2879:, whose rough treatment (including resettlement and forced assimilation) at the hands of the central government made them willing recruits for a guerrilla struggle. In 1965 Pol Pot made a visit of several months duration to North Vietnam and China. He probably received some training in China, which must have enhanced his prestige when he returned to the WPK's liberated areas. Despite friendly relations between Sihanouk and the Chinese, the latter kept Pol Pot's visit a secret from Sihanouk. In September 1966, the party changed its name in secret to the Kampuchean (or Khmer) Communist Party (KCP). The change in the name of the party was a closely guarded secret. Lower ranking members of the party and even the Vietnamese were not told of it and neither was the membership until many years later.
1015:
2488:
2826:. The paper soon acquired a reputation in Phnom Penh's small academic circle. The following year, the government closed the paper, and Sihanouk's police publicly humiliated Khieu by beating, undressing and photographing him in public—as Shawcross notes, "not the sort of humiliation that men forgive or forget." Yet the experience did not prevent Khieu from advocating cooperation with Sihanouk in order to promote a united front against United States activities in South Vietnam. As mentioned, Khieu Samphan, Hou Yuon, and Hu Nim were forced to "work through the system" by joining the Sangkum and by accepting posts in the prince's government.
427:
316:
2375:. The processing of equipment deliveries and the training of Cambodian personnel had forged close ties between United States military advisers and their Cambodian counterparts. Military officers of both nations also shared apprehensions about the spread of communism in Southeast Asia. Sihanouk considered FARK to be Washington's most powerful constituency in his country. The prince also feared that a number of high-ranking, rightist FARK officers led by Lon Nol were becoming too powerful and that, by association with these officers, United States influence in Cambodia was becoming too deeply rooted.
2437:
1001:
2037:
1506:
2341:
mind, Sihanouk turned to the United States in 1955 and negotiated a military aid agreement that secured funds and equipment for the Royal Khmer Armed Forces (Forces Armées
Royales Khmères—FARK). A United States Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) was established in Phnom Penh to supervise the delivery and the use of equipment that began to arrive from the United States. By the early 1960s, aid from Washington constituted 30% of Cambodia's defense budget and 14% of total budget inflows (
1040:
2349:
1134:
2299:
2723:) in France. Khieu Samphan, considered "one of the most brilliant intellects of his generation", was born in 1931 and specialized in economics and politics during his time in Paris. In talent he was rivaled by Hou Yuon, born in 1930, who was described as being "of truly astounding physical and intellectual strength", and who studied economics and law. Son Sen, born in 1930, studied education and literature; Hu Nim, born in 1932, studied law.
2013:, insisted that, if Cambodia were to be genuinely independent, it must not be prohibited from seeking whatever military assistance it desired (Cambodia had earlier appealed to the U.S. for military aid). The conference accepted this point over North Vietnam's strenuous objections. In the final agreement, Cambodia accepted a watered-down neutrality, vowing not to join any military alliance "not in conformity with the principles of the
3551:
2872:(Ratanakiri) Province in the northeast. Pol Pot had shortly before been put on a list of thirty four leftists who were summoned by Sihanouk to join the government and sign statements saying Sihanouk was the only possible leader for the country. Pol Pot and Chou Chet were the only people on the list who escaped. All the others agreed to cooperate with the government and were afterward under 24 hour surveillance by the police.
302:
1329:
1910:
1054:
2666:), emerged. In very general terms, these groups espoused divergent revolutionary lines. The prevalent "urban" line, endorsed by North Vietnam, recognized that Sihanouk, by virtue of his success in winning independence from the French, was a genuine national leader whose neutralism and deep distrust of the United States made him a valuable asset in Hanoi's struggle to "liberate" South Vietnam.
2480:
military supplies from China and the Soviet Union to the
Vietnamese. In exchange for these concessions, large amounts of money passed into the hands of the Cambodian elite. In particular, deals were made where China would purchase rice at inflated prices from the Cambodian government. While Sihanouk talked neutrality in public, he had effectively pushed Cambodia directly into the Vietnam War.
84:
2581:
movement's development. In the three decades between the end of World War II and the Khmer Rouge victory, the appeal of communism to
Western educated intellectuals (and to a lesser extent its more inchoate attraction for poor peasants) was tempered by the apprehension that the much stronger Vietnamese movement was using communism as an ideological rationale for dominating the Khmer.
