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with their own
International Novelty Co.) were soon running Kinetoscope parlors and temporary exhibition venues around the United States. New firms joined the Kinetoscope Company in commissioning and marketing the machines. The Kinetoscope exhibition spaces were largely, though not uniformly, profitable. After fifty weeks in operation, the Hollands' New York parlor had generated approximately $ 1,400 in monthly receipts against an estimated $ 515 in monthly operating costs; receipts from the Chicago venue (located in a Masonic temple) were substantially lower, about $ 700 a month, though presumably operating costs were lower as well. For each machine, Edison's business at first generally charged $ 250 to the Kinetoscope Company and other distributors, which would use them in their own exhibition parlors or resell them to independent exhibitors; individual films were initially priced by Edison at $ 10. During the Kinetoscope's first eleven months of commercialization, the sale of viewing machines, films, and auxiliary items generated a profit of more than $ 85,000 for Edison's company.
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width of the
Kinetoscope sprockets was 1 7/16″, or 36.5mm." Noting the similarity of this width to that of "the earliest days of Kinetoscope work...35.56mm", he continues: "All these sizes, 39.1, 36.5 and 35.56 millimeters, show how closely the size of early motion pictures was dictated by the size of the film available. They also show how we arrived at our present 35mm width" (p. 73 n. 17). In what manner these various sizes (this is Hendricks's sole mention of 39.1 mm) show how 35 mm was arrived at is a mystery. Musser (1994) describes the Kinetoscope's "1½-inch vertical feed system (the basis for today's 35-mm film gauge)" (p. 72). He later writes of the Lumières' Cinématographe that it "used 35-mm film, a width almost identical to the 1½-inch gauge introduced by Edison" (p. 135). "Almost identical" perhaps, but not practically so: 35 mm and 38 mm (1 1/2 inch) film are not compatible.
305:, had succeeded in devising a functional strip-based film viewing system. In the new design, whose mechanics were housed in a wooden cabinet, a loop of horizontally configured 3/4 inch (19 mm) film ran around a series of spindles. The film, with a single row of perforations engaged by an electrically powered sprocket wheel, was drawn continuously beneath a magnifying lens. An electric lamp shone up from beneath the film, casting its circular-format images onto the lens and thence through a peephole atop the cabinet. The device incorporated a rapidly spinning shutter whose purpose—as described by Robinson in his discussion of the completed version—was to "permi a flash of light so brief that frame appeared to be frozen. This rapid series of apparently still frames appeared, thanks to the persistence of vision phenomenon, as a moving image." The lab also developed a
470:, argues that one Kinetoscope did make it to the fair. Robinson, in contrast, argues that such "speculation" is "conclusively dismissed by an 1894 leaflet issued for the launching of the invention in London," which states, "the Kinetoscope was not perfected in time for the great Fair." Echoing Hendricks's position, fair historian Stanley Appelbaum states, "Doubt has been cast on the reports of actual presence at the fair, but these reports are numerous and circumstantial." Noting that the fair featured up to two dozen Anschütz Schnellsehers—some or all of a peephole, not projection, variety—film historian Deac Rossell asserts that their presence "is the reason that so many historical sources were confused for so long.... nyone who made a clear claim to see the Kinetoscope undoubtedly saw the Schnellseher under its deliberately deceptive name of The Electrical Wonder."
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maximum length of any film made with the system was 50 feet, meaning a maximum running time of about 50 seconds at the camera's slowest recorded speed, but only about 20 seconds at the camera's most common speed of 40 frames per second (see
Hendricks , pp. 6–8). And, as Hendricks reports, the actual filmstrip was probably not 50 feet, or 800 frames, long; Edison described it as containing "about 700" images (p. 36). On the other hand, Braun (1992) states that an early Kinetoscope movie could last 40 seconds (presumably at 40 fps) because the film was configured as a loop (p. 191). Why a loop could not present a motion picture of boundless duration goes unexplained. Indeed, on the next page, she describes the film in an 1894 Kinetoscope as "about forty-five feet in length...in the form of an endless loop moving continuously" (p. 192). The version of
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film...and the light passes up through the film, shutter opening, and magnifying lens...to the eye of the observer placed at the opening in the top of the case." Robinson, on the other hand, says the shutter—which he agrees has only a single slit—is positioned lower, "between the lamp and film". The Casler–Hendricks description is supported by the diagrams of the
Kinetoscope that accompany the 1891 patent application, in particular, diagram 2. A side view, it does not illustrate the shutter, but it shows the impossibility of it fitting between the lamp and the film without a major redesign and indicates a space that seems suitable for it between the film strip and the lens. Evidently, that major redesign took place, as Robinson's description is confirmed by photographs of multiple Kinetoscope interiors, two among the holdings of
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712:]." As recently as 2004, Andrew Rausch stated that Edison "balked at a $ 150 fee for overseas patents" and "saw little commercial value in the Kinetoscope." Given that Edison, as much a businessman as an inventor, spent approximately $ 24,000 on the system's development and went so far as to build a facility expressly for moviemaking before his U.S. patent was awarded, Rausch's interpretation is not widely shared by present-day scholars. Whatever the cause, two Greek entrepreneurs, George Georgiades and George Tragides, took advantage of the opening. Already successfully operating a pair of London movie parlors with Edison Kinetoscopes, they commissioned English inventor and manufacturer
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customers in New Jersey in
February 1895. See Gosser (1977) for a discussion of the dubious nature of these claims (pp. 228–29). While Braun (1992) states that "the Cinématographe LeRoy made its public appearance on 11 April 1895 in New York" (p. 260), Rossell (2022) summarizes the case against LeRoy's "great deception" (p. 50). The claim by Lipton (2021) that the film presented at the April 21 press screening was that of the boxing match featured in the Eidoloscope's first commercial presentation the following month (p. 141) is clearly wrong; Lipton himself says the bout was shot on May 4 (p. 140). Rossell (2022) confirms that shooting date and cites a
358:. On August 24, three detailed patent applications were filed: the first for a "Kinetographic Camera", the second for the camera as well, and the third for an "Apparatus for Exhibiting Photographs of Moving Objects". In the first Kinetograph application, Edison stated, "I have been able to take with a single camera and a tape-film as many as forty-six photographs per second...but I do not wish to limit the scope of my invention to this high rate of speed...since with some subjects a speed as low as thirty pictures per second or even lower is sufficient." Indeed, according to the Library of Congress archive, based on data from a study by historian
1987:) as "38–40 frames per second" (p. 7). Multiple sources incorrectly claiming 46 fps as the standard practical rate may be adduced; Burns (1998), for example, describes a "picture rate of 46 frames per second restricted the viewing time to about 15 seconds" (p. 74). Dickson himself later gave varying accounts of the camera's rate—on one occasion he said it was "about 40 to the second"; on another, that it was between 25 and 46 fps. According to his 1907 account, the rate was 46 fps—though at one point matters are further confused by what appears to be an unintended suggestion of a functional rate of 42 fps (part 3). The Library of Congress/
297:(1961)—have argued that the lab began working on a filmstrip machine much later and that Dickson and Edison misrepresented the date to establish priority for reasons of both patent protection and intellectual status. In any event, though film historian David Robinson claims that "the cylinder experiments seem to have been carried on to the bitter end" (meaning the final months of 1890), as far back as September 1889—while Edison was still in Europe, but corresponding regularly with Dickson—the lab definitely placed its first order with the Eastman company for roll film. Three more orders for roll film were placed over the next five months.
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targeting semiprofessional and amateur customers. At its peak, around 1907–8, the
Projecting Kinetoscope commanded 30 percent of US projector sales. In 1912, Edison introduced the ambitious Home Projecting Kinetoscope, which employed a unique format of three parallel columns of sequential frames on one strip of film—the middle column ran through the machine in the reverse direction from its neighbors. It was a commercial failure. Three years later, the Edison operation came out with its last substantial new film exhibition technology, a short-lived theatrical system called the Super Kinetoscope. Aside from the actual
900:(1903) and other Edison Manufacturing Company productions, it was not until 1908 that he returned in earnest to the combined audiovisual concept that had first led him to enter the motion picture field. Edison patented a synchronization system connecting a projector and a phonograph, located behind the screen, via an assembly of three rigid shafts—a vertical one descending from each device, joined by a third running horizontally the entire length of the theater, beneath the floor. Two years later, he supervised a press demonstration at the laboratory of a sound-film system of either this or a later design.
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could see all the films in either row; half a dollar gave access to the entire bill. The four-foot-tall machines were purchased from the new
Kinetoscope Company, which had contracted with Edison for their production; the firm, headed by Norman C. Raff and Frank R. Gammon, included among its investors Andrew M. Holland, one of the entrepreneurial siblings, and Edison's former business chief, Alfred O. Tate. The ten films that comprise the first commercial movie program, all shot at the Black Maria and each running about 15 to 20 seconds, were descriptively titled:
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668:." The following month, a San Francisco exhibitor was arrested for a Kinetoscope operation "alleged to be indecent." The group whose disgruntlement occasioned the arrest was the Pacific Society for the Suppression of Vice, whose targets included "illicit literature, obscene pictures and books, the sale of morphine, cocaine, opium, tobacco and liquors to minors, lottery tickets, etc.," and which proudly took credit for having "caused 70 arrests and obtained 48 convictions" in a recent two-month span.
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610:. This led to a series of significant developments in the motion picture field: The Kinetograph was then capable of shooting only a 50-foot-long negative. At 16 frames per foot, this meant a maximum running time of 20 seconds at 40 frames per second (fps), the speed most frequently employed with the camera. At the rate of 30 fps that had been used on occasion as far back as 1891, a film could run for almost 27 seconds. Hendricks identifies
651:, a New York music hall star since the beginning of the decade. According to one description of her live act, she "communicated an intense sexuality across the footlights that led male reporters to write long, exuberant columns about her performance"—articles that would later be reproduced in the Edison film catalog. The Kinetoscope movie of her dance, shot at the Black Maria in mid-March 1894, was playing in the New Jersey resort town
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manager
William Gilmore had been running high for months; Dickson's eventual discovery of the Kinetoscope Company move appears to have been another central factor in his break with Edison that occurred in April 1895. The Kinetophone's debut excited little demand; a total of just forty-five of the machines were built over the next half-decade. With Dickson's departure, Edison ceased new work on sound cinema for an extended period.
768:, it is the only surviving movie with live-recorded sound made for the Kinetophone. In March 1895, Edison offered the device for sale; involving no technological innovations, it was a Kinetoscope whose modified cabinet included an accompanying cylinder phonograph. Kinetoscope owners were also offered kits with which to retrofit their equipment. The first Kinetophone exhibitions appear to have taken place in April.
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578:
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poorly trained operators had trouble keeping picture in synchronization with sound and, like other sound-film systems of the era, the
Kinetophone had not solved the issues of insufficient amplification and unpleasant audio quality. Its drawing power as a novelty soon faded and when a fire at Edison's West Orange complex in December 1914 destroyed all of the company's Kinetophone
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458:. Despite extensive promotion, a major display of the Kinetoscope, involving as many as twenty-five machines, never took place at the Chicago exposition. Kinetoscope production had been delayed in part because of Dickson's absence of more than eleven weeks early in the year with a nervous breakdown. Hendricks, referring to various accounts, including ones in the July 22
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film projection system: here the shutter is definitively placed between the projection lens and the screen; in an alternate configuration, depicted in an insert diagram, the shutter may run through "a slit in the body of the lens" itself (p. 2 ). A simplified version of Edison (1891b), diagram 1—lacking both diagram key numbers and patent application data—is available
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683:, where photographer Antoine Lumière may have seen it for the first time. In September, the first Kinetoscope parlor outside the United States opened in Buenos Aires, Argentina. The first European Kinetoscope parlor was soon operating in Paris, at 20 boulevard Poissonnière. One of the owners was a business associate of Antoine Lumière's, whom he gave a strip from
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309:-powered camera, the Kinetograph, capable of shooting with the new sprocketed film. To govern the intermittent movement of the film in the camera, allowing the strip to stop long enough so each frame could be fully exposed and then advancing it quickly (in about 1/460 of a second) to the next frame, the sprocket wheel that engaged the strip was driven by an
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camera gate at a rate of 40 per second" (p. 96). The newspaper accounts both state that 150 feet of film were shot of each round, a total of 900 feet. Hendricks makes a detailed case that, rather than 150 feet, each round was likely recorded on 126 feet worth of exposed film (p. 96). The Edison film catalog, however, does claim 150 feet for each round. See
40:
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the
Kinetoscope Exhibition Company's parlor at 83 Nassau Street in New York. A half-dozen expanded Kinetoscope machines each showed a different round of the fight for a dime, meaning 60 cents to see the complete bout. For a planned series of follow-up fights (of which the outcome of at least the first was fixed), the Lathams signed famous heavyweight
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standard biographies of Edison nor any of the leading histories of early sound film mention this "Cinemaphone". Gomery (2005) does state, "To correct synchronization malfunctions Edison inserted an adjustment dial" into the 1913 version of the Kinetophone (p. 28). Gomery does not name this device and in no way suggests that it was created in 1908.
