past.

594: 6099:

The World of the Khazars: New Perspectives. Selected Papers from the Jerusalem 1999 International Khazar Colloquium hosted by the Ben Zvi Institute

7263: 1161:, is known to have renewed an agreement for the employment of Armenian cavalry with the Arab army for three years, in exchange for 100,000 silver 6076:

An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples: Ethnogenesis and State-Formation in Medieval and Early Modern Eurasia and the Middle East

1522: 7268: 6542: 6521: 6502: 6467: 6426: 6106: 5925: 5839: 5818: 5739: 1234:

pursued close relations with the Khazars which amounted to an alliance for most of the period in question, including the marriage of emperor

6083: 6230:

The Byzantine Response to the Expansion of the Arabs. Studies on the structural change of the Byzantine state in the 7th and 8th centuries

1230:

of the Caliphate against the Byzantine Empire along the eastern fringes of Anatolia (a theatre of war which adjoined the Caucasus). The

729:) in 732. A period of relatively localized warfare followed until 737, when Marwan led a massive expedition north to the Khazar capital 1664:, al-Jarrah had 10,000 men (of whom 4,000 were vassal princes); al-Tabari cites the Arab strength as 25,000. The Khazars, commanded by 6573: 6399: 2326: 521: 497: 222: 1335:(656–661), but after its end the Armenian princes returned to their tributary status in the newly established Umayyad Caliphate. The 6369: 6211: 6061: 2628:

According to medieval Arab geographers, the land of the Burtas was 15–20 days' journey north of al-Bayda, putting it in present-day

1364: 1025:. The eastern Caucasus became the main theatre of the Arab–Khazar conflict, with the Arab armies aiming to gain control of Derbent ( 6226:

Die byzantinische Reaktion auf die Ausbreitung der Araber. Studien zur Strukturwandlung des byzantinischen Staates im 7. und 8. Jhd

435: 1560:, and the following year by Maslama, but the most likely date for Derbent's recovery by the Arabs is Maslama's 713/14 expedition. 483: 6286: 5971: 5865: 2136:

s (experts in Islamic law) were sent to instruct him on the details of religious observance; the prohibition of wine, pork, and

1588:

forced Maslama to quickly abandon his campaign and retreat to Iberia, leaving his camp with all its equipment behind as a ruse.

1465:

in the Muslim world) was more successful, capturing much booty and many prisoners and killing the presiding princes of Iberia (

1077: 536: 2255:

Balanjar was no longer mentioned after the Arab–Khazar wars, but a people known as "Baranjar" was later recorded as living in

1870:, then moved northeast to Bardha'a and south to relieve the siege of Warthan. He encountered a 10,000-strong Khazar army near 7363: 7358: 1951: 667:); the wars also involved sporadic raids and isolated clashes from the mid-seventh century to the end of the eighth century. 589: 473: 7353: 2286:

Rivers as resulting from the Arab–Khazar conflict, since Alans from the North Caucasus were resettled there by the Khazars.

1185:

The Khazars followed a strategy common to their nomadic predecessors; their raids might reach deep into the South Caucasus,

1178: 993:), while Armenia, the southwestern half of the South Caucasus, was in Byzantine hands. However, after the assassination of 7189: 5642: 2241: 1759: 958:. The Turks sacked Derbent in 627, broke through the local Sasanian defences, and joined the Byzantines in their siege of 454: 1775:. Al-Harith defeated them on the Araxes and drove them north of the river, but the Arab position was clearly precarious. 2471: 1727:

Caucasus in response, but in February 724, al-Jarrah decisively defeated them in a days-long battle between the rivers

1778:

Maslama assumed personal command of the Khazar front in 727. The Arab commander was faced for the first time with the

531: 2562: 2539:

For comparison, a hundred dirhams was the standard monthly salary of the elite Syrian soldiery in the Umayyad period.

2260: 1848: 1355: 691: 212: 181: 6303: 5988: 5882: 5774: 5695: 2372:

refused. This was probably the result of brief anti-Byzantine Khazar foreign policy resulting from disputes in the

1763: 1231: 548: 464: 2098:(a high-ranking dignitary in Turkic states), shadowed the Arab advance from the east bank. The Arabs attacked the 1584:, the two armies did not engage for several days. The imminent arrival of Khazar reinforcements under the general 805: 5757: 5678: 2460: 1509: 883: 526: 516: 504: 493: 478: 363: 6246: 2186:

conversion, since those Khazars who actually converted to Islam had to be moved to safety in Umayyad territory.

1102:

agrees, emphasizing the highly ideological nature of the Muslim caliphate and its dedication to the doctrine of

6771: 6392:

Byzantine Diplomacy: Papers from the Twenty-Fourth Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, Cambridge, March 1990

6282: 5967: 5861: 5725: 2040: 1678: 1538: 1411: 1099: 947: 718: 599: 583: 343: 338: 194: 2162:

certainly "left little political pressure to remain Muslim", according to Golden. Even the credibility of the

1518: 1227: 447: 6454:[Military Tactics of the Khazar Army in the Period of the War Against the Arab Caliphate in 706–737] 6232:] (in German). Munich: Institut für Byzantinistik und Neugriechische Philologie der Universität München. 5918:

The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 1: The Formation of the Islamic World, Sixth to Eleventh Centuries

2350:, suspecting the Muslims of poisoning his daughter, raided south of the Caucasus from 762 to 764. Led by the 1482:

a Khazar vassal; if so, Albania was under a form of indirect Khazar rule during the 680s. The Umayyad caliph

1064:

Like other Near Eastern peoples, the Arabs were familiar with the legend of Gog and Magog, who appear in the

6514:

Non-Muslim Provinces under Early Islam: Islamic Rule and Iranian Legitimacy in Armenia and Caucasian Albania

2479: 1984: 1836: 1736: 1542: 1173: 579: 440: 7007: 6566: 2420:) was taken captive for several years. Shushan committed suicide rather than be captured, and the furious 2116:

This appears to have been the only fighting of the campaign between the Arabs and Khazars, and the Khazar

1652: 1610: 1336: 1332: 1022: 986: 955: 931: 714: 459: 416: 348: 199: 98: 41: 1815:

as the Khazar commander. Al-Jarrah apparently dispersed some of his forces, withdrawing his main army to

1021:, which had extended its power over the South Caucasus in the 640s, in the wake of the first wave of the 832:. Consequently, defence of the Caucasus frontier against destructive raids by steppe peoples such as the 804:

The Arab–Khazar wars were part of a long series of military conflicts between the nomadic peoples of the

698:

in 652. Large-scale hostilities then ceased for several decades, apart from raids by the Khazars and the

7250: 7209: 7199: 6922: 6653: 1832: 1466: 511: 6094: 2366:

tried to induce the Khazars to campaign against the Abbasids and restore him to his throne in 780, the

2314:

The first conflict between the Khazars and the Abbasids resulted from a diplomatic manoeuvre by Caliph

1521:. The Arabs began a sustained offensive against Byzantium that would eventually culminate in the great 373: 1746:), promised to send reinforcements but failed to do so. In 724, al-Jarrah captured Tiflis and brought 7133: 7093: 6861: 6856: 6706: 6221: 2137: 1871: 1474: 1354:

According to Arab chroniclers, the first attack on Derbent was launched in 642 under Suraqa ibn Amr;

1344: 1246: 786: 699: 558: 468: 2426:

had Bulchan executed. Arab chroniclers attribute the conflict to plans by the Abbasid governor, the

1931:

That summer, Marwan led 40,000 men north into Khazar lands. Accounts of this campaign are confused.

6410: 2645:, Ghumik, Khiraj (or Khizaj), Tuman, Sirikaran, Khamzin, Sindan (also known as Sughdan or Masdar), 2452: 2410: 2377: 2010: 1569: 1557: 1470: 1158: 845: 829: 5731:

The End of the Jihâd State: The Reign of Hishām ibn ʻAbd al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads

2325:). Attempting to strengthen the Caliphate's ties with the Khazars, he ordered governor of Armenia 1414:

for the Arabs. Abd al-Rahman and 4,000 of his troops were killed, and the rest fled to Derbent or

690:, and continued with a series of minor raids, ending with the defeat of a large Arab force led by 7307: 7229: 6932: 6871: 6681: 6598: 6477: 6436: 2271: 2159: 1977: 1398:

Disregarding the caliph's instructions for caution and restraint, Abd al-Rahman or (according to

1006: 994: 990: 849: 752: 710: 671: 429: 353: 141: 102: 2447:. According to the Arab sources, the Khazars raided as far as the Araxes against troops led by 844:. This is reflected in the popular belief in ancient and medieval Middle Eastern cultures that 7219: 6826: 6741: 6726: 6696: 6638: 6603: 6559: 6538: 6517: 6498: 6463: 6422: 6395: 6365: 6345: 6321: 6270: 6258: 6233: 6207: 6185: 6177: 6102: 6079: 6057: 6037: 6029: 6006: 5943: 5935: 5921: 5913: 5900: 5835: 5814: 5792: 5735: 5713: 5654: 5630: 5622: 2475: 2444: 2430: 2391: 2308: 2303: 1876: 1827: 1747: 1686:

horsemen—clearly an exaggeration by later historians—in the Arab army reportedly received 300

1630: 1517:

the Umayyads were able to inflict significant defeats on the Byzantines, who descended into a

1348: 1328: 1314: 1272: 1269: 1254: 982: 978: 760: 756: 722: 706: 553: 155: 148: 49: 6497:. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. 5813:. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. 2032:

says that his army numbered 150,000 men, including regular forces from Syria and the Jazira,

1699: 1091: 7330: 7317: 7273: 7224: 7168: 6836: 6816: 6736: 6716: 6691: 6593: 6383: 6379: 6357: 6333: 6313: 6173: 6134: 6025: 5998: 5892: 5784: 5705: 5666: 5618: 2658: 2650: 2549: 2448: 2229: 2198:

conversion is also contradicted by the fact that the Khazar court is known to have embraced

1494: 1250: 974: 951: 488: 268: 250: 237: 203: 185: 6054:

Khazar Studies: An Historico-Philological Inquiry into the Origins of the Khazars, Volume 1

2065: 1567:

reports that Derbent was in the hands of the Huns at that time; the 16th-century chronicle

7283: 7255: 7234: 7017: 6972: 6846: 6751: 6197: 6071: 6049: 5955: 5670: 2363: 2237: 1556:

and up to Derbent. Further attacks on Derbent are reported by different sources in 708 by

1194: 1111: 1039: 879: 790: 748: 6460:

Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual International Conference on Jewish Studies, Vol. II

6452:"Военная тактика хазарской армии в период войны против Арабского халифата в 706—737 годы" 2344:. The marriage took place, but she and her child died in childbirth two years later. The 2024:

Marwan prepared a massive campaign for 737, aiming to end the war. He apparently went to

1758:

In 725, the caliph replaced al-Jarrah with his own half-brother Maslama, governor of the

1609:) reportedly could only spare 4,000 men to confront 20,000 invaders. The Arab commander 1580:

confronted the Arabs at the city of Tarku but, apart from a series of single combats by

7194: 7173: 6967: 6821: 6756: 6711: 6686: 6671: 6661: 6633: 6387: 6298: 6290: 5983: 5975: 5877: 5869: 5804: 5769: 5765: 5749: 5690: 5686: 2503: 2406: 2275: 2256: 2245: 2051: 1924: 1852: 1526: 1210: 1138:

is estimated at 120,000 men, though revisionist historians put it at as low as 30,000.

1135: 939: 920: 679: 675: 116: 94: 86: 6419:

Proceedings of the Fifteenth Annual International Conference on Jewish Studies, Part 2

1958:, where the Arabs had also experienced a series of costly defeats at the hands of the 7347: 7302: 7098: 7078: 7068: 6811: 6761: 6623: 6317: 6294: 6278: 6168: 6020: 6002: 5979: 5963: 5896: 5873: 5857: 5849: 5788: 5761: 5709: 5682: 5613: 2103: 1932: 1728: 1483: 1428: 1277: 1258: 1146: 1142: 853: 821: 794: 368: 264: 1127:. Kennedy stresses that this force was spread throughout the empire and many of the 7158: 6927: 6786: 6494:

The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XIV: The Conquest of Iran, A.D. 641–643/A.H. 21–23

6274: 5959: 5853: 5753: 5674: 2491: 1732: 1695: 1479: 1462: 1446:

troops are recorded as fighting alongside the Byzantines against the Arabs in 655.

1235: 1202: 1855:

as a standard for his army and with 100,000 dirhams to recruit men, Sa'id went to

1380:

imposed on non-Muslims. Shahrbaraz's proposal was accepted and ratified by Caliph

6532: 6492: 6201: 5829: 5808: 5729: 1253:

was a grave threat to the Caliphate, especially given Armenia's proximity to the

702:

on the autonomous principalities of the South Caucasus during the 660s and 680s.