43:
2817:(Kompong Cham). After the end of the war, he moved to Phnom Penh under Tou Samouth's "urban committee" where he became an important point of contact between above-ground parties of the left and the underground secret communist movement. His comrades, Ieng Sary and Hou Yuon, became teachers at a new private high school, the Lycée Kambuboth, which Hou Yuon helped to establish.
2777:(KSA), to which most of the 200 or so Khmer students in Paris belonged, into an organization for nationalist and leftist ideas. Inside the KSA and its successor organizations was a secret organization known as the Cercle Marxiste. The organization was composed of cells of three to six members with most members knowing nothing about the overall structure of the organization.
186:
2674:" Sihanouk. In 1959 Sieu Heng defected to the government and provided the security forces with information that enabled them to destroy as much as 90% of the party's rural apparatus. Although communist networks in Phnom Penh and in other towns under Tou Samouth's jurisdiction fared better, only a few hundred communists remained active in the country by 1960.
2690:, north of Phnom Penh. He attended a technical high school in the capital and then went to Paris in 1949 to study radio electronics (other sources say he attended a school for printers and typesetters and also studied civil engineering). Described by one source as a "determined, rather plodding organizer", he failed to obtain a degree, but, according to the
2322:. Both assured him that their countries would respect Cambodia's independence and territorial integrity. His experience with the French, first as a client, then as the self-proclaimed leader of the "royal crusade for independence", apparently led him to conclude that the United States, like France, would eventually be forced to leave Southeast Asia.
3360:
2592:, was persuasive. Thus, the new brand of indigenous communism that emerged after 1960 combined nationalist and revolutionary appeals and, when it could afford to, exploited the virulent anti-Vietnamese sentiments of the Khmers. Khmer Rouge literature in the 1970s frequently referred to the Vietnamese as yuon (barbarian), a term dating from the
2468:
North
Vietnam and to negotiate a border settlement directly with Hanoi. These plans were not implemented quickly, however, because the North Vietnamese told the prince that any problem concerning Cambodia's border with South Vietnam would have to be negotiated directly with the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NFLSVN).
2643:
armed men. Following the conference, about 1,000 members of the KPRP, including Son Ngoc Minh, made a "Long March" into North
Vietnam, where they remained in exile. In late 1954, those who stayed in Cambodia founded a legal political party, the Pracheachon Party, which participated in the 1955 and the 1958 National Assembly elections.
2841:(also known as Long Reth), became deputy general secretary. However, Pol Pot and Ieng Sary were named to the Political Bureau to occupy the third and the fifth highest positions in the renamed party's hierarchy. The name change is significant. By calling itself a workers' party, the Cambodian movement claimed equal status with the
2508:, the logistical resupply route of the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong. The use by these forces of sanctuaries in Cambodia put Cambodian neutrality in jeopardy. China, preoccupied with its Cultural Revolution, did not intercede with Hanoi. On Cambodia's eastern border, even in the face of the communist
2646:
In the
September 1955 election, it won about 4% of the vote but did not secure a seat in the legislature. Members of the Pracheachon were subject to constant harassment and to arrests because the party remained outside Sihanouk's Sangkum. Government attacks prevented it from participating in the 1962
2325:
From this perspective, the
Western presence in Indochina was only a temporary interruption of the dynamics of the region—continued Vietnamese (and perhaps even Thai) expansion at Cambodia's expense. Accommodation with North Vietnam and friendly ties with China during the late 1950s and the 1960s were
2242:
Out of concern that the right wing might cause an irreparable split within the
Sangkum and might challenge his domination of the political system, Sihanouk set up a "counter government" (like the British "shadow cabinet") packed with his most loyal personal followers and with leading leftists, hoping
2201:
Sihanouk's attitude toward the left was often cynical. He realized that his own political position was dependent on carefully balancing off the left in
Cambodia against the right. If one side ever defeated the other, the next step of either party would be to end Sihanouk's role in ruling the country.