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to Hendricks, the Latham parlor "apparently never flourished. Rector's squadron of police 'to keep order' was either Rector or Ramsaye hyperbole.... There is little question...that the comparative obscurity of the fighters...contributed to the lack of success" (pp. 98–99). Neither author references a contemporary source in support of his version.
841:—another venture to which Dickson had secretly contributed while working for Edison and to which he devoted himself following the Eidoloscope debut. Before year's end, the Mutoscope team, using their Mutograph camera as a basis, developed a projector. At that point, North American orders for new Kinetoscopes had all but evaporated.
246:—which used a strip of flexible film designed to capture sequential images at 12 frames per second. Upon his return to the United States, Edison filed another patent caveat, on November 2, which described a Kinetoscope based not just on a flexible filmstrip, but one in which the film was perforated to allow for its engagement by
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with which Braun, op. cit., agrees), (c) sheets from another supplier, Allen & Rowell, arrived on the same date, and (d) sheets from yet another source had been received in May. It was Carbutt's sheets, according to Spehr's report of Dickson's recollections, that were used in the cylinder experiments (p. 23 n. 22).
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Hendricks (1966), pp. 92–93, 97–99; Musser (1994), p. 83. There is a major disagreement about the success of the film. In Ramsaye's (1986) account, "Throngs packed the , and by the second day long lines of waiting patrons trailed back into the street. The police came to keep order" (ch. 8). According
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Spehr (2000), pp. 3–4. Along with Spehr, who has made the closest study of the development of the Kinetoscope film gauge, the historical consensus is that it was 35 mm. Two leading scholars, however, are not part of this consensus. Hendricks (1966) states of the commercial version of the device: "The
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On January 3, 1895, a British inventor received a patent for an unwieldy contraption meant to cast an enlarged Kinetoscope image onto a screen. Over the course of the year, even as new Kinetoscope exhibits opened as far afield as Mexico City, major cities across Europe, locales large and small around
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Under continuing pressure from Raff, Edison eventually conceded to investigate the possibility of developing a projection system. He seconded one of his lab's technicians to the Kinetoscope Company to initiate the work, without informing Dickson. Tensions between the latter and Edison Company general
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play synchronously other than the phonograph turned on when viewing and off when stopped." While the surviving Dickson test involves live-recorded sound, certainly most, and probably all, of the films marketed for the Kinetophone were shot as silents, predominantly march or dance subjects; exhibitors
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Hendricks (1966), pp. 28–33. Given the dates of Dickson's departure and return that Hendricks provides, Dickson was gone for at least 80 days. Hendricks describes him as taking a "ten weeks' rest" (p. 28) or spending "about ten and a half weeks in the south" (p. 33), a plausible interpretation given
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Rossell (1998), pp. 63–64; Braun (1992), pp. 189, 404 n. 47. Robinson (1997) says the lab ordered the Carbutt sheets on June 25, 1889, and that they were "marketed in 20" x 50"" size. (p. 27). Spehr (2000) says (a) the lab received them on that date, (b) they were "11 by 14" inches in size (a figure
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report on the Chicago World's Fair suggests that a Kinetograph camera accompanied by a cylinder phonograph was presented there as a demonstration of the potential to simultaneously record image and sound. The first known movie made as a test of the Kinetophone was shot at Edison's New Jersey studio
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the following year, a 25-cent entrance fee covered admission to three rides, a performing sea lion show, and a dance hall. The Kinetoscope was an immediate success, however, and by June 1, the Hollands were also operating venues in Chicago and San Francisco. Entrepreneurs (including Raff and Gammon,
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On April 14, 1894, a public Kinetoscope parlor was opened by the Holland Bros. in New York City at 1155 Broadway, on the corner of 27th Street—the first commercial motion picture house. The venue had ten machines, set up in parallel rows of five, each showing a different movie. For 25 cents a viewer
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magazine. Never intended for exhibition, it would become one of the most famous Edison films and the first identifiable motion picture to receive a U.S. copyright. With commercial exploitation close at hand, on April 1, the motion picture operation was formally made the Kinetograph Department of the
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Early in 1892, steps began to make coin operation, via a nickel slot, part of the mechanics of the viewing system. Before the end of the year, the design of the Kinetoscope was essentially complete. The filmstrip, based on stock manufactured first by Eastman, and then, from April 1893, by New York's
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theory by using an intermittent light source to momentarily "freeze" the projection of each image; the goal was to facilitate the viewer's retention of many minutely different stages of a photographed activity, thus producing a highly effective illusion of constant motion. By late 1890, intermittent
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sheets, supplied by John Carbutt, that could be wrapped around the cylinder, providing a far superior base for the recording of photographs. The first film made for the Kinetoscope, and apparently the first motion picture ever produced on photographic film in the United States, may have been shot at
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Dickson and his then lead assistant, Charles Brown, made halting progress at first. Edison's original idea involved recording pinpoint photographs, 1/32 of an inch wide, directly on to a cylinder (also referred to as a "drum"); the cylinder, made of an opaque material for positive images or of glass
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While Edison seems to have conceived the idea and initiated the experiments, Dickson apparently performed the bulk of the experimentation, leading most modern scholars to assign Dickson with the major credit for turning the concept into a practical reality. The Edison laboratory, though, worked as a
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announcing his plans to create a device that would do "for the Eye what the phonograph does for the Ear". It is clear that it was intended as part of a complete audiovisual system: "we may see & hear a whole Opera as perfectly as if actually present". In March 1889, a second caveat was filed, in
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See also Ramsaye (1986), ch. 9–10. Musser, referring to the film's "eight minutes of action," describes them as comprising four 90-second rounds interspersed with 30-second rest periods (p. 94); this sums to seven-and-a-half minutes—there may have been ring entrances, referee instructions, or other
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Hendricks quotes two contemporary newspaper reports describing a rate of 46 fps (pp. 92, 95); this seems clearly incorrect, based on the camera's mechanical potential rather than its practical application. Confusingly, Hendricks himself refers in his description of the film to "frames flying by the
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Edison (1891b), diagrams 1, 2 . Diagram 1, an overhead view of the apparatus looking down on the horizontally running filmstrip, also indicates that the shutter passes over the film—whether directly above it or over the lens as well is unclear. A fourth diagram shows Edison's proposed stereoscopic
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Burns (1998) claims that "in a patent dated 20 May 1889 Edison and Dickson used the same general arrangement of continuous movement and momentary light flashes in their viewing device, the kinetoscope" (p. 73). It is clear that Burns's dating is wildly incorrect and that he likely acquired the May
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Dissemination of the system proceeded rapidly in Europe, as Edison had left his patents unprotected overseas. The most likely reason was the technology's reliance on a variety of foreign innovations and a consequent belief that patent applications would have little chance of success. An alternative
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In 1913, Edison finally introduced the new Kinetophone—like all of his sound-film exhibition systems since the first in the mid-1890s, it used a cylinder phonograph, now connected to a Projecting Kinetoscope via a fishing line–type belt and a series of metal pulleys. It met with early acclaim, but
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Though a Library of Congress educational website states, "The picture and sound were made somewhat synchronous by connecting the two with a belt", this is incorrect. As historian David Robinson describes, "The Kinetophone...made no attempt at synchronization. The viewer listened through tubes to a
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to make copies of them. After fulfilling the Georgiades–Tragides contract, Paul decided to go into the movie business himself, proceeding to make dozens of additional Kinetoscope reproductions. In this pursuit, and to make films for both the original device and its knockoffs, Paul and photographer
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On June 15, a match with abbreviated rounds was staged between boxers Michael Leonard and Jack Cushing at the Black Maria. Seven-hundred-and-fifty feet worth of images or even more were shot at the rate of 30 fps—easily the longest motion picture to date. Several weeks later, the film premiered at
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On February 21, 1893, a patent was issued for the system that governed the intermittent movement of film in the Kinetograph (though one was not granted for a version of the camera as a whole until 1897). The escapement-based mechanism would be superseded within a few years by competing systems, in
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The question of when the Edison lab began working on a filmstrip device is a matter of historical debate. According to Dickson, in mid-1889, he began cutting the stiff celluloid sheets supplied by Carbutt into strips for use in such a prototype machine; in August, by his description, he attended a
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Millard (1990), p. 226. Rausch (2004) claims a specific invention was vital in this process: "In 1908, Edison returned with a device known as the Cinemaphone. This device adjusted the speed of a motion picture to match that of a Phonograph. This led to the Kinetophone" (p. 78). Neither any of the
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at the time (see Hendricks , p. 38). Lipton (2021) speaks of "the 20-second film" (p. 131). Musser (2004) says "fifteen seconds" (p. 16). As described later in the main text of the present article, at this point in the development of the Kinetograph and Kinetoscope, according to most accounts the
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As far back as some of the early Eidoloscope screenings, exhibitors had occasionally shown films accompanied by phonographs playing appropriate, though very roughly timed, sound effects; in the style of the Kinetophone described above, rhythmically matching recordings were also made available for
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No, if we make this screen machine that you are asking for, it will spoil everything. We are making these peep show machines and selling a lot of them at a good profit. If we put out a screen machine there will be a use for maybe about ten of them in the whole United States. With that many screen
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Even as Edison followed his dream of securing the Kinetoscope's popularity by adding sound to its allure, many in the field were beginning to suspect that film projection was the next step that should be pursued. When Norman Raff communicated his customers' interest in such a system to Edison, he
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as having been shot at 16 fps, as does the Library of Congress in its online catalog, where its duration is listed as 40 seconds. Even at the slowest of these rates, the running time would not have been enough to accommodate a satisfactory exchange of fisticuffs; 16 fps, as well, might have been
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or "Maltese cross" that would become the norm for both movie cameras and projectors. The exhibition device itself—which, despite erroneous accounts to the contrary, never employed intermittent film movement, only intermittent lighting or viewing—was finally awarded its patent, number 493,426, on
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described as "authoritative" by Hendricks, who personally examined five of the six still-extant first-generation devices, "Just above the film,...a shutter wheel having five spokes and a very small rectangular opening in the rim directly over the film. An incandescent lamp...is placed below the
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Hendricks (1961), pp. 4, 10–12; Musser (1994), pp. 49–53, 62. Robinson (1997) states that "Edison and Dickson were almost certainly in the audience" on February 25 (p. 23); Rossell (2022) is even more definitive: "Thomas Edison attended the Saturday evening lecture with his wife Minna" (p. 26).
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Australia, and Auckland, New Zealand, it became evident that the system was going to lose out to projected motion pictures. In its second year of commercialization, the Kinetoscope operation's profits plummeted by more than 95 percent, to just over $ 4,000. The Latham brothers and their father,
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but also the first commercially successful movie projection system. In mid-October, a Kinetoscope parlor opened in London. At the end of November, by which point New York City was host to half a dozen Kinetophone parlors and London to nearly as many, a venue with five machines opened in Sydney,
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A Kinetoscope prototype was first semipublicly demonstrated to members of the National Federation of Women's Clubs invited to the Edison laboratory on May 20, 1891. The completed version was publicly unveiled in Brooklyn two years later, and on April 14, 1894, the first commercial exhibition of
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Rossell (2022) calls it "the first known public projection of motion pictures in the United States" (pp. 62–63). Musser (1994) uses nearly identical language (p. 94). There are old claims that one Jean Acmé LeRoy projected films in New York to an invited audience in February 1894 and to paying
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Spehr (2000), pp. 11–14. The filmstock sent by the manufacturers was actually 1 9/16 inches wide; it was trimmed and perforated at the lab. Reports that either Eastman or Blair provided 70 mm stock that was cut in half and spliced at the lab (see, e.g., Braun , p. 190) are incorrect. See Spehr
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Departing the Vitascope operation after little more than a year—in which the Edison Company's film-related business made a $ 25,000 profit—Edison commissioned the development of his own projection systems, the Projectoscope and then multiple iterations of the Projecting Kinetoscope, eventually
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Edison (1891b), p. 1 ; Münsterberg (2004), p. 7; Robinson (1997), pp. 38–39, 54–55; Musser (1994), p. 93; Hendricks (1961), pp. 127–33. Note that at one point Robinson mistakenly gives the patent issue date as March 4 (p. 38), though he states it correctly on the next page (p. 39). Bizarrely,
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Neupert (2022), pp. 23–25; Braun (1992), pp. 191–94; Schwartz (1999), p. 183. Burns (1998) says the Kinetoscope "was on exhibition in August in the Boulevard Poissoniere" (p. 73)—aside from the misspelling, this is evidently erroneous. Grieveson and Krämer (2004) date the parlor's opening to
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consisting of "Edison Kinetoscopic Records." It remains unclear what film was awarded this, the first motion picture copyright in North America. By the turn of the year, the Kinetoscope project would be reenergized. During the first week of January 1894, a five-second film starring an Edison
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Hendricks (1961), pp. 136–37. Braun (1992) explains, "except for the device used to stop and start the moving film, ... all the parts of the application describing the camera were ultimately disallowed because of previous inventors' claims" (p. 191). A patent, number 589,168, for a complete
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Hendricks (1966), pp. 56–59. The machines were modified so that they did not operate by nickel slot. According to Hendricks, in each row "attendants switched the instruments on and off for customers who had paid their twenty-five cents" (p. 13). For more on the Hollands, see Peter Morris,
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Only sporadic work was done on the Kinetoscope for much of 1890 as Dickson concentrated on Edison's unsuccessful venture into ore milling—between May and November, no expenses at all were billed to the lab's Kinetoscope account. By early 1891, however, Dickson and his new chief assistant,
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Quoted in Hendricks (1966), p. 14. See p. 11 for a description of Hendricks's direct examinations. Lipton (2021) supports this position: "Although the Kinetoscope disclosure is hazy on this point, the shutter disk was placed between the film gate and the viewing optics in production" (p.