7214: 7204: 7143: 7118: 6917: 6907: 6841: 6791: 6721: 2507: 2359: 2279: 2155: 1955: 1937: 1816: 1812: 1710: 1585: 1553: 1186: 1085: 1053: 857: 825: 813: 782: 734: 687: 358: 277: 259: 233: 17: 6451: 1309: 7278: 7123: 7088: 7038: 7022: 6992: 6701: 6155:

Zuckerman, Constantine. "The Khazars and Byzantium — The First Encounter". In

6116:

Golden, Peter B. (2007a). "Khazar Studies: Achievements and Perspectives". In

2499: 2311:

linking the Baltic and Eastern Europe, with the Caucasus and the Middle East.

2122:

soon requested peace. Marwan reportedly offered "Islam or the sword", and the

2070: 2055: 2029: 1959: 1687: 1682: 1461:). A large-scale raid across the South Caucasus in 683 or 685 (also a time of 1403: 1206: 886:

to protect the vulnerable frontier on the Caspian shore. When completed under

713:, intensifying after 721 into a full-scale war. Led by the prominent generals 6349: 6325: 6262: 6237: 6189: 6041: 6010: 5947: 5904: 5796: 5717: 5658: 5634: 1114:

estimating that 250,000 to 300,000 men were inscribed as potential soldiers (

763:

between the Arab governors (or local princes) of the Caucasus and the Khazar

7153: 7053: 6796: 6628: 6618: 2495: 2483: 2427: 2315: 2014: 2006: 1920: 1767: 1581: 1399: 1359: 1292: 1262: 1141:

Arab armies of the early Muslim conquests contained sizeable contingents of

1018: 963: 887: 841: 833: 726: 623: 619: 217: 166: 120: 6362:

The Islamic World, Russia and the Vikings, 750–900: The Numismatic Evidence

2600:, and that the subsequent invasion was launched as a campaign of vengeance. 2013:. Marwan besieged Anakopia, but was forced to retire due to an outbreak of 1564: 1249:

in 705. The possibility of the Khazars linking with the Byzantines through

6203:

The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State

1851:

was sent to stem the Khazar invasion. With a lance reportedly used at the

840:

came to be regarded as one of the chief duties of imperial regimes of the

7312: 7138: 7108: 7063: 6977: 6952: 6912: 6897: 6831: 6746: 6613: 6125:

Golden, Peter B. (2007b). "The Conversion of the Khazars to Judaism". In

2629: 2584:Łewond reports that the Khazar invasion was preceded by the death of the 2351: 2335: 2233: 2059: 2025: 2002: 1989: 1867: 1772: 1641: 1530: 1451: 1392: 1377: 1190: 1035: 927: 809: 695: 627: 384: 90: 55: 27:

Series of wars between the Arabs and Khazars over control of the Caucasus

2298:

Political map of Europe and the Mediterranean in the early ninth century

7290: 7148: 7128: 7058: 7048: 6987: 6962: 6937: 6902: 6866: 6851: 6806: 6731: 6676: 6582: 5653:] (in Russian). Leningrad: Издательство Государственного Эрмитажа. 2654: 2591: 2402: 2294: 2283: 2199: 2141: 2093: 2074: 2018: 1973: 1820: 1656: 1599: 1439: 1288: 923: 864: 817: 798: 683: 616: 575: 282: 163: 124: 2017:

in his army. His cruelty during the invasion of Iberia earned him the

930:

in the second half of the sixth century, initially as subjects of the

7296: 7113: 7083: 7073: 7002: 6997: 6957: 6947: 6801: 2646: 2373: 2099: 1863: 1843:

in the northern Jazira, adjacent to the Umayyad heartlands in Syria.

1752: 1751:

first Arab commander to settle Khazar prisoners as colonists, around

1723: 1665: 1626: 1407: 1340: 1162: 1026: 1017:

In the Caucasus, the Khazars came into contact with the nascent Arab

1000: 959: 246: 5384: 5382: 4182: 4180: 4178: 709:) resumed after 707 with occasional raids back and forth across the 2451:(the new governor of the South Caucasus) and reserve forces led by 2090:

north along the west bank of the Volga; the Khazar army, under the

852:

the Caucasus with divine assistance against the mythical hordes of

292: 7163: 7103: 7043: 7012: 6942: 6666: 4895: 4893: 4494: 4492: 4153: 4151: 2642: 2487: 2293: 2131: 2064: 1983: 1856: 1840: 1704: 1620: 1504: 1443: 1415: 1371: 1308: 1181:, showing an early medieval armoured steppe warrior with a captive 1172: 1105: 1065: 781: 6382:(1992). "Byzantium and the Khazars: a special relationship?". In 6982: 6892: 6887: 4981: 4979: 4942: 4940: 4551: 4549: 4402: 4400: 2078: 1914: 1381: 1094:

pagan Turkic steppe peoples such as the Khazars were consigned.

1043: 875: 837: 730: 6555: 6146:

Wasserstein, David J. "The Khazars and the World of Islam". In

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The Khazars resumed their raids on Muslim territory after the

705:

The conflict between the Khazars and the Arabs (now under the

6413:[Biographical Episodes of the Khazar Prince Barsbek] 3309: 3307: 3219: 3217: 3215: 3213: 3164: 3162: 2902: 2900: 2898: 2896: 2894: 5507: 5505: 5053: 5051: 4761: 4759: 4757: 4524: 4522: 4303: 4301: 4299: 4114: 4112: 4110: 4108: 4106: 4104: 4102: 4036: 4034: 3234: 3232: 2690: 2688: 2686: 1098:

survival of the Khazars as an independent polity. Historian

6551: 5920:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 226–268. 4732: 4730: 3543: 3541: 1574:

North Caucasian Huns (who were Khazar vassals). The Khazar

1226:

To an extent, the Arab–Khazar wars were also linked to the

686:

that guarded the eastern passage of the Caucasus along the

2717: 2715: 2390:

wanted to marry Shushan, the beautiful daughter of Prince

1839:

and attacking other settlements. Some detachments reached

6156: 6147: 6138: 6126: 6117: 5912:

Cobb, Paul M. (2010). "The Empire in Syria, 705–763". In

2158:

and the subsequent collapse of the Umayyad regime in the

2073:

in 2002, a site identified by some archaeologists as the

737:. After securing the submission of the Khazar ruler, the 5734:. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. 5068: 5066: 4910: 4908: 4790: 4788: 4786: 4509: 4507: 4363: 4361: 4359: 4262: 4260: 4211: 4209: 4207: 4089: 4087: 4085: 4021: 4019: 4017: 3683: 3681: 3679: 3618: 3616: 3384: 3382: 2595: 2585: 2434: 2421: 2385: 2367: 2354: 2345: 2330: 2219: 2190: 2178: 2172: 2163: 2149: 2123: 2117: 2108: 2091: 2085: 2045: 1899: 1893: 1806: 1786: 1779: 1669: 1575: 998: 764: 738: 4817: 4815: 3791: 3789: 3787: 3785: 3783: 2732: 2730: 1944: 1722:

In 723, al-Jarrah reportedly led another campaign into

3734: 3732: 2028:

to ask Hisham for support; the 10th-century historian

2001:, driving its ruler to seek refuge in the fortress of 1291:

in 733. Gaining control of the northern branch of the

5942:. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. 1317:

and its provinces (in green) at its greatest extent,

898: 2773: 2771: 2769: 2129: 2033: 1912: 1369: 1339:

concluded a similar treaty with the Arabs, and only

1128: 1115: 1103: 1083: 1075: 1069: 1047: 1029: 7243: 7182: 7031: 6880: 6779: 6652: 6394:. Aldershot, England: Variorium. pp. 109–132. 6167: 6019: 5612: 2405:to invade Iberia and capture her. Most of central 670:The wars were a result of attempts by the nascent 5583: 5388: 4186: 2961: 812:. The two primary routes over the mountains, the 65:, following the end of the Second Arab–Khazar War 1945:Marwan's invasion of Khazaria and end of the war 747:Umayyad army and contributed to the fall of the 6247:"The Possible Reasons for the Arab–Khazar Wars" 1422:Khazar and Hunnic raids into the South Caucasus 34: 6411:"Эпизоды биографии хазарского принца Барсбека" 5854:"Armīniya. 2. — Armenia under Arab domination" 5595: 5559: 5135: 2925: 2906: 615:were a series of conflicts fought between the 6567: 6537:. Translated by Daria Manova. Leiden: Brill. 6364:(1st ed.). Routledge. pp. 151–282. 2274:consider the eighth-century emergence of the 2202:as its faith. Dunlop placed this as early as 400: 308: 8: 5131: 5129: 5127: 5125: 5123: 5121: 5119: 5117: 1034:, 'Gate of Gates') and the Khazar cities of 5704:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 1172–1181. 5412: 5325: 5294: 5282: 5246: 5150: 5030: 4997: 4931: 4899: 4872: 4857: 4833: 4806: 4777: 4697: 4666: 4618: 4579: 4498: 4447: 4430: 4338: 4290: 4278: 4227: 4198: 4157: 3936: 3891: 3879: 3723: 3634: 3361: 3349: 3325: 3313: 3298: 3274: 3223: 3168: 3057: 3021: 3009: 2997: 2921: 2919: 2917: 2915: 2694: 2224:at a later date" which never materialized. 1222:Connection with the Arab–Byzantine conflict 904: 816:(Alan Gates) in the centre and the Pass of 778:The Caucasus as a frontier of civilizations 123:. Northward Muslim expansion is stopped at 6574: 6560: 6552: 6482:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 6441:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 6304:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 6137:"The Economy of the Khazar Khaganate". In 5989:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 5883:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 5775:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 5696:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 5297:, pp. 174–175, 331–332 (notes 36–47). 2102:, whose territory extended to that of the 828:, have been used as invasion routes since 808:and the more settled regions south of the 407: 393: 385: 315: 301: 293: 31: 6534:Khazaria in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries 6312:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 188–191. 6157:Golden, Ben-Shammai & Róna-Tas (2007) 6148:Golden, Ben-Shammai & Róna-Tas (2007) 6139:Golden, Ben-Shammai & Róna-Tas (2007) 6127:Golden, Ben-Shammai & Róna-Tas (2007) 6118:Golden, Ben-Shammai & Róna-Tas (2007) 5997:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 660–661. 5891:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 635–638. 5783:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 341–351. 5306: 5174: 5084: 5057: 5042: 4985: 4946: 4765: 4748: 4678: 4591: 4555: 4528: 4471: 4406: 4379: 4307: 4118: 4076: 4040: 3996: 3972: 3960: 3855: 3819: 3807: 3750: 3699: 3571: 3547: 3424: 2885: 2849: 2813: 2801: 2278:culture in the steppe region between the 6516:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 6421:(in Russian). Moscow. pp. 282–297. 5547: 5535: 4391: 4350: 4239: 4052: 3915: 3867: 3460: 3262: 3250: 3238: 3204: 3192: 3180: 3153: 2527: 1214:government and force them to surrender. 1193:, but they were, according to historian 6093:Golden, Peter B.; Ben-Shammai, Haggai; 5439:, pp. 186 (esp. note 71), 221–222. 5436: 5373: 5361: 5258: 5234: 5222: 5198: 5186: 3141: 3117: 3093: 3081: 3069: 3045: 3033: 2682: 2519: 2039:principalities) under Derbent governor 2009:coast in the Byzantine protectorate of 1629:, minted 707/8, possibly in Arab-ruled 6475: 6434: 5834:. Plymouth: Rowman & Littlefield. 5571: 5484: 5472: 5460: 5448: 5424: 5400: 5349: 5337: 5270: 5108: 5096: 5072: 4970: 4958: 4914: 4884: 4794: 4736: 4709: 4654: 4642: 4630: 4603: 4567: 4540: 4513: 4483: 4418: 4367: 4319: 4266: 4251: 4215: 4169: 4142: 4130: 4093: 4064: 4025: 4008: 3984: 3948: 3903: 3843: 3831: 3774: 3762: 3687: 3670: 3658: 3646: 3622: 3607: 3595: 3559: 3532: 3520: 3508: 3496: 3448: 3436: 3400: 3388: 3129: 3105: 2937: 2873: 2825: 2777: 2706: 1563:The eighth-century Armenian historian 1265:) willing allies against the Khazars. 1009:and expanded into the North Caucasus. 6462:(in Russian). Moscow. pp. 7–15. 5523: 5511: 5496: 5210: 5162: 5009: 4845: 4721: 4459: 3795: 3711: 3484: 3373: 3286: 2861: 2837: 2789: 2760: 2721: 2107:in the ensuing battle (including the 1512:, the Sasanian-era citadel in Derbent 7: 5831:The Jews of Khazaria, Second Edition 4821: 3738: 3583: 3472: 3412: 3337: 2985: 2973: 2949: 2748: 2736: 2530:and the literature referenced there. 2506:and other Turkic nomads such as the 2232:at roughly the same time across the 926:appeared in the area of present-day 2376:; at this time, the Khazars helped 1796:Battle of Ardabil and Arab reaction 1450:were defeated by the local prince, 1120:) in the provincial army registers 6206:. London and New York: Routledge. 1919:) of origin. Leaving his relative 1681:by surrounding the citadel with a 1410:by the besieged forces ended in a 25: 5940:The History of the Jewish Khazars 2463:records a period of warfare from 1365:History of the Prophets and Kings 944:Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 7369:Medieval history of the Caucasus 6770: 6318:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0016 6176:; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; 6078:. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. 6028:; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; 6003:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0736 5897:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0064 5789:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0405 5710:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_4267 5621:; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; 5201:, pp. 139–151–157, 158–159. 2128:agreed to convert to Islam. Two 1965:Marwan returned to the Caucasus 1847:forces, veteran military leader 48: 5752:& MacKenzie, D. N. (1978). 2415: 2396: 2320: 1811:'s son), and Łewond identifies 1741: 1646: 1604: 1547: 1488: 1456: 1433: 1386: 1282: 1240: 968: 892: 869: 119:falls under the control of the 6184:(3rd ed.). Brill Online. 6036:(3rd ed.). Brill Online. 5629:(3rd ed.). Brill Online. 5614:"Dār al-Islām and dār al-ḥarb" 2470:to 912, perhaps linked to the 2021:"the Deaf" from the Iberians. 1418:in northern present-day Iran. 1: 6056:. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. 6018:Gocheleishvili, Iago (2014). 5584:Bosworth & MacKenzie 1978 5389:Bosworth & MacKenzie 1978 4187:Bosworth & MacKenzie 1978 2962:Bosworth & MacKenzie 1978 2464: 2338: 2203: 2156:Muslim civil wars of the 740s 2113:), and 7,000 were captured. 1966: 1713: 1592: 1318: 1121: 962:. When the Byzantine emperor 657: 642: 631: 59: 6338:Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 6251:Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 6101:. Leiden and Boston: Brill. 5415:, pp. 223–225, 230–236. 2596: 2586: 2435: 2422: 2386: 2368: 2355: 2346: 2331: 2220: 2191: 2179: 2173: 2164: 2150: 2124: 2118: 2109: 2092: 2086: 2046: 1900: 1894: 1807: 1787: 1780: 1670: 1576: 1257:'s metropolitan province of 1243: 685–695, 705–711 999: 884:line of stone fortifications 765: 739: 6491:Smith, G. Rex, ed. (1994). 2329:to marry a daughter of the 2244:, as well as by Golden and 2130: 2034: 1913: 1370: 1179:Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós 1129: 1116: 1104: 1084: 1076: 1070: 1048: 1030: 977:(approximately present-day 899: 751:in 750, as a result of the 694:outside the Khazar town of 7385: 6450:Semyonov, Igor G. (2010). 6409:Semyonov, Igor G. (2008). 5828:Brook, Kevin Alan (2006). 5596:Barthold & Golden 1978 5560:Barthold & Golden 1978 5136:Barthold & Golden 1978 2926:Barthold & Golden 1978 2380:throw off Byzantine rule. 1617:Escalation of the conflict 1525:on the Byzantine capital, 989:) and Adharbayjan (modern 7326: 6768: 6589: 6265:– via Academia.edu. 5726:Blankinship, Khalid Yahya 2490:) dynasties, such as the 2472:Caspian raids of the Rus' 2409:was occupied, and Prince 1764:al-Harith ibn Amr al-Ta'i 1473:). At the same time, the 1245:) to the Khazar princess 1201:societies originating in 761:alliance through marriage 674:to secure control of the 426: 334: 172: 135: 69: 47: 39: 6166:Kemper, Michael (2013). 6021:"Caucasus, pre-900/1500" 5611:Albrecht, Sarah (2016). 5427:, pp. 144, 221–222. 4582:, p. 324 (note 34). 3714:, pp. 107–125, 140. 2940:, pp. 221–222, 225. 2563:Abd al-Rahman ibn Rabi'a 2041:Asid ibn Zafir al-Sulami 1988:The medieval citadel of 1849:Sa'id ibn Amr al-Harashi 1358:commanded his vanguard. 1356:Abd al-Rahman ibn Rabi'a 1100:Khalid Yahya Blankinship 1082:) and the House of War ( 1068:in the Arabicized form 948:Western Turkic Khaganate 824:) in the east along the 719:Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik 692:Abd al-Rahman ibn Rabi'a 213:Sa'id ibn Amr al-Harashi 195:Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik 182:Abd al-Rahman ibn Rabi'a 7260:Khazar ancestry claims 6531:Zhivkov, Boris (2015). 4712:, p. 79 (note 96). 3487:, p. 34, note 175. 2401:) and sent his general 2236:, which ended with the 1952:the 732–734 quiet phase 1737:Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik 1591:In response, in 709 or 1300:First war and aftermath 7008:Semikarakorsk Fortress 6512:Vacca, Alison (2017). 