2115:
In August 1957, Sihanouk summoned the leaders of the
Democratic Party to what he called a "debate" at the Royal Palace. They were subjected to five hours of public humiliation. After the event was over, the participants were dragged from their cars and beaten with rifle butts by Sihanouk's police and
2001:
On July 21, 1954, the conference reached an agreement calling for a cessation of hostilities in Indochina. With respect to Cambodia, the agreement stipulated that all Viet Minh military forces be withdrawn within ninety days and that Cambodian resistance forces be demobilized within thirty days. In a
2829:
In late September, 1960, twenty-one leaders of the KPRP held a secret congress in a vacant room of the Phnom Penh railroad station. This pivotal event remains shrouded in mystery because its outcome has become an object of contention (and considerable historical rewriting) between pro-Vietnamese and
2780:
In 1952 Pol Pot, Hou Yuon, Ieng Sary, and other leftists gained notoriety by sending an open letter to Sihanouk calling him the "strangler of infant democracy." A year later, the French authorities closed down the KSA. In 1956, however, Hou Yuon and Khieu Samphan helped to establish a new group, the
2580:
Much of the movement's history has been shrouded in mystery, largely because successive purges, especially during the Democratic Kampuchea period, have left so few survivors to recount their experiences. One thing is evident, however, the tension between Khmer and Vietnamese was a major theme in the
2519:
As the government in Phnom Penh began to feel keenly the loss of economic and military aid from the United States, which had totaled about US$ 400 million between 1955 and 1963, it began to have second thoughts about the break with Washington. The unavailability of American equipment and spare parts
2467:
To observers in Phnom Penh, South Vietnam's short-term viability was seriously in doubt, and this compelled a new tack in Cambodian foreign policy. First, Cambodia severed diplomatic ties with Saigon in August 1963. The following March, Sihanouk announced plans to establish diplomatic relations with
2193:
In March 1963, Sihanouk published a list of 34 leftists. After denouncing them as cowards, hypocrites, saboteurs, subversive agents and traitors, he demanded that they form a government for the country. Shortly after, they were brought into the presence of Sihanouk and each signed a statement saying
2151:
was shot to death outside his office by state security police. In 1960, some 2,000 people were detained for political reasons in a holding camp outside the capital. State Security cases were handled by a military tribunal from which there was no appeal. The tribunal handed down over 39 death decrees
2092:
have been attributed to fraud and intimidation. Voters were intimidated by a voting system involving colored pieces of paper that had to be put into a box in full view of Sihanouk's political figures, soldiers and local police. In many cases, voting results were simply falsified as in the case where
2550:
On a diplomatic level, however, the Menu airstrikes did not impede bilateral relations from moving forward. In April 1969, Nixon sent a note to the prince affirming that the United States recognized and respected "the sovereignty, neutrality and territorial integrity of the Kingdom of Cambodia with
2483:
After making friends with North Vietnam and China, Sihanouk turned politically to the right and unleashed a wave of repression throughout the country. The repression drove most of the political left in the country underground. While Sihanouk's deal with China and Vietnam in the short term kept both
2329:
Cambodia's relations with China were based on mutual interests. Sihanouk hoped that China would restrain the Vietnamese and the Thai from acting to Cambodia's detriment. The Chinese, in turn, viewed Cambodia's nonalignment as vital in order to prevent the encirclement of their country by the United
2161:
was beaten in the street, stripped naked and photographed by members of the security police a few hundred yards from the Central Police Station. The editor reported the attack to the police. When the National Assembly summoned the minister responsible to explain the incident, he said it was the job
2615:
Viet Minh units occasionally made forays into Cambodian bases during their war against the French, and, in conjunction with the leftist government that ruled Thailand until 1947, the Viet Minh encouraged the formation of armed, left-wing Khmer Issarak bands. On April 17, 1950 (twenty-five years to
2428:
in Thailand and in South Vietnam, and he announced the immediate termination of Washington's aid program to Cambodia. Relations continued to deteriorate, and the final break came in May 1965 amid increasing indications of airspace violations by South Vietnamese and by United States aircraft and of
2218:
The declared purposes of nationalization were to give Khmer nationals, rather than Chinese or Vietnamese, a greater role in the nation's trade, to eliminate middlemen and to conserve foreign exchange through the limiting of unnecessary luxury imports. As a result of this policy, foreign investment
2119:
Around the same time, the Pracheachon party put up five candidates for election. Sihanouk travelled in person to each district and the government mounted a full campaign against the party. The national radio service accused the party of being Vietnamese puppets. Posters showing supposed atrocities
2642:
According to Democratic Kampuchea's version of party history, the Viet Minh's failure to negotiate a political role for the KPRP at the 1954 Geneva Conference represented a betrayal of the Cambodian movement, which still controlled large areas of the countryside and which commanded at least 5,000
2611:
during the late 1920s. The name was changed almost immediately to the ICP, ostensibly to include revolutionaries from Cambodia and Laos. Almost without exception, however, all the earliest party members were Vietnamese. By the end of World War II, a handful of Cambodians had joined its ranks, but
2340:
China was not the only large power to which Sihanouk looked for patronage. Cambodia's quest for security and nation-building assistance impelled the prince to search beyond Asia and to accept help from all donors as long as there was no impingement upon his country's sovereignty. With this end in
2205:
Sihanouk's chronic suspicion of United States intentions in the region, his perception of revolutionary China as Cambodia's most valuable ally, his respect for such prominent and capable leftists as Hou, Hu, and Khieu, and his vague notions of "royal socialism" all impelled him to experiment with
2682:
During the 1950s, Khmer students in Paris organized their own communist movement, which had little, if any, connection to the hard-pressed party in their homeland. From their ranks came the men and women who returned home and took command of the party apparatus during the 1960s, led an effective
2387:
A third development was Sihanouk's own belief that he had been targeted by United States intelligence agencies for replacement by a more pro-Western leader. Evidence to support this suspicion came to light in 1959 when the government discovered a plot to overthrow Sihanouk. The conspiracy, often
2234:
Sihanouk was headed steadily for a collision with the right. To counter charges of one-man rule, the prince declared that he would relinquish control of candidate selection and would permit more than one Sangkum candidate to run for each seat in the September 1966 National Assembly election. The
1962:
activities increased at the very time French Union forces were stretched thin elsewhere. In April 1954, several Viet Minh battalions crossed the border into Cambodia. Royalist forces engaged them but could not force their complete withdrawal. In part, the communists were attempting to strengthen
2734:
in 1965. In retrospect, it seems enigmatic that these talented members of the elite, sent to France on government scholarships, could launch the bloodiest and most radical revolution in modern Asian history. Most came from landowner or civil servant families. Pol Pot and Hou Yuon may have been
2479:
In 1965, Sihanouk negotiated a deal with China and North Vietnam. Whereas before Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces had temporarily moved into Cambodian territory, the deal allowed them to build permanent military facilities on Cambodian soil. Cambodia also opened its ports to shipments of
2669:
Champions of this line hoped that the prince could be persuaded to distance himself from the right wing and to adopt leftist policies. The other line, supported for the most part by rural cadres who were familiar with the harsh realities of the countryside, advocated an immediate struggle to
2471:
Cambodia opened border talks with the front in mid-1966, and the latter recognized the inviolability of Cambodia's borders a year later. North Vietnam quickly followed suit. Cambodia was the first foreign government to recognize the NFLSVN's Provisional Revolutionary Government after it was
2451:
In the meantime, Cambodia's relations with North Vietnam and with South Vietnam, as well as the rupture with Washington, reflected Sihanouk's efforts to adjust to geopolitical realities in Southeast Asia and to keep his country out of the escalating war in neighboring South Vietnam. In the
2772:
Meeting with Khmers who were fighting with the Viet Minh (and whom they subsequently judged to be too subservient to the Vietnamese), they became convinced that only a tightly disciplined party organization and a readiness for armed struggle could achieve revolution. They transformed the
2547:. But in retrospect, Sihanouk allowing US bombing as a counter-weight to his previous decision to allow the Vietnamese to establish base areas seems consistent with his policy strategy in that US was the only force he could use as a counter-weight to the Vietnamese presence in Cambodia.
2127:
Despite its defense of the status quo, especially the interests of rural elites, the Sangkum was not exclusively a right-wing organization. Sihanouk invited a number of leftists into his party and government to provide a balance to the right-wing. Among these were future leaders of the
2123:
As the 1960s began, organized political opposition to Sihanouk and the Sangkum virtually had been largely driven underground. According to Vickery, the Democratic Party disbanded in 1957 after its leaders—who had been beaten by soldiers—requested the privilege of joining the Sangkum.