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description of the press screening as involving a film of boys playing (pp. 62–63). An image from the film in Musser (1994, p. 96) shows what appears to be two men playing like boys—they have been identified as Lauste's teenage son, Emile, and a workshop assistant. For identifications:
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began in December 1892. To take full advantage of sunlight, the tar paper–lined studio was equipped with a hinged, flip-up roof and the entire structure could rotate on a track. "It obeys no architectural rules," declared Dickson, who found it "productive of the happiest effects in the
2330:"In the southern end of the gallery are Edison's phonograph exhibits and his latest invention, the 'kinetograph.' He photographs the face at the same time one talks into the phonograph. By this method the sound and the motion of the lips in producing it are accurately reproduced."
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In the top of the box was a hole perhaps an inch in diameter. As they looked through the hole they saw the picture of a man. It was a most marvelous picture. It bowed and smiled and waved its hands and took off its hat with the most perfect naturalness and grace. Every motion was
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to provide a photographic base. An audio cylinder would provide synchronized sound, while the rotating images, hardly operatic in scale, were viewed through a microscope-like tube. When tests were made with images expanded to a mere 1/8 of an inch in width, the coarseness of the
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Hendricks (1966), pp. 6–8; Musser (1994), p. 78. Hendricks, who tested eighteen Kinetoscope films in his personal collection, demonstrated that "n no case did the Maria camera operate as high as 46–48 frames per second," as some suggest (p. 6); he identifies the "average rate"
1816:(Montreal and Kingston, Canada; London; and Buffalo, New York: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1978), pp. 6–7. Morris states that Edison wholesaled the Kinetoscope at $ 200 per machine; in fact, as described below, $ 250 seems to have been the most common figure at first.
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website makes accessible online video copies of many Kinetoscope films, including four shot with the 35 mm Kinetograph between January and March 1894. The library provides descriptions of the films, including running time and picture rate, again based on Musser's 1998
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of German inventor Ottamar Anschütz. This disc-based projection device, also known as the Schnellseher ("quick viewer"), is often referred to as an important conceptual source for the development of the Kinetoscope. Its crucial innovation was to take advantage of the
95:
motion pictures in history took place in New York City, using ten Kinetoscopes. Instrumental to the birth of American movie culture, the Kinetoscope also had a major impact in Europe; its influence abroad was magnified by Edison's decision not to seek international
1672:
Hendricks does almost precisely the same thing—giving the correct March 14 (p. 127), then the incorrect March 4 (p. 133). The correct date of March 14 may be verified by reference to the patent document; see also Frank Lewis Dyer and Thomas Commerford Martin,
276:
was sufficiently strong, thin, and pliable to permit the intermittent movement of the film strip behind lens at considerable speed and under great tension without tearing ... stimulat the almost immediate solution of the essential problems of cinematic
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era). Rossell states that the show lasted 12 minutes and indicates that it included another film, of a horse race (p. 64). Domankiewicz implies that the Griffo–Barnett bout was initially screened alone and later joined by a variety of different films—first
1744:
Hendricks (1966), p. 40–45. Though the fair opened May 1, the Electricity Building—location of the Edison exhibit and the possible Kinetoscope—did not formally open until a month later (p. 44), so there is no argument that the Brooklyn presentation came
721:—briefly Paul's business partner—would originate a number of important innovations in both camera and exhibition technology. Meanwhile, plans were advancing at the Black Maria to realize Edison's goal of a motion picture system uniting image with sound.
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123:
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Edison assigned Dickson, one of his most talented employees, to the job of making the Kinetoscope a reality. Edison would take full credit for the invention, but the historiographical consensus is that the title of creator can hardly go to one man:
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travel time from New Jersey to Florida, where Dickson headed. There were also apparently problems—allegedly alcohol-fueled—with the lab employee, James Egan, who had been contracted to build the Kinetoscopes. See Hendricks (1966), pp. 34–35, 49–50.
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and arranged with Edison to present himself as its creator. The Vitascope premiered in New York in April and met with swift success, but was just as quickly surpassed by the Cinématographe of the Lumières, which arrived in June with the backing of
2223:
Musser (1994) dates the opening to October 17 (p. 82). Rossell (2022) gives October 18 (p. 53). The advertisement seen here indicates that there was an invitational preview on the 17th, suggesting the doors were opened to the public the following
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film productions, the company's most creative work in the motion picture field from 1897 on involved the use of Kinetoscope-related patents in threatened or actual lawsuits for the purpose of financially pressuring or blocking commercial rivals.
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110:. Film projection, which Edison initially disdained as financially nonviable, soon superseded the Kinetoscope's individual exhibition model. Numerous motion picture systems developed by Edison's firm in later years were marketed with the name
1612:
Kinetograph camera, one substantially different from that described in the original applications, was issued on August 31, 1897. Musser (1994), pp. 238–39. See also Spehr (2000), p. 18; Van Dulken (2004), p. 64; Hendricks (1961), pp. 133–34;
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615:
thought to give too herky-jerky a visual effect for enjoyment of the sport. The Kinetograph and Kinetoscope were modified, possibly with Rector's assistance, so they could manage filmstrips three times longer than had previously been used.
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of 17 July 1894 reported that Bradley...was so shocked by the glimpse of Carmencita's ankles and lace that he complained to Mayor Ten Broeck. The showman was thereupon ordered to withdraw the offending film, which he replaced with
215:, it shows an employee of the lab in an apparently tongue-in-cheek display of physical dexterity. Attempts at synchronizing sound were soon left behind, while Dickson would also experiment with disc-based exhibition designs.
1109:
Spehr (2008), pp. 140, 149–51, 166, 210; Hendricks (1961), pp. 44–47. There is also a question about which Edison employee appears in the film. If the earlier date is correct, it is likely Fred Ott; if the latter, G. Sacco
622:
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for the butterfly and vice versa. In the present case, Moore is wearing butterfly wings on her back as part of her costume. For samples of the serpentine dance, see Hendricks (1966), illustrations (following p. 143) 13,
626:
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620:
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152:, a device that projected sequential images drawn around the edge of a glass disc, producing the illusion of motion. Edison's laboratory was close by, and either or both Edison and his company's official photographer,
477:
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Blair Camera Co., was 1 3/8 inches wide; each vertically sequenced frame bore a rectangular image, 1 inch wide by 3/4 inch high, and four perforations on each side. Within a few years, this basic format—with the
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881:'s projector, the Biograph, was released; better funded than its competitors and with superior image quality, by the end of the year it was allied with Keith and soon dominated the North American projection market.
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While Hendricks (1966) quotes this passage in support of his argument that a Kinetoscope made it to the fair (p. 41), it both names the Kinetograph and describes the act of photographing motion, not of viewing
816:
and benefiting secretly from Dickson's assistance while he was still in Edison's employ. A few weeks after he and Edison fell out, Dickson openly participated in an April 21 screening of the Latham group's new
631:
The June 1894 Leonard–Cushing bout. Each of the six one-minute rounds recorded by the Kinetograph was made available to exhibitors for $ 45. Customers who watched the final round saw Leonard score a knockdown.
3443:
for the first 14 seconds of the Library of Congress version, the image is reversed from this one—the Library's version splices at that point and the two versions are afterward aligned; part of The Henry Ford
3416:
twenty-five films from 1891 through 1895 (the dating of the "New York City street scene" to "1889 or 1890?" is impossible—no camera on earth capable of shooting a 16-foot-long motion picture existed at the
1843:
The 48.5-inch height includes the 3.5-inch-tall flanged eyepiece. To calculate the height of the latter, see the description of The Henry Ford's second Kinetoscope: "Height: 45 in (missing top component)."
1802:
Musser (1991), p. 44. Descriptions of Gilmore's involvement over the following year make clear that the passing mention of his having been hired in April 1895 in Musser's introduction (p. 13) is erroneous.
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One of the new firms to enter the field was the Kinetoscope Exhibition Company (no relation to Raff and Gammon's Kinetoscope Company); the firm's partners, brothers Otway and Grey Latham, Otway's friend
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and a request for cheaper alternatives to the expensive Edison-produced films he was showing. Along with the stir created by the Kinetoscope itself, this was one of the primary inspirations for the
479:
250:, making its mechanical conveyance much more smooth and reliable. The first motion picture system to employ a perforated image band was apparently the Théâtre Optique, patented by French inventor
272:'s new flexible film and was given a roll by an Eastman representative, which was immediately applied to experiments with the prototype. As described by historian Marta Braun, Eastman's product
164:—a combination system that would play sound and images concurrently. No such collaboration was undertaken, but in October 1888, Edison filed a preliminary claim, known as a caveat, with the
393:
As for the Kinetoscope itself, there have been differing descriptions of the location of the shutter providing the crucial intermittent visibility effect. According to a report by inventor
336:
On May 20, 1891, the first invitational demonstration of a prototype Kinetoscope was given at the laboratory for approximately 150 members of the National Federation of Women's Clubs. The
1960:
For the profits from April 1, 1894, through February 28, 1895, see Musser (1994), who gives the total as $ 85,337.83 (p. 84). Lipton (2021) puts the profits at "about $ 89,000" (p. 132).
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could then choose from a variety of musical cylinders offering a rhythmic match. For example, three different cylinders with orchestral performances were proposed as accompaniments for
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640:, stipulating that his image could not be recorded by any other Kinetoscope company—the first movie star contract. In sum, seventy-five films were shot at the Edison facility in 1894.
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254:
in 1888. Reynaud's system did not use photographic film, but images painted on gelatine frames. At the Exposition Universelle, Edison would have seen both the Théâtre Optique and the
1602:
Hendricks (1966), illustration 2. Patent historian Stephen van Dulken (2004) errs twice, describing a shutter with "slits" that is located between the lens and the peephole (p. 64).
963:
706:, for instance, claims that Edison "apparently thought so little of his invention that he failed to pay the $ 150 that would have granted him an international copyright [
4261:
1933:
Musser (1994), pp. 81–83. For extensive lists of North American locales with Kinetoscope exhibits in 1894 and 1895, see Rossell (2022), p. 56; Hendricks (1966), pp. 60–65, 68–69.
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opening or closing pendants to the action. It is also possible that the film was projected at a slower speed than it was shot (though the reverse was more often true in the pre–
4000:
3898:
3883:
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at 40 fps (he does not discuss "Athlete with wand") (p. 7). The Library of Congress catalog does support Hendricks's assertion that no Kinetoscope film was shot at 46 fps.
1137:
Baldwin (2001), pp. 208–9. Baldwin describes the meeting as taking place in mid-September (p. 209); Burns (1998) says it was August (p. 73). See also Braun (1992), p. 189.
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Australia. By January 3, 25,000 filmgoers had paid the one-shilling fee (roughly equivalent to 25 cents, the same price for five film viewings as in the New York debut).
190:
collaborative organization. Laboratory assistants were assigned to work on many projects while Edison supervised and involved himself and participated to varying degrees.
366:
and at least two other films made with the Kinetograph in 1891 were shot at 30 frames per second or even slower. The Kinetoscope application also included a plan for a
1311:
A September 29, 1894, order from a London Kinetoscope parlor demonstrates that Moore had already performed at least three different dances for Edison; the order lists
679:
The Kinetoscope was also gaining notice abroad. On July 16, 1894, it was demonstrated publicly for the first time in Europe at the 20 boulevard Montmartre newsroom of
4087:
848:
In the first decade of the 1900s, years before the compact Home Projecting Kinetoscope, Edison marketed an essentially theatrical 35 mm version for domestic use.
740:
4838:
3154:
Musser, Charles (2004). "At the Beginning: Motion Picture Production, Representation and Ideology at the Edison and Lumière Companies," in Grieveson and Krämer,
2051:
Ramsaye (1986) reports that Rector was central to the modification process (ch. 8), but no other source confirms this. See also Hendricks (1966), pp. 90, 99–100.
1772:
Rossell (2022), p. 47; see also p. 46. The image of seven Schnellsehers at the fair on p. 47 shows that they were designed for peephole, not projection, viewing.
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2684:. In Musser's description, the "21mm strip contained three 5.7mm images across its width." The Henry Ford describes the strip as "22-mm in width." See also
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585:
Twenty-five cents for no more than a few minutes of entertainment was hardly cheap diversion. For the same amount, one could purchase a ticket to a major
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522:, for which Edison appointed a new vice president and general manager: William E. Gilmore. Two weeks later, the Kinetoscope's epochal moment arrived.
165:
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4102:
4082:
5176:
4923:
4139:
4097:
3996:
2604:
Musser (2002), pp. 13–14; Musser (1994), pp. 109–11. The Vitascope was at least once billed as an "Edison Kinematograph". Rossell (2022), p. 135.