6182:Encyclopaedia of Islam 6034:Encyclopaedia of Islam 5651:History of the Khazars 5627:Encyclopaedia of Islam 2526:For more details, see 2433:, to marry one of the 2299: 2081: 1993: 1887:Garrisoning of Derbent 1719: 1679:defended their capital 1653:al-Jarrah ibn Abdallah 1633: 1519:long period of turmoil 1513: 1337:Principality of Iberia 1333:First Muslim Civil War 1324: 1287:) and Khazar princess 1182: 1023:early Muslim conquests 987:Republic of Azerbaijan 956:Third Perso-Turkic War 950:, who allied with the 932:First Turkic Khaganate 801: 793:fortifications of the 773:Background and motives 743:, the Arabs withdrew. 715:al-Jarrah ibn Abdallah 654:Second Arab–Khazar War 418:Early Muslim conquests 200:al-Jarrah ibn Abdallah 173:Commanders and leaders 99:Republic of Azerbaijan 42:Early Muslim conquests 7364:8th-century conflicts 7359:7th-century conflicts 7251:Khazar Correspondence 6245:Mako, Gerald (2010). 6222:Lilie, Ralph-Johannes 5562:, pp. 1175–1176. 5352:, pp. 46–47, 87. 5273:, pp. 85, 86–87. 3882:, pp. 40, 52–53. 3072:, pp. 23–25, 29. 2297: 2068: 2050:withdrew towards the 1987: 1833:Agapius of Hierapolis 1708: 1624: 1508: 1312: 1228:long-lasting struggle 1176: 997:, the Western Turkic 946:, as subjects of the 806:Pontic–Caspian steppe 785: 755:that established the 639:First Arab–Khazar War 4293:, pp. 125, 149. 3753:, pp. 192, 203. 2590:, leaving his widow 2213:Aftermath and impact 1475:North Caucasian Huns 1305:First Arab invasions 787:Roderich von Erckert 700:North Caucasian Huns 678:(Transcaucasia) and 622:and successive Arab 6644:Dnieper trade route 6159:, pp. 399–432. 6150:, pp. 373–386. 6141:, pp. 207–244. 6129:, pp. 123–162. 5586:, pp. 345–347. 5574:, pp. 125–126. 5550:, pp. 170–171. 5538:, pp. 287–288. 5526:, pp. 130–131. 5514:, pp. 131–132. 5499:, pp. 129–130. 5487:, pp. 233–234. 5475:, pp. 170–172. 5309:, pp. 229–231. 5285:, pp. 174–175. 5261:, pp. 152–153. 5249:, pp. 173–174. 5237:, pp. 137–138. 5225:, pp. 135–150. 5213:, pp. 106–114. 5165:, pp. 179–180. 5087:, pp. 220–221. 5045:, pp. 221–222. 5000:, pp. 172–173. 4988:, pp. 219–220. 4949:, pp. 218–219. 4902:, pp. 171–172. 4860:, pp. 170–171. 4848:, pp. 157–158. 4836:, pp. 153–154. 4780:, pp. 152–153. 4681:, pp. 216–217. 4669:, pp. 151–152. 4558:, pp. 214–215. 4501:, pp. 150–151. 4474:, pp. 213–214. 4433:, pp. 149–150. 4409:, pp. 212–213. 4382:, pp. 211–212. 4353:, pp. 286–293. 4281:, pp. 124–125. 4230:, pp. 123–124. 4160:, pp. 122–123. 4133:, pp. 184–185. 4079:, pp. 207–209. 4055:, pp. 284–285. 3999:, pp. 206–207. 3963:, pp. 205–206. 3918:, pp. 282–283. 3894:, pp. 121–122. 3822:, pp. 203–205. 3765:, pp. 182–183. 3661:, pp. 180–181. 3574:, pp. 178–179. 3511:, pp. 176–177. 3451:, pp. 636–637. 3439:, pp. 635–636. 3427:, pp. 176–177. 3376:, pp. 157–160. 3364:, pp. 149–154. 3352:, pp. 378–379. 3328:, pp. 377–378. 3277:, pp. 108–109. 3132:, pp. 237–238. 3108:, pp. 185–186. 3000:, pp. 374–375. 2964:, pp. 341–342. 2907:Gocheleishvili 2014 2888:, pp. 417–431. 2876:, pp. 174–176. 2864:, pp. 134–135. 2852:, pp. 403–417. 2840:, pp. 133–134. 2828:, pp. 173–174. 2816:, pp. 401–403. 2724:, pp. 126–127. 2453:Khuzayma ibn Khazim 2378:Leon II of Abkhazia 1921:Marwan ibn Muhammad 1668:(one of the Khazar 1611:Hatim ibn al-Nu'man 1558:Muhammad ibn Marwan 1471:Grigor I Mamikonian 1159:Ashot III Bagratuni 846:Alexander the Great 830:classical antiquity 789:'s 1887 map of the 595:Visigothic Hispania 218:Marwan ibn Muhammad 7308:Mandgelis Document 7291:Khazars in fiction 7230:Svetlana Pletnyova 6872:Yitzhak ha-Sangari 6287:Lévi-Provençal, E. 6172:. In Fleet, Kate; 6024:. In Fleet, Kate; 5972:Lévi-Provençal, E. 5936:Dunlop, Douglas M. 5914:Robinson, Chase F. 5866:Lévi-Provençal, E. 5617:. In Fleet, Kate; 2709:, pp. 41, 58. 2300: 2272:Svetlana Pletnyova 2160:Abbasid Revolution 2082: 1999:pushed into Iberia 1994: 1978:Michael the Syrian 1735:. The new caliph, 1720: 1634: 1541:, a son of Caliph 1514: 1325: 1232:Byzantine emperors 1183: 1007:Old Great Bulgaria 991:Iranian Azerbaijan 802: 753:Abbasid Revolution 711:Caucasus Mountains 672:Rashidun Caliphate 142:Rashidun Caliphate 103:Iranian Azerbaijan 7339: 7338: 7220:Alexander Harkavy 7190:Mikhail Artamonov 6639:Volga trade route 6544:978-90-04-29307-6 6523:978-1-107-18851-8 6504:978-0-7914-1293-0 6469:978-5-9860-4253-4 6428:978-5-8125-1212-5 6384:Shepard, Jonathan 6380:Noonan, Thomas S. 6358:Noonan, Thomas S. 6334:Noonan, Thomas S. 6275:"Ad̲h̲arbayd̲jān" 6135:Noonan, Thomas S. 6108:978-90-04-16042-2 5927:978-0-521-83823-8 5841:978-0-7425-4982-1 5820:978-0-88706-564-4 5741:978-0-7914-1827-7 5340:, pp. 86–87. 5099:, pp. 83–84. 4973:, pp. 82–83. 4961:, pp. 81–82. 4887:, pp. 80–81. 4739:, pp. 79–80. 4724:, pp. 97–98. 4657:, pp. 77–79. 4645:, pp. 76–77. 4606:, pp. 74–76. 4570:, pp. 73–74. 4543:, pp. 71–73. 4486:, pp. 70–71. 4421:, pp. 69–70. 4322:, pp. 68–69. 4254:, pp. 67–68. 4145:, pp. 66–67. 4067:, pp. 65–66. 4011:, pp. 64–65. 3987:, pp. 63–64. 3951:, pp. 62–63. 3906:, pp. 61–62. 3846:, pp. 60–61. 3649:, pp. 59–60. 3562:, pp. 55–57. 3535:, pp. 51–54. 3523:, pp. 49–51. 3499:, pp. 47–49. 3415:, pp. 48–49. 3340:, pp. 49–50. 3241:, pp. 12–13. 3183:, pp. 9, 13. 3084:, pp. 25–27. 3036:, pp. 19–21. 3024:, pp. 11–18. 2976:, pp. 52–53. 2751:, pp. 50–51. 2739:, pp. 50–53. 2476:Bagratuni Armenia 2431:al-Fadl ibn Yahya 2392:Archil of Kakheti 2242:Mikhail Artamonov 1877:Douglas M. Dunlop 1631:Caucasian Albania 1349:Habib ibn Maslama 1345:Salman ibn Rabi'a 1329:Upper Mesopotamia 1315:Umayyad Caliphate 1273:Dimitri Obolensky 1268:The 20th-century 1255:Umayyad Caliphate 983:Caucasian Albania 914:Knot of the Gates 757:Abbasid Caliphate 723:Battle of Ardabil 707:Umayyad Caliphate 608: 607: 554:Caucasian Albania 382: 381: 291: 290: 156:Abbasid Caliphate 149:Umayyad Caliphate 131: 130: 16:(Redirected from 7376: 7354:Arab–Khazar wars 7318:Schechter Letter 7274:Crimean Karaites 7225:Thomas S. Noonan 6774: 6609:Arab–Khazar wars 6576: 6569: 6562: 6553: 6548: 6527: 6508: 6487: 6481: 6473: 6457: 6446: 6440: 6432: 6416: 6405: 6375: 6353: 6329: 6266: 6241: 6217: 6193: 6171: 6160: 6151: 6142: 6130: 6121: 6120:, pp. 7–58. 6112: 6095:Róna-Tas, András 6089: 6085:978-3-44703274-2 6072:Golden, Peter B. 6067: 6050:Golden, Peter B. 6045: 6023: 6014: 5951: 5931: 5908: 5845: 5824: 5800: 5745: 5721: 5662: 5643:Artamonov, M. I. 5638: 5616: 5599: 5593: 5587: 5581: 5575: 5569: 5563: 5557: 5551: 5545: 5539: 5533: 5527: 5521: 5515: 5509: 5500: 5494: 5488: 5482: 5476: 5470: 5464: 5458: 5452: 5446: 5440: 5434: 5428: 5422: 5416: 5413:Blankinship 1994 5410: 5404: 5398: 5392: 5386: 5377: 5371: 5365: 5359: 5353: 5347: 5341: 5335: 5329: 5326:Blankinship 1994 5323: 5310: 5304: 5298: 5295:Blankinship 1994 5292: 5286: 5283:Blankinship 1994 5280: 5274: 5268: 5262: 5256: 5250: 5247:Blankinship 1994 5244: 5238: 5232: 5226: 5220: 5214: 5208: 5202: 5196: 5190: 5184: 5178: 5172: 5166: 5160: 5154: 5151:Blankinship 1994 5148: 5139: 5133: 5112: 5106: 5100: 5094: 5088: 5082: 5076: 5070: 5061: 5055: 5046: 5040: 5034: 5031:Blankinship 1994 5028: 5013: 5007: 5001: 4998:Blankinship 1994 4995: 4989: 4983: 4974: 4968: 4962: 4956: 4950: 4944: 4935: 4932:Blankinship 1994 4929: 4918: 4912: 4903: 4900:Blankinship 1994 4897: 4888: 4882: 4876: 4873:Blankinship 1994 4870: 4861: 4858:Blankinship 1994 4855: 4849: 4843: 4837: 4834:Blankinship 1994 4831: 4825: 4819: 4810: 4807:Blankinship 1994 4804: 4798: 4792: 4781: 4778:Blankinship 1994 4775: 4769: 4763: 4752: 4746: 4740: 4734: 4725: 4719: 4713: 4707: 4701: 4698:Blankinship 1994 4695: 4682: 4676: 4670: 4667:Blankinship 1994 4664: 4658: 4652: 4646: 4640: 4634: 4628: 4622: 4619:Blankinship 1994 4616: 4607: 4601: 4595: 4589: 4583: 4580:Blankinship 1994 4577: 4571: 4565: 4559: 4553: 4544: 4538: 4532: 4526: 4517: 4511: 4502: 4499:Blankinship 1994 4496: 4487: 4481: 4475: 4469: 4463: 4457: 4451: 4448:Blankinship 1994 4445: 4434: 4431:Blankinship 1994 4428: 4422: 4416: 4410: 4404: 4395: 4389: 4383: 4377: 4371: 4365: 4354: 4348: 4342: 4339:Blankinship 1994 4336: 4323: 4317: 4311: 4305: 4294: 4291:Blankinship 1994 4288: 4282: 4279:Blankinship 1994 4276: 4270: 4264: 4255: 4249: 4243: 4237: 4231: 4228:Blankinship 1994 4225: 4219: 4213: 4202: 4199:Blankinship 1994 4196: 4190: 4184: 4173: 4167: 4161: 4158:Blankinship 1994 4155: 4146: 4140: 4134: 4128: 4122: 4116: 4097: 4091: 4080: 4074: 4068: 4062: 4056: 4050: 4044: 4038: 4029: 4023: 4012: 4006: 4000: 3994: 3988: 3982: 3976: 3970: 3964: 3958: 3952: 3946: 3940: 3937:Blankinship 1994 3934: 3919: 3913: 3907: 3901: 3895: 3892:Blankinship 1994 3889: 3883: 3880:Blankinship 1994 3877: 3871: 3865: 3859: 3853: 3847: 3841: 3835: 3829: 3823: 3817: 3811: 3805: 3799: 3793: 3778: 3772: 3766: 3760: 3754: 3748: 3742: 3736: 3727: 3724:Blankinship 1994 3721: 3715: 3709: 3703: 3697: 3691: 3685: 3674: 3668: 3662: 3656: 3650: 3644: 3638: 3635:Wasserstein 2007 3632: 3626: 3620: 3611: 3605: 3599: 3593: 3587: 3581: 3575: 3569: 3563: 3557: 3551: 3545: 3536: 3530: 3524: 3518: 3512: 3506: 3500: 3494: 3488: 3482: 3476: 3470: 3464: 3458: 3452: 3446: 3440: 3434: 3428: 3422: 3416: 3410: 3404: 3398: 3392: 3386: 3377: 3371: 3365: 3362:Blankinship 1994 3359: 3353: 3350:Wasserstein 2007 3347: 3341: 3335: 3329: 3326:Wasserstein 2007 3323: 3317: 3314:Blankinship 1994 3311: 3302: 3299:Blankinship 1994 3296: 3290: 3284: 3278: 3275:Blankinship 1994 3272: 3266: 3260: 3254: 3253:, pp. 9–10. 3248: 3242: 3236: 3227: 3224:Blankinship 1994 3221: 3208: 3202: 3196: 3190: 3184: 3178: 3172: 3169:Blankinship 1994 3166: 3157: 3156:, pp. 8–10. 