2495:
In the late 1960s, while preserving relations with China and with North Vietnam, Sihanouk sought to restore a measure of equilibrium by improving Cambodia's ties with the West. This shift in course by the prince represented another adjustment to prevailing conditions in Asia. The
2788:
The doctoral dissertations written by Hou Yuon and Khieu Samphan express basic themes that were later to become the cornerstones of the policy adopted by Democratic Kampuchea. The central role of the peasants in national development was espoused by Hou Yuon in his 1955 thesis,
2120:
were hung in the districts. Eventually four candidates were intimidated into dropping out of the election. The only one who stayed in was credited by government officials with 396 votes out of an electorate of 30,000 in an area where Pracheachon was known to have deep support.
2527:
In late 1967 and in early 1968, Sihanouk signaled that he would raise no objection to hot pursuit of communist forces by South Vietnamese or by United States troops into Cambodian territory. Washington, in the meantime, accepted the recommendation of the United States
410:
2073:
elements that were virulently anticommunist. The Sangkum's emergence in early 1955 unified most right-wing groups under the prince's auspices. In the September election, Sihanouk's new party decisively defeated the Democrats, the Khmer Independence Party of
416:
413:
411:
408:
2330:
States and its allies. When Premier Zhou Enlai visited Phnom Penh in 1956, he asked the country's Chinese minority, numbering about 300,000, to cooperate in Cambodia's development, to stay out of politics, and to consider adopting Cambodian citizenship.
2197:
The results of 1962 and 1963 were to drive the underground leftist movement out of the cities and into the countryside. Even underground politics or proxy actions through above-ground parties against the government had effectively ceased to be possible.
407:
406:
415:
409:
2363:
Relations with the United States proved to be stormy. United States officials both in Washington and in Phnom Penh frequently underestimated the prince and considered him to be an erratic figure with minimal understanding of the threat posed by Asian
414:
412:
2185:
was grabbed by the security police while seeking medicine for his child in a street market. He was held in secret and tortured for several days. He was eventually murdered, and his body was dumped into a wasteland in the Stung Meancheay district of
2024:(officially called the International Commission for Supervision and Control) in all the Indochinese countries. Made up of representatives from Canada, India and Poland, it supervised the cease-fire, the withdrawal of foreign troops, the release of
2383:
insurgents who crossed into Cambodian territory when military pressure upon them became too sustained. As the early 1960s wore on, this increasingly sensitive issue contributed to the deterioration of relations between Phnom Penh and Washington.
2423:
These developments, magnified by Sihanouk's abiding suspicions, eventually undermined Phnom Penh's relations with Washington. In November 1963, the prince charged that the United States was continuing to support the subversive activities of the
2830:
anti-Vietnamese Khmer communist factions. The question of cooperation with, or resistance to, Sihanouk was thoroughly discussed. Tou Samouth, who advocated a policy of cooperation, was elected general secretary of the KPRP that was renamed the
2047:
The Geneva agreement also stipulated that general elections should be held in Cambodia during 1955 and that the International Control Commission should monitor them to ensure fairness. Sihanouk was more determined than ever to defeat the
2194:
that he was the only man capable of leading the country. After the incident, police officers were posted outside the residences and places of employment of each of the named men. They were essentially under permanent police observation.
2177:
and two other papers were closed by the government, 50 people were detained indefinitely for questioning and the political director of Sihanouk's own newspaper was fired for an editorial objecting to heavy-handed political intimidation.
2635:, and the KPRP. According to a document issued after the reorganization, the Vietnam Workers' Party would continue to "supervise" the smaller Laotian and Cambodian movements. Most KPRP leaders and rank-and-file seem to have been either
1431:
but faced local resistance against their rule, particularly from Communist guerilla forces. On 9 November 1953, it achieved independence from France under Norodom Sihanouk but still faced resistance from Communist groups such as
2571:
after 1976) and other future Khmer Rouge leaders gained control of its apparatus; the revolutionary struggle from the initiation of the Khmer Rouge insurgency in 1967–68 to the fall of the Lon Nol government in April 1975; the
2852:
On July 20, 1962, Tou Samouth was murdered by the Cambodian government. In February 1963, at the WPK's second congress, Pol Pot was chosen to succeed Tou Samouth as the party's general secretary. Tou's allies, Nuon Chea and
2052:(who, on the basis of their past record, were expected to win the election). The king attempted unsuccessfully to have the constitution amended. On March 2, 1955, he announced his abdication in favor of his father,
2214:
of banking, foreign trade, and insurance as a means of reducing foreign control of the economy. In 1964 a state trading company, the National Export-Import Corporation, was established to handle foreign commerce.