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has four separate samples of original Kinetoscope films: it measures each as 1.375 inches in width—that is, 1 3/8 inches or precisely 34.925 mm.
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machines you could show the pictures to everybody in the country—and then it would be done. Let's not kill the goose that lays the golden egg.
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3903:
3321:
3265:
3061:
2849:
672:
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2186:
Musser (1994), p. 78; Jenness (1894), p. 47. Hendricks (1966) states that the secretary of the organization himself made the arrest (p. 78).
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1507:
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disc mechanism—the first practical system for the high-speed stop-and-go film movement that would be the foundation for the next century of
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3141:
1827:
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1490:
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1725:
Spehr (2008) notes that "at least three blacksmith subjects were made, one in 1891, a second in 1892? and the final one in 1893" (p. 212).
1709:
1456:
825:, the world's first run of commercial motion picture screenings began: the Eidoloscope show's prime attraction was a boxing match between
1911:, however, was shot at 16 fps, at which speed it lasted 40 seconds. If all of the Kinetoscopes in the parlor were set to play at 40 fps,
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3893:
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896:
765:
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for at least one member of the New York press, which historians describe as the first public film projection in the U.S. On May 20, in
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3762:
3170:
382:—would be adopted globally as the standard for motion picture film, which it remains to this day. The publication in the October 1892
2549:(featuring an organ grinder and children at play), then the horse race, and eventually wrestling contests and a vaudeville dance act.
1907:
As noted below, most of the films were probably shot at or near 40 frames per second (fps) and presumably played back at that speed.
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2807:
2793:
2779:
2926:
Selected Attempts at Stereoscopic Moving Pictures and Their Relationship to the Development of Motion Picture Technology, 1852–1903
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sequences shot in the format demonstrates that the Kinetograph had already been reconfigured to produce movies with the new film.
5422:
5382:
4107:
3888:
3810:
3484:
877:. The Eidoloscope's prospects, meanwhile, were crippled by projection deficiencies and business disputes. In September 1896, the
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Kinetephone test film, c. 1894–95. In 1998, the soundless film and audio from a repaired wax cylinder were digitally combined by
2561:
776:
concurs, " did not try to synchronize sound and image." Leading production sound mixer Mark Ulano writes that Kinetophones "did
5242:
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1662:
Salt (1992), p. 32. As Salt describes, subsequent, post-Kinetoscope models of the Edison camera incorporated the Maltese cross.
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433:
234:
in Paris, for which he departed August 2 or 3, 1889. During his two months abroad, Edison visited with scientist-photographer
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bearing sequential images over a light source with a high-speed shutter. First described in conceptual terms by U.S. inventor
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Light and Movement: Incunabula of the Motion Picture, 1420–1896/Luce e movimento: Incunaboli dell'immagine animata, 1420–1896
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153:
76:
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Quoted in Robinson (1997), p. 23. The caveat was written on October 8 and filed on October 17. Hendricks (1961), pp. 14–16.
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5146:
4488:
4257:
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3825:
3070:. London: BFI Publishing/Le Giornate Del CInema Muto, Cinémathèque française–Musée du Cinéma, Museo Nazionale del Cinema.
733:
The 1895 version of the Kinetophone in use, showing the earphones that lead to the cylinder phonograph within the cabinet.
231:
223:
574:. As historian Charles Musser describes, a "profound transformation of American life and performance culture" had begun.
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4050:
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3865:
3850:
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2018:(the one of these four films to be shown at the April 14 commercial premiere): filmed Mar. 6, 1894; 40 seconds at 16 fps
1969:
Hendricks (1966), p. 15. Per Hendricks, evidence suggests 48 feet (15 m) feet was the longest length actually used.
1707:
made available online by The Henry Ford runs 40 seconds without a loop. The effective presentation speed is not stated.
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519:
230:
The project would soon head off in more productive directions, largely impelled by a trip of Edison's to Europe and the
63:, but it introduced the basic approach that would become the standard for all cinematic projection before the advent of
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and Charles Barnett, approximately eight minutes long. European inventors, most prominently the Lumières and Germany's
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3860:
3835:
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1649:(Note that van Dulken makes a total botch of describing the Kinetoscope and Kinetograph patent history in his earlier
643:
Just three months after the commercial debut of the motion picture came the first recorded instance of motion picture
99:
on the device, facilitating numerous imitations of and improvements on the technology. In 1895, Edison introduced the
4958:
2299:
Rossell (1998), pp. 91–94; Rossell (2022), pp. 59–61, 64–68, 71, 73, 75–76, 78–81; Christie (2019), pp. 15–17 passim.
833:
brothers, were moving forward with similar systems. Another challenge came from a new "peep show" device, the cheap,
3136:
Musser, Charles (2002). "Introducing Cinema to the American Public: The Vitascope in the United States, 1896–7," in
5156:
5130:
5090:
4384:
4337:
3414:
Library of Congress—Inventing Entertainment: The Early Motion Pictures and Sound Recordings of the Edison Companies
1246:
Musser (1994), pp. 68, 71; Hendricks (1961), pp. 99–100; Spehr (2000), pp. 7–8, 10–11; Robinson (1997), pp. 31, 33.
702:
4347:
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3957:
3722:
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5468:
5327:
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4606:
4006:
905:
329:
285:
Charles Kayser of the Edison lab seated behind the Kinetograph. Portability was not among the camera's virtues.
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5014:
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phonograph concealed in the cabinet and performing approximately appropriate music or other sound." Historian
251:
606:, and their employer, Samuel J. Tilden Jr., sought to combine the popularity of the Kinetoscope with that of
171:
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5151:
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4721:
4581:
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3662:
870:
857:
652:
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337:
157:
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this time (there is an unresolved debate over whether it was made in June 1889 or November 1890); known as
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used on the cylinder became unacceptably apparent. Around June 1889, the lab began working with sensitized
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5208:
5060:
4948:
4909:
4621:
4399:
4352:
3767:
3742:
235:
2523:
2495:
2441:
Ramsaye (1986), ch. 9. For Dickson's departure, see also Rossell (2022), p. 62; Musser (1991), pp. 51–52.
5343:
4747:
4716:
4706:
4631:
4591:
4362:
4131:
3815:
3697:
3054:
The Cinema in Flux: The Evolution of Motion Picture Technology from the Magic Lantern to the Digital Era
1008:
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The Kinetophone (also known as Phonokinetoscope) was an early attempt by Edison and Dickson to create a
260:
88:
3621:
2889:
Edison, Thomas A. (1891b). "Apparatus for Exhibiting Photographs of Moving Objects" in Mannoni et al.,
852:
By the beginning of 1896, Edison was turning his focus to the promotion of a projector technology, the
91:, to photograph movies for in-house experiments and, eventually, commercial Kinetoscope presentations.
2896:
Gomery, Douglas (1985). "The Coming of Sound: Technological Change in the American Film Industry," in
177:
5392:
5319:
5080:
4988:
4890:
4696:
4544:
4528:
4389:
4319:
4289:
4271:
4202:
4191:
3937:
3802:
3792:
3752:
2711:
See, e.g., Gunning (1994), pp. 61–65, 143–44; Musser (1994), pp. 239, 240, 254, 272, 290, 292 passim.
1651:
Inventing the 19th Century: 100 Inventions that Shaped the Victorian Age from Aspirin to the Zeppelin
1013:
894:
march and dance subjects. While Edison oversaw cursory sound-cinema experiments after the success of
507:
488:
169:
which the proposed motion picture device was given a name, Kinetoscope, derived from the Greek roots
5402:
5387:
5039:
5009:
4769:
4611:
4549:
3777:
3732:
3702:
2994:. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Reprinted in Hendricks, Gordon (1972).
2168:
Robinson (1996), p. 349. For an extended excerpt from the article, see Hendricks (1966), pp. 77–78.
1698:
viewing is unclear. Baldwin (2001) says "thirty seconds" (p. 238), the figure also reported by the
655:
by summer. The town's founder, James A. Bradley, a real estate developer and leading member of the
501:
466:
211:
104:
4881:
2900:(2005), ed. Andrew Utterson, pp. 53–67. Oxford and New York: Routledge/Taylor & Francis.
1350:
Edison (1891a), p. 1 ; Edison (1891b), p. 1 ; Hendricks (1961), p. 130; Rossell (2022), pp. 40–41.
511:, as it is now widely known, was made expressly to produce a sequence of images for an article in
5366:
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4796:
4726:
4671:
4503:
4493:
4476:
4394:
4252:
3964:
3942:
3787:
3757:
3747:
3717:
3655:
3500:
3302:, ed. John Fullerton and Astrid Söderbergh Widding, pp. 3–28. Sydney: John Libbey & Co.
2687:
812:, had been developing a film projection system, retaining the services of former Edison employee
145:
137:
52:
3032:
675:
Advertisement announcing the initial Kinetoscope exhibition in London, held on October 17, 1894.
454:
by Heise, it was produced at the new Edison moviemaking studio, the world's first, known as the
2363:
Inventing Entertainment: The Early Motion Pictures and Sound Recordings of the Edison Companies
2069:
Musser (1994), p. 82; Rossell (2022), p. 51. Camera speed confirmed by Hendricks (1966), p. 7;
1396:
Inventing Entertainment: The Early Motion Pictures and Sound Recordings of the Edison Companies
1327:
were subsequently filmed. Hendricks (1966), pp. 112, 129. Some authors apparently mistake the
1070:
Inventing Entertainment: The Early Motion Pictures and Sound Recordings of the Edison Companies
352:
The man was Dickson; the little movie, approximately three seconds long, is now referred to as
5257:
5171:
4953:
4481:
4208:
4149:
3930:
3772:
3737:
3707:
3541:
3531:
3359:
3345:
3331:
3317:
3303:
3289:
3275:
3261:
3247:
3233:
3212:
3198:
3184:
3166:
3145:
3127:
3113:
3099:
3085:
3071:
3057:
3043:
3003:
2981:
2957:
2943:
2929:
2915:
2901:
2873:
2859:
2845:
2831:
2817:
2803:
2789:
2775:
2558:
Rossell (2022), pp. 2 passim, 66 passim; Neupert (2022), pp. 23–26; Braun (1992), pp. 193–94.
1980:
909:
460:
255:
239:
201:
68:
79:
between 1889 and 1892. Dickson and his team at the Edison lab in New Jersey also devised the
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5115:
4885:
4828:
4711:
4686:
4453:
4426:
4342:
4225:
4198:
3952:
3855:
2671:
1328:
930:
878:
830:
809:
637:
563:
442:
354:
290:
2613:
Musser (1994), pp. 109, 111–33, 135–39; Rossell (2022), pp. 90–91, 106, 113, 117, 125, 140.
332:, in the format that would become standard for motion picture photography around the world.
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4823:
4742:
4691:
4681:
4636:
4367:
4284:
4213:
4077:
3712:
3591:
2290:
For the cost of the Kinetoscope's development: Millard (1990), p. 148; Spehr (2000), p. 7.
822:
691:, Antoine's sons, who would go on to develop not only improved motion picture cameras and
437:
379:
60:
1440:(2000), pp. 7–8, 12, for details on the width of the film supplied by Eastman to Edison.
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4641:
4523:
4498:
4357:
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4164:
3782:
3586:
3571:
3551:
3521:
3342:
American Inventions: A History of Curious, Extraordinary, and Just Plain Useful Patents
3029:
The Charities of San Francisco: A Directory of the Benevolent and Correctional Agencies
3021:
2999:
2235:
1451:
886:
773:
713:
590:
451:
399:
387:
359:
314:
306:
269:
2978:
D. W. Griffith and the Origins of American Narrative Film: The Early Years at Biograph
281:
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4932:
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4441:
4294:
4187:
4154:
3636:
3566:
3556:
3180:
2969:(n.a.; 1895–96). Milan: Edita dall' "Elettricità." Selected pages in Mannoni et al.,
864:. The rights to the system had been acquired by Raff and Gammon, who redubbed it the
813:
394:
302:
149:
141:
72:
55:
exhibition device, designed for films to be viewed by one person at a time through a
3260:. New Barnet, UK, and Bloomington: John Libbey Publishing/Indiana University Press.
1037:
Neither adduces any evidence for such assertions (and Edison's wife was named Mina).
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577:
486:
The first U.S. copyright for an identifiable motion picture was given to Edison for
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4576:
4518:
4471:
4372:
4304:
3969:
3947:
3596:
3516:
3140:, ed. Gregory Waller, pp. 13–26. Malden, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell (available
2477:
Musser (1994), p. 84. For the business year of February 28, 1895, to March 1, 1896.
1552:
945:
Rear view of a cabinet Kinetophone, showing its belt-driven wax cylinder phonograph
861:
826:
748:
603:
594:
559:
407:
156:, may have attended. Two days later, Muybridge and Edison met at the Edison lab in
128:
84:
1614:
3014:
The Kinetoscope: America's First Commercially Successful Motion Picture Exhibitor
1293:
Spehr (2000), pp. 3–4. For individual frames and a video of the entire film, see
5044:
5019:
4774:
4554:
4332:
4174:
4159:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3526:
3511:
2661:
Stross (2007), pp. 228–29; Zielinski (1999), p. 190; Musser (1991), pp. 473–74;
1128:
Robinson (1997) gives August 2 (p. 27). Hendricks (1961) gives August 3 (p. 48).