3151: 3145: 3139: 3133: 3127: 3121: 3115: 3109: 3103: 3097: 3091: 3085: 3079: 3073: 3067: 3061: 3058:Blankinship 1994 3055: 3049: 3043: 3037: 3031: 3025: 3022:Blankinship 1994 3019: 3013: 3010:Blankinship 1994 3007: 3001: 2998:Wasserstein 2007 2995: 2989: 2983: 2977: 2971: 2965: 2959: 2953: 2947: 2941: 2935: 2929: 2923: 2910: 2904: 2889: 2883: 2877: 2871: 2865: 2859: 2853: 2847: 2841: 2835: 2829: 2823: 2817: 2811: 2805: 2799: 2793: 2787: 2781: 2775: 2764: 2758: 2752: 2746: 2740: 2734: 2725: 2719: 2710: 2704: 2698: 2695:Blankinship 1994 2692: 2671: 2668: 2662: 2639: 2633: 2626: 2620: 2616: 2610: 2607: 2601: 2599: 2589: 2582: 2576: 2572: 2566: 2559: 2553: 2550:Thomas S. Noonan 2546: 2540: 2537: 2531: 2524: 2469: 2466: 2449:Yazid ibn Mazyad 2441: 2438: 2425: 2419: 2417: 2400: 2398: 2389: 2371: 2358: 2349: 2343: 2340: 2334: 2324: 2322: 2269: 2223: 2208: 2205: 2197: 2194: 2185: 2182: 2176: 2170: 2167: 2153: 2135: 2127: 2121: 2112: 2097: 2089: 2049: 2037: 1971: 1968: 1918: 1906: 1903: 1897: 1828:three-day battle 1810: 1790: 1783: 1748:Caucasian Iberia 1745: 1743: 1718: 1715: 1673: 1650: 1648: 1608: 1606: 1597: 1594: 1579: 1551: 1549: 1495:Thomas S. Noonan 1492: 1490: 1460: 1458: 1437: 1435: 1390: 1388: 1375: 1323: 1320: 1286: 1284: 1244: 1242: 1132: 1126: 1123: 1119: 1109: 1090:), to which the 1089: 1081: 1073: 1071:Yaʾjuj wa-Maʾjuj 1051: 1033: 1004: 975:Caucasian Iberia 972: 970: 952:Byzantine Empire 918: 915: 912: 909: 906: 902: 896: 894: 873: 871: 768: 742: 666: 662: 659: 651: 647: 644: 636: 633: 613:Arab–Khazar wars 564:Khazar Khaganate 559:Caucasian Iberia 448:Byzantine Empire 421: 419: 409: 402: 395: 386: 329: 327: 326:Arab–Khazar wars 317: 310: 303: 294: 273: 255: 242: 208: 190: 160: 153: 146: 71: 70: 64: 61: 52: 35:Arab–Khazar wars 32: 21: 18:Khazar–Arab Wars 7384: 7383: 7379: 7378: 7377: 7375: 7374: 7373: 7344: 7343: 7340: 7335: 7322: 7284:Jewish Cossacks 7256:Khazar language 7239: 7235:Omeljan Pritsak 7210:Peter B. Golden 7178: 7027: 6876: 6775: 6766: 6648: 6585: 6580: 6545: 6530: 6524: 6511: 6505: 6490: 6474: 6470: 6455: 6449: 6433: 6429: 6414: 6408: 6402: 6388:Franklin, Simon 6378: 6372: 6356: 6332: 6269: 6244: 6220: 6214: 6196: 6178:Rowson, Everett 6165: 6154: 6145: 6133: 6124: 6115: 6109: 6097:, eds. (2007). 6092: 6086: 6070: 6064: 6048: 6030:Rowson, Everett 6017: 5954: 5934: 5928: 5911: 5848: 5842: 5827: 5821: 5805:Bosworth, C. E. 5803: 5770:Bosworth, C. E. 5750:Bosworth, C. E. 5748: 5742: 5724: 5691:Bosworth, C. E. 5665: 5641: 5623:Rowson, Everett 5610: 5607: 5602: 5598:, p. 1176. 5594: 5590: 5582: 5578: 5570: 5566: 5558: 5554: 5546: 5542: 5534: 5530: 5522: 5518: 5510: 5503: 5495: 5491: 5483: 5479: 5471: 5467: 5459: 5455: 5447: 5443: 5435: 5431: 5423: 5419: 5411: 5407: 5399: 5395: 5387: 5380: 5372: 5368: 5360: 5356: 5348: 5344: 5336: 5332: 5324: 5313: 5305: 5301: 5293: 5289: 5281: 5277: 5269: 5265: 5257: 5253: 5245: 5241: 5233: 5229: 5221: 5217: 5209: 5205: 5197: 5193: 5185: 5181: 5173: 5169: 5161: 5157: 5149: 5142: 5138:, p. 1174. 5134: 5115: 5107: 5103: 5095: 5091: 5083: 5079: 5071: 5064: 5056: 5049: 5041: 5037: 5029: 5016: 5008: 5004: 4996: 4992: 4984: 4977: 4969: 4965: 4957: 4953: 4945: 4938: 4930: 4921: 4913: 4906: 4898: 4891: 4883: 4879: 4871: 4864: 4856: 4852: 4844: 4840: 4832: 4828: 4820: 4813: 4805: 4801: 4793: 4784: 4776: 4772: 4764: 4755: 4747: 4743: 4735: 4728: 4720: 4716: 4708: 4704: 4696: 4685: 4677: 4673: 4665: 4661: 4653: 4649: 4641: 4637: 4629: 4625: 4617: 4610: 4602: 4598: 4590: 4586: 4578: 4574: 4566: 4562: 4554: 4547: 4539: 4535: 4527: 4520: 4512: 4505: 4497: 4490: 4482: 4478: 4470: 4466: 4458: 4454: 4446: 4437: 4429: 4425: 4417: 4413: 4405: 4398: 4390: 4386: 4378: 4374: 4366: 4357: 4349: 4345: 4337: 4326: 4318: 4314: 4306: 4297: 4289: 4285: 4277: 4273: 4265: 4258: 4250: 4246: 4238: 4234: 4226: 4222: 4214: 4205: 4197: 4193: 4185: 4176: 4168: 4164: 4156: 4149: 4141: 4137: 4129: 4125: 4117: 4100: 4092: 4083: 4075: 4071: 4063: 4059: 4051: 4047: 4039: 4032: 4024: 4015: 4007: 4003: 3995: 3991: 3983: 3979: 3971: 3967: 3959: 3955: 3947: 3943: 3935: 3922: 3914: 3910: 3902: 3898: 3890: 3886: 3878: 3874: 3866: 3862: 3854: 3850: 3842: 3838: 3830: 3826: 3818: 3814: 3806: 3802: 3794: 3781: 3773: 3769: 3761: 3757: 3749: 3745: 3737: 3730: 3722: 3718: 3710: 3706: 3698: 3694: 3686: 3677: 3669: 3665: 3657: 3653: 3645: 3641: 3633: 3629: 3621: 3614: 3606: 3602: 3594: 3590: 3582: 3578: 3570: 3566: 3558: 3554: 3546: 3539: 3531: 3527: 3519: 3515: 3507: 3503: 3495: 3491: 3483: 3479: 3471: 3467: 3459: 3455: 3447: 3443: 3435: 3431: 3423: 3419: 3411: 3407: 3399: 3395: 3387: 3380: 3372: 3368: 3360: 3356: 3348: 3344: 3336: 3332: 3324: 3320: 3312: 3305: 3297: 3293: 3285: 3281: 3273: 3269: 3261: 3257: 3249: 3245: 3237: 3230: 3222: 3211: 3203: 3199: 3191: 3187: 3179: 3175: 3167: 3160: 3152: 3148: 3140: 3136: 3128: 3124: 3116: 3112: 3104: 3100: 3092: 3088: 3080: 3076: 3068: 3064: 3056: 3052: 3044: 3040: 3032: 3028: 3020: 3016: 3008: 3004: 2996: 2992: 2984: 2980: 2972: 2968: 2960: 2956: 2948: 2944: 2936: 2932: 2928:, p. 1173. 2924: 2913: 2905: 2892: 2884: 2880: 2872: 2868: 2860: 2856: 2848: 2844: 2836: 2832: 2824: 2820: 2812: 2808: 2800: 2796: 2792:, pp. 7–8. 2788: 2784: 2776: 2767: 2759: 2755: 2747: 2743: 2735: 2728: 2720: 2713: 2705: 2701: 2693: 2684: 2680: 2675: 2674: 2669: 2665: 2640: 2636: 2627: 2623: 2617: 2613: 2608: 2604: 2583: 2579: 2573: 2569: 2560: 2556: 2547: 2543: 2538: 2534: 2525: 2521: 2516: 2467: 2439: 2414: 2395: 2341: 2327:Yazid al-Sulami 2319: 2292: 2290:Later conflicts 2263: 2261:Murad Magomedov 2238:Battle of Tours 2215: 2206: 2195: 2183: 2168: 2079:al-Bayda (Atil) 2069:Excavations at 1969: 1947: 1904: 1889: 1798: 1740: 1716: 1645: 1619: 1603: 1595: 1546: 1503: 1487: 1469:) and Armenia ( 1455: 1432: 1424: 1412:decisive defeat 1385: 1321: 1307: 1302: 1281: 1239: 1224: 1195:Peter B. Golden 1171: 1124: 1112:Hugh N. Kennedy 1062: 1015: 1013:Opposing armies 967: 916: 913: 910: 907: 891: 880:Sasanian Empire 868: 791:Sasanin Persoan 780: 775: 749:Umayyad dynasty 664: 660: 649: 645: 634: 609: 604: 522:Northern Persia 505:Sassanid Persia 422: 417: 415: 413: 383: 378: 330: 325: 323: 321: 287: 269: 251: 238: 227: 223:Yazid al-Sulami 204: 186: 158: 154: 151: 147: 144: 112: 106: 62: 53: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7382: 7380: 7372: 7371: 7366: 7361: 7356: 7346: 7345: 7337: 7336: 7334: 7333: 7327: 7324: 7323: 7321: 7320: 7315: 7310: 7305: 7300: 7293: 7288: 7287: 7286: 7281: 7276: 7271: 7266: 7258: 7253: 7247: 7245: 7241: 7240: 7238: 7237: 7232: 7227: 7222: 7217: 7212: 7207: 7202: 7197: 7195:Vasily Bartold 7192: 7186: 7184: 7180: 7179: 7177: 7176: 7174:Volga Bulgaria 7171: 7166: 7161: 7156: 7151: 7146: 7141: 7136: 7131: 7126: 7121: 7116: 7111: 7106: 7101: 7096: 7091: 7086: 7081: 7076: 7071: 7066: 7061: 7056: 7051: 7046: 7041: 7035: 7033: 7029: 7028: 7026: 7025: 7020: 7015: 7010: 7005: 7000: 6995: 6990: 6985: 6980: 6975: 6970: 6968:Saltovo-Mayaki 6965: 6960: 6955: 6950: 6945: 6940: 6935: 6930: 6925: 6920: 6915: 6910: 6905: 6900: 6895: 6890: 6884: 6882: 6878: 6877: 6875: 6874: 6869: 6864: 6859: 6854: 6849: 6844: 6839: 6834: 6829: 6824: 6822:John of Gothia 6819: 6814: 6809: 6804: 6799: 6794: 6789: 6783: 6781: 6777: 6776: 6769: 6767: 6765: 6764: 6759: 6754: 6749: 6744: 6739: 6734: 6729: 6724: 6719: 6714: 6709: 6704: 6699: 6694: 6689: 6684: 6679: 6674: 6669: 6664: 6658: 6656: 6650: 6649: 6647: 6646: 6641: 6636: 6631: 6626: 6621: 6616: 6611: 6606: 6601: 6596: 6590: 6587: 6586: 6581: 6579: 6578: 6571: 6564: 6556: 6550: 6549: 6543: 6528: 6522: 6509: 6503: 6488: 6468: 6447: 6427: 6406: 6401:978-0860783381 6400: 6376: 6370: 6354: 6330: 6283:Kramers, J. H. 6279:Gibb, H. A. R. 6267: 6242: 6218: 6212: 6194: 6174:Krämer, Gudrun 6163: 6162: 6161: 6152: 6143: 6131: 6122: 6107: 6090: 6084: 6068: 6062: 6046: 6026:Krämer, Gudrun 6015: 5968:Kramers, J. H. 5964:Gibb, H. A. R. 5952: 5932: 5926: 5909: 5862:Kramers, J. H. 5858:Gibb, H. A. R. 5846: 5840: 5825: 5819: 5807:, ed. (1989). 5801: 5758:van Donzel, E. 5746: 5740: 5722: 5679:van Donzel, E. 5663: 5639: 5619:Krämer, Gudrun 5606: 5603: 5601: 5600: 5588: 5576: 5564: 5552: 5540: 5528: 5516: 5501: 5489: 5477: 5465: 5463:, p. 126. 5453: 5451:, p. 233. 5441: 5429: 5417: 5405: 5403:, p. 238. 5393: 5391:, p. 343. 5378: 5366: 5354: 5342: 5330: 5328:, p. 175. 5311: 5307:Artamonov 1962 5299: 5287: 5275: 5263: 5251: 5239: 5227: 5215: 5203: 5191: 5189:, p. 137. 5179: 5177:, p. 223. 5175:Artamonov 1962 5167: 5155: 5153:, p. 174. 5140: 5113: 5101: 5089: 5085:Artamonov 1962 5077: 5062: 5060:, p. 222. 5058:Artamonov 1962 5047: 5043:Artamonov 1962 5035: 5033:, p. 173. 5014: 5002: 4990: 4986:Artamonov 1962 4975: 4963: 4951: 4947:Artamonov 1962 4936: 4934:, p. 172. 4919: 4904: 4889: 4877: 4875:, p. 171. 4862: 4850: 4838: 4826: 4824:, p. 237. 4811: 4809:, p. 153. 4799: 4782: 4770: 4768:, p. 218. 4766:Artamonov 1962 4753: 4751:, p. 217. 4749:Artamonov 1962 4741: 4726: 4714: 4702: 4700:, p. 152. 4683: 4679:Artamonov 1962 4671: 4659: 4647: 4635: 4633:, p. 188. 4623: 4621:, p. 151. 4608: 4596: 4594:, p. 215. 4592:Artamonov 1962 4584: 4572: 4560: 4556:Artamonov 1962 4545: 4533: 4531:, p. 214. 4529:Artamonov 1962 4518: 4503: 4488: 4476: 4472:Artamonov 1962 4464: 4462:, p. 128. 4452: 4450:, p. 150. 4435: 4423: 4411: 4407:Artamonov 1962 4396: 4394:, p. 286. 4384: 4380:Artamonov 1962 4372: 4355: 4343: 4341:, p. 149. 4324: 4312: 4310:, p. 211. 4308:Artamonov 1962 4295: 4283: 4271: 4256: 4244: 4242:, p. 285. 4232: 4220: 4203: 4201:, p. 123. 4191: 4189:, p. 344. 4174: 4172:, p. 185. 4162: 4147: 4135: 4123: 4121:, p. 209. 4119:Artamonov 1962 4098: 4081: 4077:Artamonov 1962 4069: 4057: 4045: 4043:, p. 207. 4041:Artamonov 1962 4030: 4013: 4001: 3997:Artamonov 1962 3989: 3977: 3975:, p. 206. 3973:Artamonov 1962 3965: 3961:Artamonov 1962 3953: 3941: 3939:, p. 122. 3920: 3908: 3896: 3884: 3872: 3860: 3858:, p. 205. 3856:Artamonov 1962 3848: 3836: 3834:, p. 183. 3824: 3820:Artamonov 1962 3812: 3810:, p. 203. 3808:Artamonov 1962 3800: 3798:, p. 127. 3779: 3767: 3755: 3751:Artamonov 1962 3743: 3741:, p. 236. 3728: 3716: 3704: 3702:, p. 192. 3700:Artamonov 1962 3692: 3690:, p. 182. 3675: 3673:, p. 181. 3663: 3651: 3639: 3637:, p. 375. 