3120:
In 1960 Sihanouk's father, King Suramarit, died. After a series of maneuvers, Sihanouk had himself named Cambodia's chief of state with his mother, Queen Kossamak, continuing to serve as a monarch for ceremonial
2503:
When the Cambodian left went underground in the late 1960s, Sihanouk made concessions to the right since he did not have any force that he could play against them. Cambodia served as the southern terminus of the
2378:
A second development included the repetition of overflights by United States and South Vietnamese military aircraft within Cambodian airspace and border incursions by South Vietnamese troops in hot pursuit of
2576:
regime, from April 1975 to January 1979; and the period following the Third Party Congress of the KPRP in January 1979, when Hanoi effectively assumed control over Cambodia's government and communist party.
2563:(ICP), whose members were almost exclusively Vietnamese, before World War II; the ten-year struggle for independence from the French, when a separate Cambodian communist party, the Kampuchean (or Khmer)
2464:
and the military regimes that succeeded it had become increasingly ineffectual and unstable, while in the countryside the government forces were steadily losing ground to the Hanoi-backed insurgents.
2271:, which emerged in the months following the Geneva Conference, cannot be understood without reference to Cambodia's history of foreign subjugation and its very uncertain prospects for survival as the
2624:, the leftist Issarak groups, aided by the Viet Minh, occupied a sixth of Cambodia's territory by 1952; and, on the eve of the Geneva Conference, they controlled as much as one half of the country.
2173:
motion that had been drawn up against the minister. Sihanouk issued a statement afterward attacking the members of the National Assembly for their hostile attitude toward the police. Within days,
2797:, was that the country had to become self-reliant and had to end its economic dependency on the developed world. In its general contours, Khieu's work reflected the influence of a branch of the "
2337:. In 1960 the two countries signed a Treaty of Friendship and Nonaggression. After the Sino-Soviet rift Sihanouk's ardent friendship with China contributed to generally cooler ties with Moscow.
2235:
returns showed a surprising upsurge in the conservative vote at the expense of more moderate and left-wing elements, although Hou, Hu, and Khieu were reelected by their constituencies. General
2500:
had made the Chinese very difficult with which to carry on relations. The increasing North Vietnamese presence in Eastern Cambodia was destabilizing Cambodia politically and economically.
1998:. The discussions on Indochina began on May 8, 1954. The North Vietnamese attempted to get representation for the resistance government that had been established in the south, but failed.
2206:
socialist policies. It should also be recognized that each move toward socialism gave Sihanouk and his inner circle the ability to reward each other with lucrative political "spoils" and
2162:
of the police to protect the opponents of the government. The minister then proceeded to name members of the National Assembly who he considered to be in the same category of opponents.
2097:
points to a 1957 statement by Sihanouk admitting that thirty six electoral districts had voted Pracheachon or Democrat majority whereas the official results said that they had won none.
2279:(SEATO), which included Cambodia, Laos, and South Vietnam within the "treaty area", although none of these states was a signatory. But meetings in late 1954 with India's Prime Minister
404:
2616:
the day before the Khmer Rouge captured Phnom Penh), the first nationwide congress of the Khmer Issarak groups convened, and the United Issarak Front was established. Its leader was
4149:
1951:
Although Cambodia had achieved independence by late 1953, its military situation remained unsettled. Noncommunist factions of the Khmer Issarak had joined the government, but pro-
2005:
In exchange for the withdrawal of Viet Minh forces, the communist representatives in Geneva wanted full neutrality for Cambodia and for Laos that would prevent the basing of the
101:
56:
2753:
The intellectual ferment of Paris must have been a dizzying experience for young Khmers fresh from Phnom Penh or the provinces. A number sought refuge in the dogma of orthodox
2865:. From then on, Pol Pot and loyal comrades from his Paris student days controlled the party center, edging out older veterans whom they considered excessively pro-Vietnamese.