1000:
853:
844:
818:
513:
496:
Work proceeded, though slowly, on the Kinetoscope project. On October 6, a U.S.
367:
320:
122:
3385:
3316:. New Barnet and Bloomington: John Libbey Publishing/Indiana University Press.
2956:, 15th ed, vol. 15, pp. 898–918. Chicago et al.: Encyclopædia Britannica.
2468:
Musser (1994), pp. 84–89, 147; Rossell (2022), pp. 57, 59–60, 64–66, 68, 71–72.
1873:
957:
Triple-column film being threaded through the Home Projecting Kinetoscope, 1912
144:
to pursue the development of a motion picture system. On February 25, 1888, in
5125:
4983:
4978:
4779:
4646:
4559:
4242:
4237:
4182:
3631:
3601:
3460:
2757:
Altman (2004), pp. 175–78; Gomery (1985), pp. 54–55; Gomery (2005), pp. 28–29.
2541:
2386:
1158:
990:
874:
756:
729:
718:
692:
648:
644:
586:
375:
310:
161:
107:
2309:
1891:
5361:
4993:
4789:
4759:
4569:
4513:
4463:
4431:
4230:
4218:
4144:
3678:
3581:
3576:
3546:
3536:
3110:
Before the Nickelodeon: Edwin S. Porter and the Edison Manufacturing Company
865:
838:
834:
656:
497:
343:
described what the club women saw in the "small pine box" they encountered:
247:
205:
196:
31:
419:
160:
and discussed the possibility of joining the zoopraxiscope with the Edison
132:
films (c. 1889–90) produced as tests of an early version of the Kinetoscope
17:
3328:
The Wizard of Menlo Park: How Thomas Alva Edison Invented the Modern World
2952:
Griffith, Richard, and Stanley William Reed (1971). "Motion Pictures," in
2332:
F.C.B. (October 21, 1893). "Notes from the World's Columbian Exposition".
4784:
4651:
4601:
4586:
4564:
4436:
4413:
3925:
3626:
3400:
3394:
2214:
September (p. 12). Rossell (2022) puts it precisely at October 1 (p. 52).
1694:
Rossell (2022), p. 47; Lipton (2021), pp. 130–31, 148. The duration of a
1491:"Edison Kinetoscope Film, 'The Butterfly Dance,' 1894-1895 [alt]"
1296:"Edison Kinetoscope Film, 'The Butterfly Dance,' 1894-1895 [alt]"
56:
3066:
Mannoni, Laurent, Donata Pesenti Campagnoni, and David Robinson (1996).
39:
1639:. U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. August 31, 1897. ( 493,426 Edison)
1368:. U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. August 31, 1897. ( 493,426 Edison)
1192:
20 date from the first public demonstration of the Kinetoscope in 1891.
218:
3298:
Spehr, Paul C. (2000). "Unaltered to Date: Developing 35 mm Film," in
3177:
A Million and One Nights: A History of the Motion Picture Through 1925
2872:, vol. 1 (2000), ed. Stephen Herbert. London and New York: Routledge.
1408:
The work by Musser referenced in each of the individual film pages is
4446:
4421:
4327:
3469:
3288:. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press.
3138:
Moviegoing in America: A Sourcebook in the History of Film Exhibition
3126:. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press.
3112:. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and Oxford: University of California Press.
2882:
Edison, Thomas A. (1891a). "Kinetographic Camera" in Mannoni et al.,
2402:
See also Hendricks (1966), pp. 48–50, 118–25; Millard (1990), p. 169.
2120:
2087:
2071:
607:
243:
96:
2020:
2013:
2008:
1999:
1632:
1361:
148:, Muybridge gave a lecture amid a tour in which he demonstrated his
3647:
3232:. New York and Chichester, West Sussex: Columbia University Press.
1924:
Grieveson and Krämer (2004), p. 34; Cross and Walton (2005), p. 39.
43:
Interior view of Kinetoscope with peephole viewer at top of cabinet
4701:
3727:
843:
736:
728:
670:
647:. The film in question showed a performance by the Spanish dancer
617:
576:
472:
418:
319:
280:
217:
121:
64:
38:
3358:, trans. Gloria Custance. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
2868:
Dickson, W.K.L. (1907). "Edison's Kinematograph Experiments," in
1870:
Hendricks (1966), pp. 56, 59–60 n. 16, 60; Musser (1994), p. 78.
4901:
4279:
3286:
Spectacular Realities: Early Mass Culture in Fin-de-siècle Paris
2236:"Conversion Computation: 1894 [+] £.05 [+] 1894"
1984:
440:
on May 9, 1893. The first film publicly shown on the system was
4905:
3651:
3473:
3401:
Voice Trial—Kinetophone Actor Audition by Siegfried Von Schultz
4764:
708:
432:
The premiere of the completed Kinetoscope was held not at the
67:: it created the illusion of movement by conveying a strip of
3403:
mp3 audio file of undated audition; part of Project Gutenberg
3397:
mp3 audio file of undated audition; part of Project Gutenberg
2511:
For description of Emile as "teenage": Lipton (2021), p. 140.
136:
An encounter with the work and ideas of photographic pioneer
3356:
Audiovisions: Cinema and Television as Entr'actes in History
785:: "Valse Santiago", "La Paloma", and "Alma-Danza Spagnola".
3042:. New Brunswick, NJ, and London: Rutgers University Press.
2856:
The Playful Crowd: Pleasure Places in the Twentieth Century
2828:
Television: An International History of the Formative Years
2814:
Picturing Time: The Work of Etienne-Jules Marey (1830–1904)
1474:"Edison Kinetoscope Film, 'The Butterfly Dance,' 1894-1895"
1410:
Edison Motion Pictures, 1890–1900: An Annotated Filmography
1278:"Edison Kinetoscope Film, 'The Butterfly Dance,' 1894-1895"
700:
view, however, used to be popular: The 1971 edition of the
659:
community, had recently been elected a state senator: "The
2640:
Lipton (2021), pp. 155–57; Musser (1994), pp. 130–32, 166.
1814:
Embattled Shadows: A History of Canadian Cinema, 1895–1939
1219:
Hendricks (1961), pp. 79, 182–83, and photo facing p. 143.
264:
visibility would be integral to the Kinetoscope's design.
3388:
illustrated survey of early cinematic equipment; part of
3016:. New York: Theodore Gaus' Sons. Reprinted in Hendricks,
2520:
Musser (1994), pp. 91–96; Rossell (2022), pp. 58, 62–64;
1915:
would have run 16 seconds. See Hendricks (1966), pp. 6–8.
1951:
Hendricks (1966), pp. 13, 56, 59; Lipton (2021), p. 131.
1228:
Robinson (1997), p. 29; Spehr (2000), pp. 7–8, 23 n. 24.
969:
Promotion of projecting Kinetophone system, January 1913
2786:
The Chicago World's Fair of 1893: A Photographic Record
2411:
Altman (2004), pp. 81–83; Hendricks (1966), pp. 124–25.
3395:
Voice Trial—Kinetophone Actor Audition by Frank Lenord
3031:. San Francisco: Book Room Print/Stanford University (
1412:(Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1998).
370:
film projection system that was apparently abandoned.
324:
1 3/8–inch (35 mm) filmstrip of the Edison production
2251:
Australia was still on the British pound at the time.
3230:
From Peep Show to Palace: The Birth of American Film
3124:
The Emergence of Cinema: The American Screen to 1907
2980:. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
2631:
Musser (1994), pp. 145, 148, 150–52, 155–57, 176–77.
2029:
As noted, Hendricks (1966) gives the same speed for
534:(Ena Bertoldi, a British vaudeville contortionist),
411:
March 14. The Kinetoscope was ready to be unveiled.
5375:
5354:
5303:
5268:
5218:
5195:
5139:
5053:
5002:
4939:
4844:
List of animated television series by episode count
4735:
4664:
4537:
4462:
4412:
4318:
4270:
4251:
4173:
4130:
4123:
4020:
3918:
3801:
3686:
2844:. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.
2118:Ramsaye (1986), ch. 8–9; Musser (1994), pp. 82–84;
2025:: filmed c. Mar. 10–16, 1894; 21 seconds at 30 fps
1710:"Edison Kinetoscope Film, 'Blacksmith Scene,' 1893"
1457:"Edison Kinetoscope Film, 'Blacksmith Scene,' 1893"
764:in late 1894 or early 1895; now referred to as the
2967:Guida practica per l'uso...del kinetoscopio Edison
2595:Rossell (2022), p. 56 n. 59; Musser (1994), p. 86.
1872:Anthony, Barry; McKernan, Luke; Herbert, Stephen.
75:in 1888, it was largely developed by his employee
2586:Rossell (2022), p. 54; Musser (1994), pp. 145–48.
2195:Rossell (2022), pp. 51–52; Neupert (2022), p. 23.
1942:Financial analysis based on Musser (1994), p. 81.
1559:. The large dotted circle represents the shutter.
1508:"Edison Kinetoscope Film, 'The Strong Man,' 1895"
1267:Gosser (1977), pp. 206–7; Dickson (1907), part 3.
2720:Musser (1994), p. 178; Altman (2004), pp. 89–90.
4839:List of animated films by box office admissions
3272:Film Style and Technology: History and Analysis
3221:Robinson, David (1996). "," in Mannoni et al.,
2938:Grieveson, Lee, and Peter Krämer, eds. (2004).
2830:. London: Institution of Electrical Engineers.
2387:"The Movies Are Born a Child of the Phonograph"
2359:"Early Edison Experiments with Sight and Sound"
2006:: filmed c. Jan. 2–7, 1894; 5 seconds at 16 fps
581:A San Francisco Kinetoscope parlor, c. 1894–95.
500:was issued for a "publication" received by the
3246:. Albany: State University of New York Press.
2383:Robinson (1997), p. 51; Gomery (1985), p. 54;
1676:(Boston and London: Kessinger, 2004 ), p. 370.
402:and one that appears in Hendricks's own book.
5071:Edison Gower-Bell Telephone Company of Europe
4917:
3663:
3485:
3084:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
2842:Robert Paul and the Origins of British Cinema
2652:Lipton (2021), p. 157; Musser (1991), p. 474.
2348:Robinson (1997), p. 51; Musser (1994), p. 87.
2233:Rossell (2022), p. 55; Musser (1994), p. 82.
1066:"Origins of Motion Pictures: The Kinetoscope"
8:
2562:"The Skladanowsky Brothers: The Devil Knows"
2000:Edison kinetoscopic record of a sneeze (aka
929:Advertisement for Kinetoscope exhibition in
226:included an entire electrical power station.
3258:Chronology of the Birth of Cinema 1833–1896
2854:Cross, Gary S., and John K. Walton (2005).
1254:
1252:
89:intermittent, or stop-and-go, film movement
4924:
4910:
4902:
4267:
4127:
3690:
3670:
3656:
3648:
3492:
3478:
3470:
3377:Edison Motion Picture Equipment Chronology
3244:Living Pictures: The Origins of the Movies
3165:. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
1825:Musser (1994), p. 81. For the height, see
2336:. Vol. 69, no. 17. p. 262.
1828:"Edison Kinetoscope Peepshow, circa 1894"
1570:"Edison Kinetoscope Peepshow, circa 1894"
1146:Musser (1994), p. 66; Spehr (2000), p. 8.
222:An acre in size, Edison's exhibit at the
59:viewer window. The Kinetoscope was not a
3300:Moving Images: From Edison to the Webcam
2816:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
2802:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
2259:
2257:
2011:: filmed Feb. 1894; 37 seconds at 16 fps
505:technician was shot at the Black Maria;
406:particular those based on the so-called
3344:. New York: New York University Press.
3314:The Man Who Made Movies: W.K.L. Dickson
3040:New Jersey's Multiple Municipal Madness
2998:. New York: Arno Press/New York Times (
2858:. New York: Columbia University Press.
2774:. New York: Columbia University Press.
1685:Quoted in Baldwin (2001), pp. 232, 233.
1029:
919:
438:Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences
5066:Edison and Swan Electric Light Company
2898:Technology and Culture—The Film Reader
2648:
2646:
2524:"Happy 125th Birthday, Cinema! Part 2"
2496:"Happy 125th Birthday, Cinema! Part 2"
1874:"Ena Bertoldi (Beatrice Mary Claxton)"
1789:
1787:
1389:, "Men boxing", and "Newark athlete".
436:, as originally scheduled, but at the
126:Sheet of images from one of the three
103:, which joined the Kinetoscope with a
3082:Edison and the Business of Innovation
7:
5182:General Electric Research Laboratory
4812:Films with live action and animation
2914:. New York and Oxon, UK: Routledge.
2686:Bealmear, Bart (December 18, 2013).
2522:Domankiewicz, Peter (May 20, 2020).
2494:Domankiewicz, Peter (May 20, 2020).
1421:Edison (1891b), pp. 2–3, diagram 4 .
242:"—the first portable motion picture
2141:Grieveson and Krämer (2004), p. 12.
1996:(all retrieved November 23, 2022):
3441:, 1894 [misdated as 1895])
2942:. London and New York: Routledge.
2177:Quoted in Hendricks (1966), p. 78.