3627: 3625:, p. 179. 3612: 3610:, p. 178. 3600: 3588: 3576: 3572:Artamonov 1962 3564: 3552: 3550:, p. 179. 3548:Artamonov 1962 3537: 3525: 3513: 3501: 3489: 3477: 3475:, p. 660. 3465: 3463:, p. 190. 3453: 3441: 3429: 3425:Artamonov 1962 3417: 3405: 3403:, p. 113. 3393: 3391:, p. 128. 3378: 3366: 3354: 3342: 3330: 3318: 3316:, p. 109. 3303: 3301:, p. 107. 3291: 3289:, p. 157. 3279: 3267: 3255: 3243: 3228: 3226:, p. 124. 3209: 3197: 3185: 3173: 3171:, p. 108. 3158: 3146: 3134: 3122: 3110: 3098: 3086: 3074: 3062: 3060:, p. 126. 3050: 3038: 3026: 3014: 3002: 2990: 2978: 2966: 2954: 2942: 2930: 2911: 2890: 2886:Zuckerman 2007 2878: 2866: 2854: 2850:Zuckerman 2007 2842: 2830: 2818: 2814:Zuckerman 2007 2806: 2804:, p. 401. 2802:Zuckerman 2007 2794: 2782: 2765: 2763:, p. 126. 2753: 2741: 2726: 2711: 2699: 2697:, p. 106. 2681: 2679: 2676: 2673: 2672: 2663: 2649:(or al-Lakz), 2634: 2621: 2611: 2602: 2577: 2567: 2554: 2541: 2532: 2518: 2517: 2515: 2512: 2461:Münejjim Bashi 2445:Sa'id ibn Salm 2418: 786–807 2399: 736–786 2323: 754–775 2291: 2288: 2276:Saltovo-Mayaki 2257:Volga Bulgaria 2246:C. E. Bosworth 2214: 2211: 2052:Ural Mountains 1950:parallel with 1946: 1943: 1888: 1885: 1853:Battle of Badr 1797: 1794: 1744: 724–743 1649: 720–724 1618: 1615: 1607: 717–720 1550: 685–705 1527:Constantinople 1502: 1499: 1491: 661–680 1459: 637–669 1436: 632–651 1423: 1420: 1389: 634–644 1306: 1303: 1301: 1298: 1285: 741–775 1223: 1220: 1211:siege machines 1177:Ewer from the 1170: 1167: 1136:Byzantine army 1061: 1058: 1014: 1011: 971: 602–641 940:South Caucasus 895: 531–579 872: 457–484 863:Starting with 860:would follow. 779: 776: 774: 771: 680:North Caucasus 676:South Caucasus 606: 605: 603: 602: 597: 592: 587: 576:Makurian Nubia 567: 566: 561: 556: 551: 540: 539: 534: 529: 524: 519: 514: 501: 500: 498:Southern Italy 491: 486: 484:Constantinople 481: 476: 471: 462: 457: 444: 443: 438: 427: 424: 423: 414: 412: 411: 404: 397: 389: 380: 379: 377: 376: 371: 366: 361: 356: 351: 346: 341: 335: 332: 331: 322: 320: 319: 312: 305: 297: 289: 288: 286: 285: 280: 275: 262: 257: 244: 230: 228: 226: 225: 220: 215: 210: 197: 192: 178: 175: 174: 170: 169: 161: 138: 137: 133: 132: 129: 128: 117:South Caucasus 114: 108: 107: 95:South Caucasus 87:North Caucasus 85: 83: 79: 78: 75: 67: 66: 45: 44: 37: 36: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7381: 7370: 7367: 7365: 7362: 7360: 7357: 7355: 7352: 7351: 7349: 7342: 7332: 7329: 7328: 7325: 7319: 7316: 7314: 7311: 7309: 7306: 7304: 7303:Kievan Letter 7301: 7299: 7298: 7294: 7292: 7289: 7285: 7282: 7280: 7277: 7275: 7272: 7270: 7267: 7265: 7262: 7261: 7259: 7257: 7254: 7252: 7249: 7248: 7246: 7242: 7236: 7233: 7231: 7228: 7226: 7223: 7221: 7218: 7216: 7213: 7211: 7208: 7206: 7203: 7201: 7198: 7196: 7193: 7191: 7188: 7187: 7185: 7181: 7175: 7172: 7170: 7167: 7165: 7162: 7160: 7157: 7155: 7152: 7150: 7147: 7145: 7142: 7140: 7137: 7135: 7132: 7130: 7127: 7125: 7122: 7120: 7117: 7115: 7112: 7110: 7107: 7105: 7102: 7100: 7097: 7095: 7092: 7090: 7087: 7085: 7082: 7080: 7079:Crimean Goths 7077: 7075: 7072: 7070: 7069:Black Klobuks 7067: 7065: 7062: 7060: 7057: 7055: 7052: 7050: 7047: 7045: 7042: 7040: 7037: 7036: 7034: 7030: 7024: 7021: 7019: 7016: 7014: 7011: 7009: 7006: 7004: 7001: 6999: 6996: 6994: 6991: 6989: 6986: 6984: 6981: 6979: 6976: 6974: 6971: 6969: 6966: 6964: 6961: 6959: 6956: 6954: 6951: 6949: 6946: 6944: 6941: 6939: 6936: 6934: 6931: 6929: 6926: 6924: 6921: 6919: 6916: 6914: 6911: 6909: 6906: 6904: 6901: 6899: 6896: 6894: 6891: 6889: 6886: 6885: 6883: 6879: 6873: 6870: 6868: 6865: 6863: 6860: 6858: 6855: 6853: 6850: 6848: 6845: 6843: 6840: 6838: 6835: 6833: 6830: 6828: 6825: 6823: 6820: 6818: 6815: 6813: 6812:Hazer Tarkhan 6810: 6808: 6805: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6793: 6790: 6788: 6785: 6784: 6782: 6780:Other figures 6778: 6773: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6755: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6745: 6743: 6740: 6738: 6735: 6733: 6730: 6728: 6725: 6723: 6720: 6718: 6715: 6713: 6710: 6708: 6705: 6703: 6700: 6698: 6695: 6693: 6690: 6688: 6685: 6683: 6680: 6678: 6675: 6673: 6670: 6668: 6665: 6663: 6660: 6659: 6657: 6655: 6654:Khazar rulers 6651: 6645: 6642: 6640: 6637: 6635: 6632: 6630: 6627: 6625: 6624:Pax Khazarica 6622: 6620: 6617: 6615: 6612: 6610: 6607: 6605: 6602: 6600: 6597: 6595: 6592: 6591: 6588: 6584: 6577: 6572: 6570: 6565: 6563: 6558: 6557: 6554: 6546: 6540: 6536: 6535: 6529: 6525: 6519: 6515: 6510: 6506: 6500: 6496: 6495: 6489: 6485: 6479: 6471: 6465: 6461: 6453: 6448: 6444: 6438: 6430: 6424: 6420: 6412: 6407: 6403: 6397: 6393: 6389: 6385: 6381: 6377: 6373: 6371:9780860786573 6367: 6363: 6359: 6355: 6351: 6347: 6343: 6339: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6323: 6319: 6315: 6311: 6307: 6305: 6300: 6296: 6292: 6288: 6284: 6280: 6276: 6272: 6268: 6264: 6260: 6256: 6252: 6248: 6243: 6239: 6235: 6231: 6227: 6223: 6219: 6215: 6213:0-415-25093-5 6209: 6205: 6204: 6199: 6198:Kennedy, Hugh 6195: 6191: 6187: 6183: 6179: 6175: 6170: 6164: 6158: 6153: 6149: 6144: 6140: 6136: 6132: 6128: 6123: 6119: 6114: 6113: 6110: 6104: 6100: 6096: 6091: 6087: 6081: 6077: 6073: 6069: 6065: 6063:963-05-1549-0 6059: 6055: 6051: 6047: 6043: 6039: 6035: 6031: 6027: 6022: 6016: 6012: 6008: 6004: 6000: 5996: 5992: 5990: 5985: 5981: 5977: 5973: 5969: 5965: 5961: 5957: 5953: 5949: 5945: 5941: 5937: 5933: 5929: 5923: 5919: 5915: 5910: 5906: 5902: 5898: 5894: 5890: 5886: 5884: 5879: 5875: 5871: 5867: 5863: 5859: 5855: 5851: 5847: 5843: 5837: 5833: 5832: 5826: 5822: 5816: 5812: 5811: 5806: 5802: 5798: 5794: 5790: 5786: 5782: 5778: 5776: 5771: 5767: 5763: 5759: 5755: 5751: 5747: 5743: 5737: 5733: 5732: 5727: 5723: 5719: 5715: 5711: 5707: 5703: 5699: 5697: 5692: 5688: 5684: 5680: 5676: 5672: 5668: 5664: 5660: 5656: 5652: 5648: 5647:История хазар 5644: 5640: 5636: 5632: 5628: 5624: 5620: 5615: 5609: 5608: 5604: 5597: 5592: 5589: 5585: 5580: 5577: 5573: 5568: 5565: 5561: 5556: 5553: 5549: 5548:Bosworth 1989 5544: 5541: 5537: 5536:Semyonov 2008 5532: 5529: 5525: 5520: 5517: 5513: 5508: 5506: 5502: 5498: 5493: 5490: 5486: 5481: 5478: 5474: 5469: 5466: 5462: 5457: 5454: 5450: 5445: 5442: 5438: 5433: 5430: 5426: 5421: 5418: 5414: 5409: 5406: 5402: 5397: 5394: 5390: 5385: 5383: 5379: 5376:, p. 47. 5375: 5370: 5367: 5364:, p. 33. 5363: 5358: 5355: 5351: 5346: 5343: 5339: 5334: 5331: 5327: 5322: 5320: 5318: 5316: 5312: 5308: 5303: 5300: 5296: 5291: 5288: 5284: 5279: 5276: 5272: 5267: 5264: 5260: 5255: 5252: 5248: 5243: 5240: 5236: 5231: 5228: 5224: 5219: 5216: 5212: 5207: 5204: 5200: 5195: 5192: 5188: 5183: 5180: 5176: 5171: 5168: 5164: 5159: 5156: 5152: 5147: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5132: 5130: 5128: 5126: 5124: 5122: 5120: 5118: 5114: 5111:, p. 84. 5110: 5105: 5102: 5098: 5093: 5090: 5086: 5081: 5078: 5075:, p. 83. 5074: 5069: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5054: 5052: 5048: 5044: 5039: 5036: 5032: 5027: 5025: 5023: 5021: 5019: 5015: 5012:, p. 21. 5011: 5006: 5003: 4999: 4994: 4991: 4987: 4982: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4967: 4964: 4960: 4955: 4952: 4948: 4943: 4941: 4937: 4933: 4928: 4926: 4924: 4920: 4917:, p. 81. 4916: 4911: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4896: 4894: 4890: 4886: 4881: 4878: 4874: 4869: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4854: 4851: 4847: 4842: 4839: 4835: 4830: 4827: 4823: 4818: 4816: 4812: 4808: 4803: 4800: 4797:, p. 80. 4796: 4791: 4789: 4787: 4783: 4779: 4774: 4771: 4767: 4762: 4760: 4758: 4754: 4750: 4745: 4742: 4738: 4733: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4718: 4715: 4711: 4706: 4703: 4699: 4694: 4692: 4690: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4675: 4672: 4668: 4663: 4660: 4656: 4651: 4648: 4644: 4639: 4636: 4632: 4627: 4624: 4620: 4615: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4600: 4597: 4593: 4588: 4585: 4581: 4576: 4573: 4569: 4564: 4561: 4557: 4552: 4550: 4546: 4542: 4537: 4534: 4530: 4525: 4523: 4519: 4516:, p. 71. 4515: 4510: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4495: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4480: 4477: 4473: 4468: 4465: 4461: 4456: 4453: 4449: 4444: 4442: 4440: 4436: 4432: 4427: 4424: 4420: 4415: 4412: 4408: 4403: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4392:Semyonov 2008 4388: 4385: 4381: 4376: 4373: 4370:, p. 69. 4369: 4364: 4362: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4351:Semyonov 2008 4347: 4344: 4340: 4335: 4333: 4331: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4316: 4313: 4309: 4304: 4302: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4287: 4284: 4280: 4275: 4272: 4269:, p. 68. 4268: 4263: 4261: 4257: 4253: 4248: 4245: 4241: 4240:Semyonov 2008 4236: 4233: 4229: 4224: 4221: 4218:, p. 67. 4217: 4212: 4210: 4208: 4204: 4200: 4195: 4192: 4188: 4183: 4181: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4166: 4163: 4159: 4154: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4139: 4136: 4132: 4127: 4124: 4120: 4115: 4113: 4111: 4109: 4107: 4105: 4103: 4099: 4096:, p. 66. 4095: 4090: 4088: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4073: 4070: 4066: 4061: 4058: 4054: 4053:Semyonov 2008 4049: 4046: 4042: 4037: 4035: 4031: 4028:, p. 65. 4027: 4022: 4020: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4005: 4002: 3998: 3993: 3990: 3986: 3981: 3978: 3974: 3969: 3966: 3962: 3957: 3954: 3950: 3945: 3942: 3938: 3933: 3931: 3929: 3927: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3916:Semyonov 2008 3912: 3909: 3905: 3900: 3897: 3893: 3888: 3885: 3881: 3876: 3873: 3869: 3868:Semyonov 2010 3864: 3861: 3857: 3852: 3849: 3845: 3840: 3837: 3833: 3828: 3825: 3821: 3816: 3813: 3809: 3804: 3801: 3797: 3792: 3790: 3788: 3786: 3784: 3780: 3777:, p. 60. 