2275:
between North Vietnam and South Vietnam intensified. Soon after the 1954 Geneva Conference, Sihanouk expressed some interest in integrating Cambodia into the framework of the
1792:
4144:
2793:, which challenged the conventional view that urbanization and industrialization are necessary precursors of development. The major argument in Khieu Samphan's 1959 thesis,
2647:
election and drove it underground. Sihanouk habitually labeled local leftists the Khmer Rouge, a term that later came to signify the party and the state headed by Pol Pot,
2326:
tactics designed to counteract these dynamics. China accepted Sihanouk's overtures and became a valuable counterweight to growing Vietnamese and Thai pressure on Cambodia.
1367:
3535:
2813:
After returning to Cambodia in 1953, Pol Pot threw himself into party work. At first he went to join with forces allied to the Viet Minh operating in the rural areas of
1776:
2820:
Khieu Samphan returned from Paris in 1959, taught as a member of the law faculty of the University of Phnom Penh, and started a left-wing, French-language publication,
2065:
To challenge the Democrats, Prince Sihanouk established his own political machine, the Sangkum Reastr Niyum (Popular Socialist Community), commonly referred to as the
2750:(also known as Ieng Thirith), purportedly relatives of Khieu Samphan. These two well-educated women also played a central role in the regime of Democratic Kampuchea.
2243:
that it would exert a restraining influence on Lon Nol. Leftists accused the general of being groomed by Western intelligence agencies to lead a bloody anticommunist
4124:
4109:
809:
2291:
made him receptive to the appeal of nonalignment. Moreover, the prince was somewhat uneasy about a United States-dominated alliance that included one old enemy,
1938:
426:
4174:
3971:
1741:
1294:
1173:
4169:
4159:
2002:
separate agreement signed by the Cambodian representative, the French and the Viet Minh agreed to withdraw all forces from Cambodian soil by October 1954.
1302:
405:
2062:(meaning "Lord" but in this context "Prince"), Sihanouk explained that this action was necessary in order to give him a free hand to engage in politics.
1580:
2726:
These men were perhaps the most educated leaders in the history of Asian communism. Two of them, Khieu Samphan and Hou Yuon, earned doctorates from the
3409:
207:
194:
62:
4154:
3633:
3073:
148:
315:
2620:(possibly a brother of the nationalist Son Ngoc Thanh), and a third of its leadership consisted of members of the ICP. According to the historian
2487:
120:
2147:
But the independent parties of the left were generally targeted for destruction. On October 9, 1959, the editor of the Pracheachon Weekly Paper,
2368:. Sihanouk easily reciprocated this mistrust because several developments aroused his suspicion of United States intentions toward his country.
2028:
and overall compliance with the terms of the agreement. The French and most of the Viet Minh forces were withdrawn on schedule in October 1954.
3726:
3113:
2259:. This was the twenty-third successive Sangkum cabinet and government to have been appointed by Sihanouk since the party was formed in 1955.
127:
2742:. Three of the Paris group forged a bond that survived years of revolutionary struggle and intraparty strife, Pol Pot and Ieng Sary married
2333:
This gesture helped to resolve a sensitive issue—the loyalty of Cambodian Chinese—that had troubled the relationship between Phnom Penh and
3581:
3571:
2715:
2529:
3618:
2567:(KPRP), was established under Vietnamese auspices; the period following the Second Party Congress of the KPRP in 1960, when Saloth Sar (
2112:. For the poorer classes, virtuous and obedient conduct opened up the possibility of being born into a higher station in a future life.
2104:
religion were major themes in Sangkum ideology. The party adopted a particularly conservative interpretation of Buddhism, common in the
3525:
1765:
1548:
134:
4119:
4072:
3805:
3800:
3422:
2276:
1269:
615:
2709:
Another member of the Paris student group was Ieng Sary. He was a Chinese-Khmer born in 1930 in South Vietnam. He attended the elite
2551:
its present frontiers." Shortly thereafter, in June 1969, full diplomatic relations were restored between Phnom Penh and Washington.
1831:
4164:
3175:
2484:
countries from arming the Cambodian left, it did not prevent the Cambodian left from launching an unsupported rebellion on its own.