2159:Karcher (1998), pp. 39, 82, 92–93.
1323:. Additional versions of at least
25:
5454:Audiovisual introductions in 1893
3904:Modern TV cable and streaming era
3457:part of The Henry Ford collection
3430:part of The Henry Ford collection
3181:available at the Internet Archive
3033:available at the Internet Archive
3022:available at the Internet Archive
3000:available at the Internet Archive
2310:"Dickson Experimental Sound Film"
2272:Griffith and Reed (1971), p. 900.
1892:"Eugen Sandow (Frederick Muller)"
1341:Quoted in Robertson (2001), p. 5.
1201:Spehr (2000), pp. 7, 23 n. 21–22.
1090:Braun (1992), pp. 188, 404 n. 44.
5423:Thomas Alva Edison silver dollar
5383:Thomas Edison in popular culture
5177:Storage Battery Company Building
4880:
4871:
4870:
3027:Jenness, Charles Kelley (1894).
2560:Barber, Stephen (October 2010).
2432:Quoted in Ramsaye (1986), ch. 9.
1847:"Edison Kinetoscope, circa 1894"
1587:"Edison Kinetoscope, circa 1894"
1359:Edison (1891a), p. 1 . See also
993:
974:
962:
950:
938:
922:
562:, a German strongman managed by
378:known by its metric equivalent,
27:Motion picture exhibition device
5243:The Wizard of Evergreen Terrace
3096:The Film: A Psychological Study
2670:. November 1999. Archived from
1674:Edison, His Life and Inventions
856:, developed by young inventors
789:summarily rejected the notion:
766:Dickson Experimental Sound Film
5121:Motion Picture Patents Company
5106:Edison Storage Battery Company
5096:Edison Portland Cement Company
3381:Professor Hall's Silent Movies
3354:Zielinski, Siegfried (1999 ).
3284:Schwartz, Vanessa R. (1999 ).
3195:Turning Points in Film History
3163:French Film History, 1895–1946
2992:The Edison Motion Picture Myth
2912:The Coming of Sound: A History
2528:William Friese-Greene & Me
2500:William Friese-Greene & Me
2060:Hendricks (1966), p. 96 n. 18.
1019:Motion Picture Patents Company
589:theater; when America's first
295:The Edison Motion Picture Myth
77:William Kennedy Laurie Dickson
1:
4834:Most expensive animated films
4489:Direct manipulation animation
4140:Barrier-grid and stereography
3390:Who's Who of Victorian Cinema
3211:. New York: Billboard Books.
2800:Edison: Inventing the Century
1896:Who's Who of Victorian Cinema
1878:Who's Who of Victorian Cinema
1781:Hendricks (1966), pp. 47, 71.
1619:Who's Who in Victorian Cinema
1557:Who's Who in Victorian Cinema
1163:Who's Who of Victorian Cinema
546:(some manner of cock fight),
423:Construction of the imposing
289:Some scholars—in particular,
195:for negatives, was coated in
5312:The Execution of Mary Stuart
5086:Edison Manufacturing Company
4380:Non-photorealistic rendering
3340:Van Dulken, Stephen (2004).
3018:Origins of the American Film
2996:Origins of the American Film
1615:"Kinetograph Patent Diagram"
981:Projecting Kinetoscope, 1914
912:, the system was abandoned.
520:Edison Manufacturing Company
5293:Tales from the Bully Pulpit
5076:Edison Illuminating Company
4012:International Animation Day
3462:Anna Belle Serpentine Dance
3326:Stross, Randall E. (2007).
3207:Robertson, Patrick (2001).
3197:. New York: Citadel Press.
3094:Münsterberg, Hugo (2004 ).
2784:Appelbaum, Stanley (1980).
1317:Anna Belle Serpentine Dance
536:Bertoldi (table contortion)
450:); directed by Dickson and
5495:
5131:Oriental Telephone Company
5091:Edison Ore-Milling Company
4482:Linear Animation Generator
4385:Physically based animation
3453:Anna Belle Butterfly Dance
3193:Rausch, Andrew J. (2004).
3012:Hendricks, Gordon (1966).
2990:Hendricks, Gordon (1961).
2826:Burns, Richard W. (1998).
2622:Musser (1994), pp. 133–35.
1633:"Document ID US 0589168 A"
1362:"Document ID US 0589168 A"
1321:Anna Belle Butterfly Dance
29:
5459:Film and video technology
5285:Edison's Conquest of Mars
5162:Memorial Tower and Museum
4866:
4071:Children's animated films
3693:
3507:
3161:Neupert, Richard (2022).
3122:Musser, Charles (1994 ).
3038:Karcher, Alan J. (1998).
2748:Gomery (2005), pp. 27–28.
2729:Hendricks (1966), p. 123.
2547:The Sidewalks of New York
2263:Braun (1992), pp. 190–91.
2033:. However, he lists both
759:system. The October 1893
5167:National Historical Park
4959:Edison's Phonograph Doll
3980:Animation film festivals
3228:Robinson, David (1997).
3179:. New York: Touchstone (
3175:Ramsaye, Terry (1986 ).
3108:Musser, Charles (1991).
2940:The Silent Cinema Reader
2928:. New York: Arno Press.
2924:Gosser, H. Mark (1977).
2910:Gomery, Douglas (2005).
1763:Appelbaum (1980), p. 47.
532:Bertoldi (mouth support)
330:Annabelle Whitford Moore
328:(c. 1894–95), featuring
140:appears to have spurred
30:Not to be confused with
5418:Statue of Thomas Edison
5025:Incandescent light bulb
4802:Twelve basic principles
4722:Instructional animation
3312:Spehr, Paul C. (2008).
3080:Millard, Andre (1990).
2954:Encyclopædia Britannica
2870:A History of Early Film
2798:Baldwin, Neil (2001 ).
2121:"Leonard-Cushing fight"
2088:"Leonard-Cushing fight"
2072:"Leonard-Cushing fight"
1989:Inventing Entertainment
1754:Robinson (1997), p. 40.
1258:Robinson (1997), p. 34.
1237:Robinson (1997), p. 28.
1159:"Charles-Émile Reynaud"
1155:Rossell (1998), p. 21;
1119:Dickson (1907), part 2.
897:The Great Train Robbery
858:Charles Francis Jenkins
703:Encyclopædia Britannica
202:silver bromide emulsion
5209:Theodore Miller Edison
5126:Mine Safety Appliances
5061:Thomas A. Edison, Inc.
4949:List of Edison patents
4400:Virtual cinematography
3997:Highest-grossing films
3899:Early TV broadcast era
3256:Rossell, Deac (2022).
3242:Rossell, Deac (1998).
3098:. Mineola, NY: Dover.
3056:. New York: Springer.
3052:Lipton, Lenny (2021).
2976:Gunning, Tom (1994 ).
2840:Christie, Ian (2019).
2459:Rossell (2022), p. 57.
2204:Rossell (2022), p. 52.
2027:
1994:Edison Motion Pictures
849:
796:
752:
734:
676:
632:
582:
493:
429:
350:
333:
286:
279:
240:chronophotographic gun
232:Exposition Universelle
227:
224:Exposition Universelle
192:
133:
112:Projecting Kinetoscope
44:
5464:Film sound production
4717:Independent animation
4707:Educational animation
2812:Braun, Marta (1992).
2770:Altman, Rick (2004).
2688:"Home Projector Wars"
2450:Musser (1994), p. 88.
2365:. Library of Congress
2150:Musser (2004), p. 22.
2123:. Library of Congress
2090:. Library of Congress
2074:. Library of Congress
1997:
1793:Musser (2002), p. 21.
1531:Musser (1994), p. 72.
1398:. Library of Congress
1210:Braun (1992), p. 155.
1182:Braun (1992), p. 189.
1072:. Library of Congress
1055:Musser (2004), p. 63.
1009:William Friese-Greene
847:
791:
746:
732:
674:
630:
580:
485:
422:
345:
323:
284:
274:
261:persistence of vision
256:electrical tachyscope
252:Charles-Émile Reynaud
238:, who had devised a "
221:
187:
125:
85:motion picture camera
42:
5393:Pearl Street Station
5081:Edison Machine Works
4989:Quadruplex telegraph
4697:Animated documentary
4529:Whiteboard animation
4422:Traditional puppetry
4066:Adult animated films
3975:Biologist simulators
3938:Animation department
3274:. London: Starword.
3270:Salt, Barry (1992).
3156:Silent Cinema Reader
2385:Ulano, Mark (2000).
2281:Rausch (2004), p. 8.
1637:Patent Public Search
1430:Spehr (2000), p. 13.
1366:Patent Public Search
1313:Anna Belle Sun Dance
1014:List of film formats
434:Chicago World's Fair
53:early motion picture
5449:American inventions
5403:Thomas Edison House
5388:War of the currents
5040:Thermionic emission
5035:Nickel–iron battery
5015:Edison–Lalande cell
5010:Consolidated Edison
4770:Character animation
4550:Character animation
4088:Children's animated
3466:hand-tinted version
3449:The Butterfly Dance
3330:. New York: Crown.
2788:. New York: Dover.
2423:(1895–96), p. 126 .
2334:Scientific American
1700:Scientific American
875:vaudeville theaters
873:and his circuit of
803:Projection wins out
761:Scientific American
681:Le petit Parisienne
661:Newark Evening News
502:Library of Congress
467:Scientific American
464:and the October 21
236:Étienne-Jules Marey
212:Monkeyshines, No. 1
5444:Precursors of film
5367:Edisonian approach
4797:Creature animation
4727:Virtual newscaster
4672:Abstract animation
4504:Ink-wash animation
4494:Humanoid animation
4477:Audio-Animatronics
4041:Lost or unfinished
3965:Animation database
3943:Animation director
3501:Precursors of film
3223:Light and Movement
2971:Light and Movement
2891:Light and Movement
2884:Light and Movement
2664:"Pic of the Month"
2312:. Internet Archive
1392:"Collection Items"
1157:Herbert, Stephen.
850:
753:
735:
677:
633:
583:
494:
430:
334:
287:
228:
166:U.S. Patent Office
146:Orange, New Jersey
138:Eadweard Muybridge
134:
45:
5431:
5430:
5336:A Night of Terror
4954:Carbon microphone
4899:
4898:
4660:
4659:
4587:Erasure animation
4408:
4407:
4150:Limited animation
4093:Computer-animated
4031:Computer-animated
3953:Animation studios
3914:
3913:
3645:
3644:
3542:Electrotachyscope
3532:Chronophotography
3408:Kinetoscope films
3322:978-0-86196-695-0
3266:978-0-86196-716-2
3158:, pp. 15–28.
3062:978-1-0716-0950-7
2850:978-0-226-10562-8
2772:Silent Film Sound
2674:on March 10, 2007
2035:Fred Ott's Sneeze
2009:Athlete with wand
2002:Fred Ott's Sneeze
1621:. August 31, 1897
879:Mutoscope Company
871:Benjamin F. Keith
744:
628:
508:Fred Ott's Sneeze
489:Fred Ott's Sneeze
483:
268:demonstration of
175:("movement") and
16:(Redirected from
5486:
5227:Young Tom Edison
5116:General Electric
4926:
4919:
4912:
4903:
4884:
4874:
4873:
4854:anime franchises
4829:Cartoon violence
4817:highest grossing
4712:Erotic animation
4687:Animated cartoon
4454:Supermarionation
4427:Digital puppetry
4348:Facial animation
4268:
4128:
4001:Opening weekends
3691:
3672:
3665:
3658:
3649:
3494:
3487:
3480:
3471:
3422:Blacksmith Scene
2758:
2755:
2749:
2746:
2740:
2736:
2730:
2727:
2721:
2718:
2712:
2709:
2703:
2702:
2700:
2698:
2683:
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2659:
2653:
2650:
2641:
2638:
2632:
2629:
2623:
2620:
2614:
2611:
2605:
2602:
2596:
2593:
2587:
2584:
2578:
2577:
2575:
2573:
2566:Senses of Cinema
2556:
2550:
2538:
2536:
2534:
2518:
2512:
2510:
2508:
2506:
2484:
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2306:
2300:
2297:
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2288:
2282:
2279:
2273:
2270:
2264:
2261:
2252:
2250:
2248:
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2231:
2225:
2221:
2215:
2211:
2205:
2202:
2196:
2193:
2187:
2184:
2178:
2175:
2169:
2166:
2160:
2157:
2151:
2148:
2142:
2139:
2133:
2132:
2130:
2128:
2116:
2110:
2106:
2100:
2099:
2097:
2095:
2083:
2081:
2079:
2067:
2061:
2058:
2052:
2049:
2043:
1976:
1970:
1967:
1961:
1958:
1952:
1949:
1943:
1940:
1934:
1931:
1925:
1922:
1916:
1906:
1904:
1902:
1890:Brown, Richard.