3776: 3771: 3768: 3764: 3759: 3756: 3752: 3747: 3744: 3740: 3735: 3733: 3729: 3726:, p. 31. 3725: 3720: 3717: 3713: 3708: 3705: 3701: 3696: 3693: 3689: 3684: 3682: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3667: 3664: 3660: 3655: 3652: 3648: 3643: 3640: 3636: 3631: 3628: 3624: 3619: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3604: 3601: 3598:, p. 57. 3597: 3592: 3589: 3586:, p. 45. 3585: 3580: 3577: 3573: 3568: 3565: 3561: 3556: 3553: 3549: 3544: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3529: 3526: 3522: 3517: 3514: 3510: 3505: 3502: 3498: 3493: 3490: 3486: 3481: 3478: 3474: 3469: 3466: 3462: 3461:Minorsky 1960 3457: 3454: 3450: 3445: 3442: 3438: 3433: 3430: 3426: 3421: 3418: 3414: 3409: 3406: 3402: 3397: 3394: 3390: 3385: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3370: 3367: 3363: 3358: 3355: 3351: 3346: 3343: 3339: 3334: 3331: 3327: 3322: 3319: 3315: 3310: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3295: 3292: 3288: 3283: 3280: 3276: 3271: 3268: 3265:, p. 11. 3264: 3263:Semyonov 2010 3259: 3256: 3252: 3251:Semyonov 2010 3247: 3244: 3240: 3239:Semyonov 2010 3235: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3220: 3218: 3216: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3205:Semyonov 2010 3201: 3198: 3195:, p. 10. 3194: 3193:Semyonov 2010 3189: 3186: 3182: 3181:Semyonov 2010 3177: 3174: 3170: 3165: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3154:Semyonov 2010 3150: 3147: 3144:, p. 44. 3143: 3138: 3135: 3131: 3126: 3123: 3120:, p. 77. 3119: 3114: 3111: 3107: 3102: 3099: 3096:, p. 26. 3095: 3090: 3087: 3083: 3078: 3075: 3071: 3066: 3063: 3059: 3054: 3051: 3048:, p. 21. 3047: 3042: 3039: 3035: 3030: 3027: 3023: 3018: 3015: 3012:, p. 11. 3011: 3006: 3003: 2999: 2994: 2991: 2988:, p. 53. 2987: 2982: 2979: 2975: 2970: 2967: 2963: 2958: 2955: 2952:, p. 52. 2951: 2946: 2943: 2939: 2934: 2931: 2927: 2922: 2920: 2918: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2903: 2901: 2899: 2897: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2882: 2879: 2875: 2870: 2867: 2863: 2858: 2855: 2851: 2846: 2843: 2839: 2834: 2831: 2827: 2822: 2819: 2815: 2810: 2807: 2803: 2798: 2795: 2791: 2786: 2783: 2779: 2774: 2772: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2757: 2754: 2750: 2745: 2742: 2738: 2733: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2718: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2703: 2700: 2696: 2691: 2689: 2687: 2683: 2677: 2667: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2638: 2635: 2631: 2625: 2622: 2615: 2612: 2606: 2603: 2598: 2593: 2588: 2581: 2578: 2571: 2568: 2564: 2558: 2555: 2551: 2548:According to 2545: 2542: 2536: 2533: 2529: 2528:Albrecht 2016 2523: 2520: 2513: 2511: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2462: 2456: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2437: 2432: 2429: 2424: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2393: 2388: 2381: 2379: 2375: 2370: 2365: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2348: 2337: 2333: 2328: 2317: 2312: 2310: 2305: 2296: 2289: 2287: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2267: 2262: 2258: 2253: 2249: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2225: 2222: 2212: 2210: 2201: 2193: 2187: 2181: 2175: 2166: 2161: 2157: 2152: 2145: 2143: 2139: 2134: 2133: 2126: 2120: 2114: 2111: 2105: 2104:Volga Bulgars 2101: 2096: 2095: 2088: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2067: 2063: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2048: 2042: 2036: 2031: 2027: 2022: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1991: 1986: 1982: 1979: 1975: 1963: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1942: 1939: 1934: 1929: 1926: 1922: 1917: 1916: 1908: 1902: 1896: 1886: 1884: 1880: 1878: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1860: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1844: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1829: 1824: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1809: 1802: 1795: 1793: 1789: 1782: 1776: 1774: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1756: 1754: 1749: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1725: 1712: 1707: 1703: 1701: 1697: 1691: 1689: 1684: 1680: 1675: 1672: 1667: 1663: 1662:Derbent-nameh 1658: 1654: 1643: 1638: 1632: 1628: 1623: 1616: 1614: 1612: 1601: 1589: 1587: 1583: 1578: 1572: 1571: 1570:Derbent-nameh 1566: 1561: 1559: 1555: 1544: 1540: 1534: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1511: 1507: 1500: 1498: 1496: 1485: 1481: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1453: 1447: 1445: 1441: 1430: 1429:Yazdegerd III 1421: 1419: 1417: 1413: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1396: 1394: 1383: 1379: 1374: 1373: 1367: 1366: 1361: 1357: 1352: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1316: 1311: 1304: 1299: 1297: 1294: 1290: 1279: 1278:Constantine V 1274: 1271: 1266: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1221: 1219: 1215: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1198: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1180: 1175: 1168: 1166: 1164: 1160: 1154: 1152: 1148: 1147:heavy cavalry 1144: 1139: 1137: 1131: 1118: 1113: 1108: 1107: 1101: 1095: 1093: 1088: 1087: 1080: 1079: 1072: 1067: 1059: 1057: 1055: 1050: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1012: 1010: 1008: 1003: 1002: 996: 992: 988: 984: 980: 976: 965: 961: 957: 953: 949: 945: 941: 935: 933: 929: 925: 922: 901: 889: 885: 881: 877: 866: 861: 859: 855: 854:Gog and Magog 851: 847: 843: 839: 835: 831: 827: 823: 822:Caspian Gates 819: 815: 811: 807: 800: 796: 795:Caspian Gates 792: 788: 784: 777: 772: 770: 767: 762: 758: 754: 750: 744: 741: 736: 732: 728: 724: 720: 716: 712: 708: 703: 701: 697: 693: 689: 685: 681: 677: 673: 668: 655: 640: 629: 625: 621: 618: 614: 601: 600:Frankish Gaul 598: 596: 593: 591: 588: 585: 581: 577: 574: 573: 572: 571: 570:Other regions 565: 562: 560: 557: 555: 552: 550: 547: 546: 545: 544: 538: 535: 533: 530: 528: 525: 523: 520: 518: 515: 513: 510: 509: 508: 507: 506: 499: 495: 492: 490: 487: 485: 482: 480: 477: 475: 472: 470: 466: 463: 461: 458: 456: 453: 452: 451: 450: 449: 442: 439: 437: 434: 433: 432: 431: 425: 420: 410: 405: 403: 398: 396: 391: 390: 387: 375: 372: 370: 367: 365: 362: 360: 357: 355: 352: 350: 347: 345: 342: 340: 337: 336: 333: 328: 318: 313: 311: 306: 304: 299: 298: 295: 284: 281: 279: 276: 274: 272: 266: 265:Hazer Tarkhan 263: 261: 258: 256: 254: 248: 245: 243: 241: 235: 232: 231: 229: 224: 221: 219: 216: 214: 211: 209: 207: 201: 198: 196: 193: 191: 189: 183: 180: 179: 177: 176: 171: 168: 165: 162: 157: 150: 143: 140: 139: 134: 126: 122: 118: 115: 110: 109: 104: 100: 96: 92: 88: 84: 81: 80: 76: 73: 72: 68: 57: 51: 46: 43: 38: 33: 30: 19: 7341: 7295: 6923:Golden Hills 6787:Alp Iluetuer 6608: 6533: 6513: 6493: 6459: 6418: 6391: 6361: 6341: 6337: 6309: 6302: 6271:Minorsky, V. 6254: 6250: 6229: 6225: 6202: 6181: 6098: 6075: 6053: 6033: 5994: 5987: 5939: 5917: 5888: 5881: 5830: 5809: 5780: 5773: 5730: 5701: 5694: 5667:Barthold, W. 5650: 5646: 5626: 5591: 5579: 5567: 5555: 5543: 5531: 5519: 5492: 5480: 5468: 5456: 5444: 5437:Zhivkov 2015 5432: 5420: 5408: 5396: 5374:Golden 2007a 5369: 5362:Golden 2007a 5357: 5345: 5333: 5302: 5290: 5278: 5266: 5259:Golden 2007b 5254: 5242: 5235:Golden 2007b 5230: 5223:Golden 2007b 5218: 5206: 5199:Golden 2007b 5194: 5187:Golden 2007b 5182: 5170: 5158: 5104: 5092: 5080: 5038: 5005: 4993: 4966: 4954: 4880: 4853: 4841: 4829: 4802: 4773: 4744: 4717: 4705: 4674: 4662: 4650: 4638: 4626: 4599: 4587: 4575: 4563: 4536: 4479: 4467: 4455: 4426: 4414: 4387: 4375: 4346: 4315: 4286: 4274: 4247: 4235: 4223: 4194: 4165: 4138: 4126: 4072: 4060: 4048: 4004: 3992: 3980: 3968: 3956: 3944: 3911: 3899: 3887: 3875: 3870:, p. 6. 3863: 3851: 3839: 3827: 3815: 3803: 3770: 3758: 3746: 3719: 3707: 3695: 3666: 3654: 3642: 3630: 3603: 3591: 3579: 3567: 3555: 3528: 3516: 3504: 3492: 3480: 3468: 3456: 3444: 3432: 3420: 3408: 3396: 3369: 3357: 3345: 3333: 3321: 3294: 3282: 3270: 3258: 3246: 3207:, p. 8. 3200: 3188: 3176: 3149: 3142:Zhivkov 2015 3137: 3125: 3118:Kennedy 2001 3113: 3101: 3094:Kennedy 2001 3089: 3082:Kennedy 2001 3077: 3070:Kennedy 2001 3065: 3053: 3046:Kennedy 2001 3041: 3034:Kennedy 2001 3029: 3017: 3005: 2993: 2981: 2969: 2957: 2945: 2933: 2881: 2869: 2857: 2845: 2833: 2821: 2809: 2797: 2785: 2756: 2744: 2702: 2666: 2637: 2624: 2614: 2605: 2580: 2570: 2557: 2544: 2535: 2522: 2492:Shirvanshahs 2457: 2382: 2313: 2309:trade routes 2301: 2254: 2250: 2226: 2216: 2188: 2146: 2138:unclean meat 2115: 2083: 2023: 1995: 1964: 1948: 1930: 1909: 1890: 1881: 1861: 1845: 1825: 1819:and then to 1803: 1799: 1777: 1757: 1721: 1696:Ibn al-Athir 1692: 1676: 1661: 1639: 1635: 1590: 1568: 1562: 1543:Abd al-Malik 1535: 1515: 1480:Alp Iluetuer 1448: 1425: 1397: 1363: 1353: 1326: 1267: 1236:Justinian II 1225: 1216: 1203:Central Asia 1199: 1184: 1155: 1150: 1140: 1096: 1078:Dar al-Islam 1063: 1031:Bab al-Abwab 1016: 985:(the modern 936: 862: 803: 745: 704: 669: 653: 638: 630:region from 612: 610: 569: 568: 563: 542: 541: 503: 502: 474:North Africa 446: 445: 428: 364:3rd Balanjar 349:Marj Ardabil 344:2nd Balanjar 339:1st Balanjar 324: 270: 252: 239: 205: 187: 136:Belligerents 40:Part of the 29: 7215:Lev Gumilev 7205:Norman Golb 7200:D.M. Dunlop 7032:Tributaries 6908:Chersonesus 6842:Ras Tarkhan 6792:Alp Tarkhan 6722:Manasseh II 6344:: 151–282. 