1888:
1886:
1884:
1868:
1862:
1861:
1859:
1857:
1842:
1840:
1838:
1823:
1817:
1809:
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1800:
1794:
1791:
1782:
1779:
1773:
1770:
1764:
1761:
1755:
1752:
1746:
1742:
1736:
1732:
1726:
1724:
1722:
1720:
1705:Blacksmith Scene
1696:Blacksmith Scene
1692:
1686:
1683:
1677:
1669:
1663:
1660:
1654:
1648:
1646:
1644:
1630:
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1488:
1486:
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1471:
1469:
1467:
1447:
1441:
1437:
1431:
1428:
1422:
1419:
1413:
1407:
1405:
1403:
1387:Dickson Greeting
1384:
1378:
1377:
1375:
1373:
1357:
1351:
1348:
1342:
1339:
1333:
1329:serpentine dance
1325:Serpentine Dance
1310:
1308:
1306:
1292:
1290:
1288:
1274:
1268:
1265:
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1199:
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1120:
1117:
1111:
1107:
1101:
1097:
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1079:
1077:
1062:
1056:
1053:
1047:
1044:
1038:
1034:
1003:
998:
997:
996:
978:
966:
954:
942:
933:, September 1894
931:Elmira, New York
926:
745:
689:Lumière brothers
638:James J. Corbett
629:
564:Florenz Ziegfeld
484:
443:Blacksmith Scene
364:Dickson Greeting
355:Dickson Greeting
291:Gordon Hendricks
83:, an innovative
21:
5494:
5493:
5489:
5488:
5487:
5485:
5484:
5483:
5479:Display devices
5469:History of film
5434:
5433:
5432:
5427:
5371:
5350:
5299:
5264:
5250:The Current War
5235:Edison, the Man
5214:
5191:
5135:
5049:
4998:
4941:
4935:
4930:
4900:
4895:
4862:
4824:Cartoon physics
4743:Animation music
4731:
4692:Animated sitcom
4682:Adult animation
4656:
4637:Special effects
4533:
4458:
4404:
4314:
4255:
4247:
4169:
4119:
4098:Direct-to-video
4016:
3910:
3797:
3682:
3676:
3646:
3641:
3622:Théâtre Optique
3592:Phenakistiscope
3503:
3498:
3451:(also known as
3437:(also known as
3424:(also known as
3410:
3373:
3368:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2752:
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2255:
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2203:
2199:
2194:
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2181:
2176:
2172:
2167:
2163:
2158:
2154:
2149:
2145:
2140:
2136:
2126:
2124:
2119:
2117:
2113:
2107:
2103:
2093:
2091:
2086:
2077:
2075:
2070:
2068:
2064:
2059:
2055:
2050:
2046:
2019:
2012:
2007:
1977:
1973:
1968:
1964:
1959:
1955:
1950:
1946:
1941:
1937:
1932:
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1923:
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1900:
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1200:
1196:
1190:
1186:
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1177:
1167:
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1127:
1123:
1118:
1114:
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1059:
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1045:
1041:
1035:
1031:
1027:
999:
994:
992:
989:
982:
979:
970:
967:
958:
955:
946:
943:
934:
927:
918:
823:Lower Manhattan
805:
737:
727:
618:
473:
446:(also known as
417:
388:cinematographic
326:Butterfly Dance
154:William Dickson
120:
69:perforated film
61:movie projector
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5492:
5490:
5482:
5481:
5476:
5471:
5466:
5461:
5456:
5451:
5446:
5436:
5435:
5429:
5428:
5426:
5425:
5420:
5415:
5413:Telephonoscope
5410:
5405:
5400:
5395:
5390:
5385:
5379:
5377:
5373:
5372:
5370:
5369:
5364:
5358:
5356:
5352:
5351:
5349:
5348:
5340:
5332:
5324:
5316:
5307:
5305:
5301:
5300:
5298:
5297:
5289:
5281:
5277:The Future Eve
5272:
5270:
5266:
5265:
5263:
5262:
5254:
5246:
5239:
5231:
5222:
5220:
5216:
5215:
5213:
5212:
5206:
5203:Charles Edison
5199:
5197:
5193:
5192:
5190:
5189:
5187:Winter Estates
5184:
5179:
5174:
5169:
5164:
5159:
5154:
5149:
5143:
5141:
5137:
5136:
5134:
5133:
5128:
5123:
5118:
5113:
5111:Edison Studios
5108:
5103:
5101:Edison Records
5098:
5093:
5088:
5083:
5078:
5073:
5068:
5063:
5057:
5055:
5051:
5050:
5048:
5047:
5042:
5037:
5032:
5027:
5022:
5017:
5012:
5006:
5004:
5000:
4999:
4997:
4996:
4991:
4986:
4981:
4976:
4971:
4966:
4961:
4956:
4951:
4945:
4943:
4942:and inventions
4937:
4936:
4931:
4929:
4928:
4921:
4914:
4906:
4897:
4896:
4894:
4893:
4888:
4878:
4867:
4864:
4863:
4861:
4860:
4859:
4858:
4857:
4856:
4841:
4836:
4831:
4826:
4821:
4820:
4819:
4809:
4804:
4799:
4794:
4793:
4792:
4787:
4782:
4777:
4767:
4762:
4757:
4756:
4755:
4753:Mickey Mousing
4750:
4739:
4737:
4736:Related topics
4733:
4732:
4730:
4729:
4724:
4719:
4714:
4709:
4704:
4699:
4694:
4689:
4684:
4679:
4668:
4666:
4662:
4661:
4658:
4657:
4655:
4654:
4649:
4644:
4639:
4634:
4629:
4627:Straight ahead
4624:
4619:
4614:
4609:
4607:Paint-on-glass
4604:
4599:
4594:
4589:
4584:
4579:
4574:
4573:
4572:
4567:
4562:
4557:
4547:
4541:
4539:
4535:
4534:
4532:
4531:
4526:
4524:Squigglevision
4521:
4516:
4511:
4506:
4501:
4499:Idle animation
4496:
4491:
4486:
4485:
4484:
4479:
4468:
4466:
4460:
4459:
4457:
4456:
4451:
4450:
4449:
4444:
4439:
4434:
4424:
4418:
4416:
4410:
4409:
4406:
4405:
4403:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4387:
4382:
4377:
4376:
4375:
4370:
4365:
4358:Motion capture
4355:
4350:
4345:
4340:
4335:
4330:
4324:
4322:
4316:
4315:
4313:
4312:
4310:Onion skinning
4307:
4302:
4297:
4292:
4287:
4282:
4276:
4274:
4265:
4249:
4248:
4246:
4245:
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4235:
4234:
4233:
4223:
4222:
4221:
4211:
4206:
4196:
4195:
4194:
4179:
4177:
4171:
4170:
4168:
4167:
4165:Exposure sheet
4162:
4157:
4152:
4147:
4142:
4136:
4134:
4125:
4121:
4120:
4118:
4117:
4116:
4115:
4110:
4105:
4100:
4095:
4090:
4085:
4083:Adult animated
4075:
4074:
4073:
4068:
4063:
4058:
4053:
4048:
4043:
4038:
4036:Feature-length
4033:
4024:
4022:
4018:
4017:
4015:
4014:
4009:
4004:
3994:
3993:
3992:
3987:
3977:
3972:
3967:
3962:
3961:
3960:
3950:
3945:
3940:
3935:
3934:
3933:
3922:
3920:
3916:
3915:
3912:
3911:
3909:
3908:
3907:
3906:
3901:
3896:
3891:
3889:The Golden Age
3886:
3880:United States
3878:
3876:United Kingdom
3873:
3868:
3863:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3833:
3828:
3823:
3818:
3813:
3807:
3805:
3799:
3798:
3796:
3795:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3725:
3720:
3715:
3710:
3705:
3700:
3694:
3688:
3684:
3683:
3677:
3675:
3674:
3667:
3660:
3652:
3643:
3642:
3640:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3609:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3589:
3587:Phantasmagoria
3584:
3579:
3574:
3572:Megalethoscope
3569:
3564:
3559:
3554:
3552:Kaiserpanorama
3549:
3544:
3539:
3534:
3529:
3524:
3522:Camera obscura
3519:
3514:
3508:
3505:
3504:
3499:
3497:
3496:
3489:
3482:
3474:
3468:
3467:
3458:
3445:
3435:The Strong Man
3431:
3418:
3409:
3406:
3405:
3404:
3398:
3392:
3383:
3372:
3371:External links
3369:
3367:
3366:
3352:
3338:
3324:
3310:
3296:
3282:
3268:
3254:
3240:
3226:
3219:
3205:
3191:
3173:
3171:978-0299337704
3159:
3152:
3134:
3120:
3106:
3092:
3078:
3064:
3050:
3036:
3025:
3010:
2988:
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2765:
2762:
2760:
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2750:
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2731:
2722:
2713:
2704:
2692:The Henry Ford
2668:The Henry Ford
2654:
2642:
2633:
2624:
2615:
2606:
2597:
2588:
2579:
2551:
2513:
2479:
2470:
2461:
2452:
2443:
2434:
2425:
2421:Guida practica
2413:
2404:
2376:
2350:
2341:
2323:
2301:
2292:
2283:
2274:
2265:
2253:
2240:MeasuringWorth
2226:
2216:
2206:
2197:
2188:
2179:
2170:
2161:
2152:
2143:
2134:
2111:
2101:
2062:
2053:
2044:
1971:
1962:
1953:
1944:
1935:
1926:
1917:
1863:
1851:The Henry Ford
1832:The Henry Ford
1818:
1804:
1795:
1783:
1774:
1765:
1756:
1747:
1737:
1727:
1714:The Henry Ford
1687:
1678:
1664:
1655:
1604:
1591:The Henry Ford
1574:The Henry Ford
1561:
1543:
1533:
1524:
1512:The Henry Ford
1495:The Henry Ford
1478:The Henry Ford
1461:The Henry Ford
1452:The Henry Ford
1442:
1432:
1423:
1414:
1379:
1352:
1343:
1334:
1300:The Henry Ford
1282:The Henry Ford
1269:
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1203:
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961:
959:
956:
949:
947:
944:
937:
935:
928:
921:
917:
914:
887:Edison Studios
804:
801:
774:Douglas Gomery
726:
723:
714:Robert W. Paul
591:amusement park
548:Highland Dance
416:
413:
400:The Henry Ford
360:Charles Musser
315:cinematography
270:George Eastman
119:
116:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5491:
5480:
5477:
5475:
5474:Thomas Edison
5472:
5470:
5467:
5465:
5462:
5460:
5457:
5455:
5452:
5450:
5447:
5445:
5442:
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5424:
5421:
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5414:
5411:
5409:
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5401:
5399:
5398:Edison Museum
5396:
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5389:
5386:
5384:
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5380:
5378:
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5119:
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5028:
5026:
5023:
5021:
5018:
5016:
5013:
5011:
5008:
5007:
5005:
5001:
4995:
4992:
4990:
4987:
4985:
4982:
4980:
4977:
4975:
4972:
4970:
4969:Etheric force
4967:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4957:
4955:
4952:
4950:
4947:
4946:
4944:
4938:
4934:
4933:Thomas Edison
4927:
4922:
4920:
4915:
4913:
4908:
4907:
4904:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4883:
4879:
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4778:
4776:
4773:
4772:
4771:
4768:
4766:
4763:
4761:
4758:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4748:Bouncing ball
4746:
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4740:
4738:
4734:
4728:
4725:
4723:
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4618:
4615:
4613:
4610:
4608:
4605:
4603:
4600:
4598:
4595:
4593:
4592:Hydrotechnics
4590:
4588:
4585:
4583:
4582:Drawn-on-film
4580:
4578:
4575:
4571:
4568:
4566:
4563:
4561:
4558:
4556:
4553:
4552:
4551:
4548:
4546:
4543:
4542:
4540:
4538:Other methods
4536:
4530:
4527:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4512:
4510:
4509:Magic Lantern
4507:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4497:
4495:
4492:
4490:
4487:
4483:
4480:
4478:
4475:
4474:
4473:
4470:
4469:
4467:
4465:
4461:
4455:
4452:
4448:
4445:
4443:
4442:Virtual human
4440:
4438:
4435:
4433:
4430:
4429:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4420:
4419:
4417:
4415:
4411:
4401:
4398:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4388:
4386:
4383:
4381:
4378:
4374:
4371:
4369:
4368:hand tracking
4366:
4364:
4361:
4360:
4359:
4356:
4354:
4351:
4349:
4346:
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4341:
4339:
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4288:
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4259:
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4232:
4229:
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4220:
4217:
4216:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4207:
4204:
4200:
4197:
4193:
4189:
4188:clay painting
4186:
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4184:
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4180:
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4176:
4172:
4166:
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4158:
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4129:
4126:
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4114:
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4064:
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4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4028:
4026:
4025:
4023:
4019:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4005:
4002:
3998:
3995:
3991:
3988:
3986:
3985:international
3983:
3982:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3959:
3956:
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3932:
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3921:
3917:
3905:
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3900:
3897:
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3892:
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3872:
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3864:
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3859:
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3854:
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3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3808:
3806:
3804:
3800:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3788:United States
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3695:
3692:
3689:
3685:
3680:
3673:
3668:
3666:
3661:
3659:
3654:
3653:
3650:
3638:
3637:Zoopraxiscope
3635:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3618:
3615:
3613:
3610:
3608:
3605:
3603:
3600:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3585:
3583:
3580:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3567:Magic lantern
3565:
3563:
3560:
3558:
3557:Kinematoscope
3555:
3553:
3550:
3548:
3545:
3543:
3540:
3538:
3535:
3533:
3530:
3528:
3525:
3523:
3520:
3518:
3515:
3513:
3510:
3509:
3506:
3502:
3495:
3490:
3488:
3483:
3481:
3476:
3475:
3472:
3465:
3463:
3459:
3456:
3454:
3450:
3446:
3442:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3423:
3419:
3415:
3412:
3411:
3407:
3402:
3399:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3378:
3375:
3374:
3370:
3365:
3364:90-5356-303-2
3361:
3357:
3353:
3351:
3350:0-8147-8813-0
3347:
3343:
3339:
3337:
3336:1-4000-4763-3
3333:
3329:
3325:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3309:
3308:1-86462-054-4
3305:
3301:
3297:
3295:
3294:0-520-22168-0
3291:
3287:
3283:
3281:
3280:0-9509066-0-3
3277:
3273:
3269:
3267:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3253:
3252:0-7914-3767-1
3249:
3245:
3241:
3239:
3238:0-231-10338-7
3235:
3231:
3227:
3224:
3220:
3218:
3217:0-8230-7943-0
3214:
3210:
3206:
3204:
3203:0-8065-2592-4
3200:
3196:
3192:
3190:
3189:0-671-62404-0
3186:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3157:
3153:
3151:
3150:0-631-22591-9
3147:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3133:
3132:0-520-08533-7
3129:
3125:
3121:
3119:
3118:0-520-06986-2
3115:
3111:
3107:
3105:
3104:0-486-43386-2
3101:
3097:
3093:
3091:
3090:0-8018-3306-X
3087:
3083:
3079:
3077:
3076:88-86155-05-0
3073:
3069:
3065:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3049:
3048:0-8135-2565-9
3045:
3041:
3037:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3009:
3008:0-405-03919-0
3005:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2987:
2986:0-252-06366-X
2983:
2979:
2975:
2972:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2962:0-85229-151-5
2959:
2955:
2951:
2949:
2948:0-415-25283-0
2945:
2941:
2937:
2935:
2934:0-405-09890-1
2931:
2927:
2923:
2921:
2920:0-415-96900-X
2917:
2913:
2909:
2907:
2906:0-415-31984-6
2903:
2899:
2895:
2892:
2888:
2885:
2881:
2879:
2878:0-415-21152-2
2875:
2871:
2867:
2865:
2864:0-231-12724-3
2861:
2857:
2853:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2837:
2836:0-85296-914-7
2833:
2829:
2825:
2823:
2822:0-226-07173-1
2819:
2815:
2811:
2809:
2808:0-226-03571-9
2805:
2801:
2797:
2795:
2794:0-486-23990-X
2791:
2787:
2783:
2781:
2780:0-231-11662-4
2777:
2773:
2769:
2768:
2763:
2754:
2751:
2745:
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2735:
2732:
2726:
2723:
2717:
2714:
2708:
2705:
2693:
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2673:
2669:
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2658:
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2649:
2647:
2643:
2637:
2634:
2628:
2625:
2619:
2616:
2610:
2607:
2601:
2598:
2592:
2589:
2583:
2580:
2568:. No. 56
2567:
2563:
2555:
2552:
2548:
2543:
2529:
2525:
2517:
2514:
2501:
2497:
2490:
2483:
2480:
2474:
2471:
2465:
2462:
2456:
2453:
2447:
2444:
2438:
2435:
2429:
2426:
2422:
2417:
2414:
2408:
2405:
2392:
2391:FilmSound.org
2388:
2380:
2377:
2364:
2360:
2354:
2351:
2345:
2342:
2335:
2327:
2324:
2311:
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2296:
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2260:
2258:
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2237:
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2227:
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2210:
2207:
2201:
2198:
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2189:
2183:
2180:
2174:
2171:
2165:
2162:
2156:
2153:
2147:
2144:
2138:
2135:
2122:
2115:
2112:
2105:
2102:
2089:
2073:
2066:
2063:
2057:
2054:
2048:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2026:
2024:
2023:
2017:
2016:
2010:
2005:
2003:
1995:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1975:
1972:
1966:
1963:
1957:
1954:
1948:
1945:
1939:
1936:
1930:
1927:
1921:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1897:
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1234:
1231:
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1125:
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1116:
1113:
1106:
1103:
1096:
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1087:
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1071:
1067:
1061:
1058:
1052:
1049:
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1033:
1030:
1024:
1020:
1017:
1015:
1012:
1010:
1007:
1006:
1002:
991:
986:
977:
972:
965:
960:
953:
948:
941:
936:
932:
925:
920:
915:
913:
911:
910:sound masters
907:
901:
899:
898:
891:
888:
882:
880:
876:
872:
867:
863:
859:
855:
846:
842:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
815:
814:Eugene Lauste
811:
802:
800:
795:
790:
786:
784:
779:
775:
769:
767:
762:
758:
750:
731:
724:
722:
720:
715:
711:
710:
705:
704:
697:
694:
690:
686:
682:
673:
669:
667:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
641:
639:
616:
613:
609:
608:prizefighting
605:
599:
596:
592:
588:
579:
575:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
552:Horse Shoeing
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
523:
521:
516:
515:
510:
509:
503:
499:
491:
490:
471:
469:
468:
463:
462:
457:
453:
449:
445:
444:
439:
435:
426:
421:
414:
412:
409:
403:
401:
396:
395:Herman Casler
391:
389:
385:
381:
377:
371:
369:
365:
361:
357:
356:
349:
344:
342:
341:
331:
327:
322:
318:
316:
312:
308:
304:
303:William Heise
298:
296:
292:
283:
278:
273:
271:
265:
262:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
225:
220:
216:
214:
213:
207:
203:
198:
191:
186:
182:
181:("to view").
180:
179:
174:
173:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
150:zoopraxiscope
147:
143:
142:Thomas Edison
139:
131:
130:
124:
117:
115:
113:
109:
106:
102:
98:
92:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
73:Thomas Edison
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
41:
37:
33:
19:
5408:Edison Hotel
5342:
5334:
5328:Frankenstein
5326:
5318:
5310:
5291:
5283:
5275:
5256:
5248:
5233:
5225:
5157:Depot Museum
5030:Movie camera
5003:Advancements
4973:
4964:Edison screw
4849:anime series
4807:Motion comic
4676:visual music
4622:Pose to pose
4597:Inbetweening
4577:Chuckimation
4519:Shadowmation
4472:Animatronics
4373:eye tracking
4353:Morph target
4305:Multi-sketch
4056:Short series
3970:Art pipeline
3948:Story artist
3894:World War II
3763:South Africa
3597:Praxinoscope
3561:
3517:Anorthoscope
3461:
3452:
3448:
3438:
3434:
3425:
3421:
3389:
3380:
3355:
3341:
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2691:
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2672:the original
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2499:
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2304:
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2245:November 10,
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1850:
1837:November 22,
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1831:
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1713:
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1517:November 22,
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1511:
1500:November 21,
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1483:November 21,
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1466:November 22,
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1460:
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1402:November 22,
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1365:
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1305:November 21,
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1299:
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1281:
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1168:November 22,
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1162:
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1069:
1060:
1051:
1042:
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902:
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892:
883:
862:Thomas Armat
851:
831:Skladanowsky
827:Young Griffo
806:
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792:
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782:
777:
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760:
754:
749:Walter Murch
707:
701:
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684:
680:
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600:
595:Coney Island
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571:
567:
560:Eugen Sandow
555:
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543:
539:
535:
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527:
524:
512:
506:
495:
487:
465:
459:
447:
441:
431:
415:Going public
408:Geneva drive
404:
392:
383:
372:
368:stereoscopic
363:
353:
351:
346:
339:
335:
325:
299:
294:
288:
275:
266:
229:
210:
193:
188:
183:
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170:
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129:Monkeyshines
127:
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100:
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5304:Productions
5152:Black Maria
5045:Ticker tape
5020:Fluoroscopy
4974:Kinetoscope
4940:Discoveries
4775:model sheet
4632:Rubber hose
4555:model sheet
4333:Cel shading
4175:Stop motion
4160:Rotoscoping
4132:Traditional
4061:Stop-motion
4007:Outsourcing
3768:South Korea
3748:Philippines
3743:North Korea
3617:Thaumatrope
3612:Stereoscope
3607:Shadow play
3562:Kinetoscope
3527:Chromatrope
3512:Alethoscope
3426:Blacksmiths
2678:October 22,
2396:October 22,
2316:October 23,
1643:November 6,
1625:November 6,
1372:November 6,
1001:Film portal
854:Phantoscope
819:Eidoloscope
725:Kinetophone
685:Barber Shop
666:Boxing Cats
653:Asbury Park
540:Blacksmiths
528:Barber Shop
456:Black Maria
448:Blacksmiths
425:Black Maria
348:perfect....
158:West Orange
118:Development
101:Kinetophone
87:with rapid
81:Kinetograph
49:Kinetoscope
18:Kinetograph
5438:Categories
5269:Literature
5172:State Park
5147:Birthplace
4984:Phonomotor
4979:Phonograph
4780:walk cycle
4647:Syncro-Vox
4560:walk cycle
4464:Mechanical
4390:Procedural
4290:PowerPoint
4243:Puppetoons
4238:Pixilation
4203:silhouette
4192:strata-cut
4183:Claymation
4124:Techniques
4113:Television
3884:Silent Era
3816:Bangladesh
3811:Azerbaijan
3698:Bangladesh
3687:By country
3632:Zograscope
3602:Raree show
3455:, 1894/95)
3444:collection
3379:; part of
3209:Film Facts
2542:sound film
2039:Carmencita
2022:Carmencita
1653:, p. 126.)
783:Carmencita
757:sound-film
719:Birt Acres
693:film stock
649:Carmencita
645:censorship
593:opened in
587:vaudeville
311:escapement
277:invention.
162:phonograph
108:phonograph
5362:Edisonade
5344:Kidnapped
5140:Monuments
4994:Tasimeter
4790:off-model
4760:Key frame
4617:Pixel art
4612:Pinscreen
4570:off-model
4514:Scanimate
4432:Machinima
4231:Brickfilm
4219:go motion
4145:Flip book
3679:Animation
3582:Peep show
3577:Mutoscope
3547:Flip book
3537:Cosmorama
1110:Albanese.
866:Vitascope
839:Mutoscope
835:flip-book
810:Woodville
657:Methodist
572:Wrestling
498:copyright
384:Phonogram
338:New York
248:sprockets
206:celluloid
197:collodion
32:Kinescope
5320:The Kiss
5245:" (1998)
5054:Ventures
4876:Category
4785:lip sync
4665:Variants
4652:Zoetrope
4602:Morphing
4565:lip sync
4545:Blocking
4437:Aniforms
4414:Puppetry
4395:Skeletal
4262:timeline
4253:Computer
4108:Internet
3990:regional
3926:Animator
3919:Industry
3783:Thailand
3753:Portugal
3733:Malaysia
3627:Zoetrope
3386:Machines
987:See also
544:Roosters
514:Harper's
105:cylinder
57:peephole
5376:Related
4891:Outline
4258:history
4209:Graphic
4155:Masking
4046:Package
3871:Ukraine
3841:Hungary
3803:History
3793:Vietnam
3758:Romania
3718:Estonia
3713:Czechia
3428:, 1893)
2764:Sources
916:Gallery
837:-based
568:Trapeze
461:Science
428:films."
172:kineto-
97:patents
5347:(1917)
5339:(1911)
5331:(1910)
5323:(1896)
5315:(1895)
5296:(2004)
5288:(1898)
5280:(1886)
5261:(2020)
5253:(2017)
5238:(1940)
5230:(1940)
5196:Family
4886:Portal
4447:Live2D
4363:facial
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4226:Object
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4078:Series
4027:Films
3866:Russia
3836:France
3826:Canada
3821:Brazil
3778:Taiwan
3738:Mexico
3703:Bhutan
3681:topics
3464:(1895)
3439:Sandow
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1553:online
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612:Sandow
570:, and
556:Sandow
244:camera
178:scopos
51:is an
5355:Terms
5258:Tesla
5219:Films
5211:(son)
5205:(son)
4702:Anime
4343:Crowd
4285:Flash
4214:Model
4103:Flash
4051:Short
4021:Works
3861:Korea
3856:Japan
3846:India
3831:China
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3728:Japan
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3417:time)
1541:128).
1025:Notes
906:image
380:35 mm
376:gauge
307:motor
293:, in
65:video
4642:Sand
4280:2.5D
3958:List
3931:List
3851:Iran
3360:ISBN
3346:ISBN
3332:ISBN
3318:ISBN
3304:ISBN
3290:ISBN
3276:ISBN
3262:ISBN
3248:ISBN
3234:ISBN
3213:ISBN
3199:ISBN
3185:ISBN
3167:ISBN
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3114:ISBN
3100:ISBN
3086:ISBN
3072:ISBN
3058:ISBN
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2874:ISBN
2860:ISBN
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2832:ISBN
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2804:ISBN
2790:ISBN
2776:ISBN
2699:2022
2680:2006
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2535:2022
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2247:2022
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2080:2022
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1985:mean
1981:mode
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1885:2022
1858:2022
1839:2022
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