6299:Pellat, Ch. 6291:Schacht, J. 6169:"Daghestan" 5984:Pellat, Ch. 5976:Schacht, J. 5956:Frye, R. N. 5878:Pellat, Ch. 5870:Schacht, J. 5766:Pellat, Ch. 5687:Pellat, Ch. 5572:Noonan 1992 5485:Noonan 2007 5473:Noonan 1984 5461:Noonan 1992 5449:Noonan 2007 5425:Golden 1980 5401:Golden 1992 5350:Dunlop 1954 5338:Dunlop 1954 5271:Dunlop 1954 5109:Dunlop 1954 5097:Dunlop 1954 5073:Dunlop 1954 4971:Dunlop 1954 4959:Dunlop 1954 4915:Dunlop 1954 4885:Dunlop 1954 4795:Dunlop 1954 4737:Dunlop 1954 4710:Dunlop 1954 4655:Dunlop 1954 4643:Dunlop 1954 4631:Noonan 1984 4604:Dunlop 1954 4568:Dunlop 1954 4541:Dunlop 1954 4514:Dunlop 1954 4484:Dunlop 1954 4419:Dunlop 1954 4368:Dunlop 1954 4320:Dunlop 1954 4267:Dunlop 1954 4252:Dunlop 1954 4216:Dunlop 1954 4170:Noonan 1984 4143:Dunlop 1954 4131:Noonan 1984 4094:Dunlop 1954 4065:Dunlop 1954 4026:Dunlop 1954 4009:Dunlop 1954 3985:Dunlop 1954 3949:Dunlop 1954 3904:Dunlop 1954 3844:Dunlop 1954 3832:Noonan 1984 3775:Dunlop 1954 3763:Noonan 1984 3688:Noonan 1984 3671:Noonan 1984 3659:Noonan 1984 3647:Dunlop 1954 3623:Noonan 1984 3608:Noonan 1984 3596:Dunlop 1954 3560:Dunlop 1954 3533:Dunlop 1954 3521:Dunlop 1954 3509:Noonan 1984 3497:Dunlop 1954 3449:Canard 1960 3437:Canard 1960 3401:Noonan 1992 3389:Noonan 1992 3130:Golden 1992 3106:Noonan 1984 2938:Golden 1980 2874:Noonan 1984 2826:Noonan 1984 2778:Kemper 2013 2707:Dunlop 1954 2619:(Balanjar). 2508:Oghuz Turks 2352:Khwarezmian 2264: [ 1956:Transoxiana 1938:Ibn Khayyat 1717: 1861 1711:Darial Pass 1688:gold dinars 1554:Adharbayjan 1467:Adarnase II 1270:Byzantinist 1187:Mesopotamia 1086:Dar al-Harb 1054:Volga Delta 995:Tong Yabghu 942:during the 826:Caspian Sea 814:Darial Pass 688:Caspian Sea 590:Transoxiana 537:Afghanistan 278:Ras Tarkhan 234:Alp Tarkhan 159:(after 750) 145:(until 661) 111:Territorial 54:Map of the 7348:Categories 7279:Subbotniks 7124:Laz people 7089:East Slavs 7039:Abkhazians 7023:Tamatarkha 6993:Samosdelka 6857:Sviatoslav 6702:Manasseh I 6629:Radhanites 5850:Canard, M. 5779:Volume IV: 5700:Volume IV: 5675:"K̲h̲azar" 5671:Golden, P. 5524:Brook 2006 5512:Brook 2006 5497:Brook 2006 5211:Brook 2006 5163:Brook 2006 5010:Brook 2006 4846:Lilie 1976 4722:Vacca 2017 4460:Brook 2006 3796:Brook 2006 3712:Lilie 1976 3485:Smith 1994 3374:Lilie 1976 3287:Lilie 1976 2862:Brook 2006 2838:Brook 2006 2790:Brook 2006 2761:Brook 2006 2722:Brook 2006 2678:References 2500:Shaddadids 2498:, and the 2468: 901 2342: 760 2207: 740 2071:Samosdelka 2056:Ibn Fadlan 1970: 735 1933:Ibn A'tham 1925:Qinnasrini 1683:wagon fort 1596: 715 1510:Naryn-Kala 1501:Second war 1484:Mu'awiya I 1322: 740 1207:cataphract 1165:per year. 1125: 700 858:Apocalypse 665: 737 663: – c. 661: 722 650: 652 648: – c. 646: 642 635: 642 624:caliphates 63: 740 7264:Ashkenazi 7154:Pechenegs 7054:Baranjars 6797:Balgitzin 6682:Zachariah 6619:Meshchera 6594:Byzantium 6478:cite book 6437:cite book 6350:0724-8822 6326:495469456 6308:Volume I: 6295:Lewis, B. 6263:0724-8822 6257:: 45–57. 6238:568754312 6190:1873-9830 6042:1873-9830 6011:495469456 5993:Volume I: 5980:Lewis, B. 5948:459245222 5905:495469456 5887:Volume I: 5874:Lewis, B. 5797:758278456 5762:Lewis, B. 5754:"al-Ḳabḳ" 5718:758278456 5683:Lewis, B. 5659:490020276 5635:1873-9830 4822:Cobb 2010 3739:Cobb 2010 3584:Mako 2010 3473:Frye 1960 3413:Mako 2010 3338:Mako 2010 2986:Mako 2010 2974:Mako 2010 2950:Mako 2010 2749:Mako 2010 2737:Mako 2010 2651:Tabasaran 2575:province. 2496:Sallarids 2484:Daylamite 2316:al-Mansur 2015:dysentery 2007:Black Sea 1773:mangonels 1582:champions 1463:civil war 1440:Abkhazian 1400:Baladhuri 1393:parasangs 1360:Al-Tabari 1293:Silk Road 1263:Georgians 1052:) in the 1019:caliphate 964:Heraclius 888:Khosrow I 842:Near East 834:Scythians 727:Marwan II 620:Khaganate 167:Khaganate 152:(661–750) 121:Caliphate 7331:Category 7313:Red Jews 7269:Cossacks 7183:Scholars 7139:Mordvins 7109:Kipchaks 7064:Bashkirs 6978:Sambalut 6973:Samandar 6953:Khazaran 6918:Güsliyev 6913:Dagestan 6898:Balanjar 6862:Theodora 6832:Papatzys 6747:Aaron II 6742:Benjamin 6707:Hanukkah 6697:Hezekiah 6614:Kipchaks 6604:Abbasids 6599:Bulgaria 6583:Khazaria 6390:(eds.). 6301:(eds.). 6273:(1960). 6224:(1976). 6200:(2001). 6180:(eds.). 6074:(1992). 6052:(1980). 6032:(eds.). 5986:(eds.). 5958:(1960). 5938:(1954). 5880:(eds.). 5852:(1960). 5781:Iran–Kha 5772:(eds.). 5728:(1994). 5702:Iran–Kha 5693:(eds.). 5673:(1978). 5645:(1962). 5625:(eds.). 2630:Mordovia 2428:Barmakid 2411:Juansher 2407:K'art'li 2336:Baghatur 2234:Pyrenees 2077:capital 2060:Istakhri 2026:Damascus 2011:Abkhazia 2003:Anakopia 1990:Anakopia 1974:parsangs 1872:Bajarwan 1868:Lake Van 1826:After a 1817:Bardha'a 1813:Tar'mach 1642:Yazid II 1531:Arminiya 1452:Juansher 1378:poll tax 1247:Theodora 1191:Anatolia 1151:de facto 1130:muqatila 1117:muqatila 1049:al-Bayda 1046:(Arabic 1040:Samandar 1036:Balanjar 928:Dagestan 900:Dar-band 882:built a 836:and the 810:Caucasus 696:Balanjar 628:Caucasus 543:Caucasus 532:Khorasan 354:Bajarwan 260:Tar'mach 91:Dagestan 82:Location 56:Caucasus 7169:Uralics 7149:Onogurs 7134:Magyars 7129:Lezgins 7119:Kassogs 7059:Barsils 7049:Arsiyah 6988:Samiran 6963:Levedia 6938:Kazarki 6867:Tzitzak 6852:Sfengus 6807:Bulchan 6737:Menahem 6732:Aaron I 6717:Zebulun 6692:Obadiah 6677:Parsbit 5960:"Arrān" 5916:(ed.). 5605:Sources 2655:Sharwan 2592:Parsbit 2488:Kurdish 2403:Bulchan 2356:tarkhan 2304:Abbasid 2284:Dnieper 2200:Judaism 2142:Kakheti 2110:tarkhan 2094:tarkhan 2030:Bal'ami 2019:epithet 2005:on the 1992:in 2014 1960:Türgesh 1821:Ardabil 1768:al-Lakz 1700:Warthan 1651:) sent 1640:Caliph 1625:Silver 1600:Umar II 1539:Maslama 1523:assault 1404:Ya'qubi 1289:Tzitzak 1251:Armenia 1169:Khazars 1163:dirhams 1092:Tengric 979:Georgia 954:in the 924:Khazars 919:). The 908: 878:of the 874:), the 865:Peroz I 818:Derbent 799:Derbent 733:on the 684:Derbent 626:in the 549:Armenia 469:Georgia 465:Armenia 441:Quraysh 374:Shirvan 359:Armenia 283:Bulchan 271:† 253:† 240:† 206:† 188:† 125:Derbent 113:changes 77:642–799 58:region 7297:Kuzari 7244:Legacy 7159:Sabirs 7114:Kumyks 7104:Kabars 7099:Juhuri 7084:Cumans 7074:Burtas 7003:Sarkel 6998:Saqsin 6983:Sambat 6958:Khumar 6933:Kavkaz 6881:Places 6847:Serach 6837:Pesakh 6827:Leo IV 6802:Barjik 6762:George 6752:Joseph 6541: 6520: 6501: 6466: 6425: 6398: 6368: 6348: 6324: 6297:& 6261: 6236: 6210: 6188: 6105: 6082: 6060: 6040: 6009: 5982:& 5946: 5924: 5903: 5876:& 5838: 5817: 5795: 5768:& 5738: 5716: 5689:& 5669:& 5657: 5633: 2657:, and 2647:Layzan 2597:khagan 2587:khagan 2494:, the 2480:Iberia 2436:khagan 2423:khagan 2387:khagan 2374:Crimea 2369:khagan 2347:khagan 2332:khagan 2230:Franks 2221:khagan 2196:'s 2192:khagan 2184:'s 2180:khagan 2174:khagan 2169:'s 2165:khagan 2151:khagan 2125:khagan 2119:khagan 2100:Burtas 2087:khagan 2075:Khazar 2047:khagan 1901:khagan 1895:khagan 1864:Akhlat 1808:khagan 1788:khagan 1781:khagan 1760:Jazira 1753:Qabala 1733:Araxes 1724:Alania 1671:khagan 1666:Barjik 1657:Lezgin 1627:dirham 1577:khagan 1565:Łewond 1552:), in 1408:sortie 1341:Lazica 1027:Arabic 1001:khagan 960:Tiflis 921:Turkic 850:barred 766:khagan 740:khagan 652:) and 617:Khazar 527:Sistan 517:Kerman 494:Sicily 479:Cyprus 430:Arabia 267: 249: 247:Barjik 236: 202: 184: 164:Khazar 97:(esp. 89:(esp. 7164:Sarir 7144:Oghuz 7044:Alans 7018:Taman 7013:Sudak 6948:Kerem 6943:Kerch 6928:Kaffa 6757:David 6712:Isaac 6687:Bulan 6672:Bihar 6667:Busir 6662:Irbis 6456:(PDF) 6415:(PDF) 6277:. In 6228:[ 5962:. In 5856:. In 5756:. In 5677:. In 5649:[ 2659:Filan 2643:Sarir 2514:Notes 2440:' 2364:Nerse 2268:] 2132:faqih 2035:jihad 1905:' 1857:Raqqa 1841:Mosul 1837:Ganza 1729:Cyrus 1416:Gilan 1372:jizya 1259:Syria 1143:light 1106:jihad 1066:Quran 1060:Arabs 876:shahs 735:Volga 489:Crete 460:Egypt 455:Syria 436:Mecca 7094:Huns 6893:Azaq 6888:Atil 6817:HLGW 6727:Nisi 6634:Rus' 6539:ISBN 6518:ISBN 6499:ISBN 6484:link 6464:ISBN 6443:link 6423:ISBN 6396:ISBN 6366:ISBN 6346:ISSN 6322:OCLC 6259:ISSN 6234:OCLC 6208:ISBN 6186:ISSN 6103:ISBN 6080:ISBN 6058:ISBN 6038:ISSN 6007:OCLC 5944:OCLC 5922:ISBN 5901:OCLC 5836:ISBN 5815:ISBN 5793:OCLC 5736:ISBN 5714:OCLC 5655:OCLC 5631:ISSN 2504:Rus' 2282:and 2270:and 2189:The 2058:and 1915:jund 1731:and 1709:The 1586:Alp' 1444:Alan 1442:and 1402:and 1382:Umar 1376:, a 1347:and 1313:The 1189:and 1145:and 1044:Atil 1038:and 905:lit. 848:had 838:Huns 731:Atil 717:and 611:The 582:and 512:Fars 496:and 467:and 369:Atil 74:Date 6903:Bar 6314:doi 6310:A–B 5999:doi 5995:A–B 5893:doi 5889:A–B 5785:doi 5706:doi 2486:or 2360:Ras 2280:Don 1954:in 1866:on 1362:'s 981:), 797:at 584:2nd 580:1st 93:), 7350:: 6480:}} 6476:{{ 6458:. 6439:}} 6435:{{ 6417:. 6386:; 6340:. 6320:. 6306:. 6293:; 6289:; 6285:; 6281:; 6255:17 6253:. 6249:. 6005:. 5991:. 5978:; 5974:; 5970:; 5966:; 5899:. 5885:. 5872:; 5868:; 5864:; 5860:; 5791:. 5777:. 5764:; 5760:; 5712:. 5698:. 5685:; 5681:; 5504:^ 5381:^ 5314:^ 5143:^ 5116:^ 5065:^ 5050:^ 5017:^ 4978:^ 4939:^ 4922:^ 4907:^ 4892:^ 4865:^ 4814:^ 4785:^ 4756:^ 4729:^ 4686:^ 4611:^ 4548:^ 4521:^ 4506:^ 4491:^ 4438:^ 4399:^ 4358:^ 4327:^ 4298:^ 4259:^ 4206:^ 4177:^ 4150:^ 4101:^ 4084:^ 4033:^ 4016:^ 3923:^ 3782:^ 3731:^ 3678:^ 3615:^ 3540:^ 3381:^ 3306:^ 3231:^ 3212:^ 3161:^ 2914:^ 2893:^ 2768:^ 2729:^ 2714:^ 2685:^ 2653:, 2478:, 2465:c. 2455:. 2416:r. 2397:r. 2339:c. 2321:r. 2266:ru 2204:c. 1967:c. 1755:. 1742:r. 1714:c. 1647:r. 1605:r. 1593:c. 1548:r. 1489:r. 1457:r. 1434:r. 1387:r. 1319:c. 1283:r. 1241:r. 1122:c. 1056:. 969:r. 893:r. 870:r. 658:c. 643:c. 632:c. 101:, 60:c. 6575:e 6568:t 6561:v 6547:. 6526:. 6507:. 6486:) 6472:. 6445:) 6431:. 6404:. 6374:. 6352:. 6342:4 6328:. 6316:: 6240:. 6216:. 6192:. 6111:. 6088:. 6066:. 6044:. 6013:. 6001:: 5950:. 5930:. 5907:. 5895:: 5844:. 5823:. 5799:. 5787:: 5744:. 5720:. 5708:: 5661:. 5637:. 2909:. 2780:. 2661:. 2632:. 2565:. 2413:( 2394:( 2318:( 1911:( 1739:( 1644:( 1602:( 1545:( 1486:( 1454:( 1431:( 1384:( 1280:( 1238:( 966:( 917:' 911:' 903:( 890:( 867:( 820:( 656:( 641:( 586:) 578:( 408:e 401:t 394:v 316:e 309:t 302:v 127:. 105:) 20:)

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