1931:
1353:
232:
167:
70:
3530:
3520:
2846:
1836:
1736:
116:
2769:
to participate in a youth festival. This experience is considered to have been a turning point in their ideological development.
2021:
1816:
1676:
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countries of Southeast Asia, that the social and economic inequalities among people were legitimate because of the workings of
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In 1930 Ho Chi Minh founded the Vietnamese Communist Party by unifying three smaller communist movements that had emerged in
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2412:. Another alleged plot involved Dap Chuon's establishment of a "free" state that would have included Siem Reap Province and
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Pol Pot, who rose to the leadership of the communist movement in the 1960s, was born in 1928 (some sources say in 1925) in
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administration that Sihanouk had "allowed" or even "encouraged" them were disputed by critics such as British journalist
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in its first six months of operation and it was widely known that the verdicts were the personal decision of Sihanouk.
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2255:. Injured in an automobile accident, Lon Nol resigned in April 1967. Sihanouk replaced him with a trusted centrist,
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2006:
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2849:(PRK) implied in the 1980s that the September 1960 meeting was nothing more than the second congress of the KPRP.
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insurgency against Sihanouk and Lon Nol from 1968 until 1975, and established the regime of Democratic Kampuchea.
2017:" or to allow the basing of foreign military forces on its territory "as long as its security is not threatened."
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of Western Europe's communist movements. The party was also very anti-intellectual. In 1951 the two men went to
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a district that had been a Viet Minh stronghold for years did not return a single vote for the far left. Writer
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2231:. Lucrative state monopolies were parceled out to Sihanouk's most loyal retainers, who "milked" them for cash.
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Whether or not these bombing missions were authorized aroused considerable controversy, and assertions by the
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2416:(Kampong Thom) Province and the southern areas of Laos that were controlled by the rightist Laotian prince,
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Khmer nationalism, loyalty to the monarch, struggle against injustice and corruption, and protection of the
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served as monarch for ceremonial purposes only while the powers of head of state were delegated to her son
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In July 1963, Pol Pot and most of the central committee left Phnom Penh to establish an insurgent base in
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their influence on the Indochinese communist movement and on developments within Cambodia was negligible.
2014:
1964:
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The history of the communist movement in Cambodia can be divided into six phases: the emergence of the
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in these countries. On the eve of the conference's conclusion, however, the Cambodian representative,
1994:, Britain, France and the United States. One goal of the conference was to restore a lasting peace in
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established in June 1969. Sihanouk was the only foreign head of state to attend the funeral of
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He often declared that if he had not been a prince, he would have become a revolutionary.
1983:
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quickly disappeared, and a nepotistic "crony socialism" emerged somewhat similar to the "
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series) against Cambodian sanctuaries used by the North Vietnamese and the Viet Cong.
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2392:", involved several Khmer leaders suspected of American connections. Among them were
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1971:
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The region Pol Pot and the others moved to was inhabited by tribal minorities, the
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1991:
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1396:'s first administration of Cambodia, lasting from the country's independence from
3168:
Anatomy of a Crisis: Education, Development, and the State in Cambodia, 1953–1998
403:
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2532:(MACV) and, beginning in March 1969, ordered a series of airstrikes (dubbed the
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One of these developments was the growing United States influence within the
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1955:
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began a bombing campaign against North Vietnamese soldiers in Cambodia. The
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3317:
Gard, Richard A. (January 1953). "Ideological Problems in Southeast Asia".
185:
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2417:
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2010:
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2757:. At some time between 1949 and 1951, Pol Pot and Ieng Sary joined the
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in Phnom Penh before beginning courses in commerce and politics at the
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tottered on the brink of anarchy. In the cities, the administration of
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During the mid-1950s, KPRP factions, the "urban committee" (headed by
2433:(ARVN) troops and Viet Cong insurgents in the Cambodian border areas.
3453:
3153:"សៀវភៅប្រវត្តិវិទ្យា (សម័យអាណាព្យាបាលបារាំង–ព្រះរាជាណាចក្រកម្ពុជាទី២"
2738:
An older sister of Pol Pot had been a concubine at the court of King
2600:
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2133:
1595:
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1528:
1397:
3387:
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3244:
3155:(in Khmer). Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport. 1 November 2017.
2512:
in 1968, South Vietnam surprisingly had not collapsed and President
2491:
Jacqueline Kennedy, Sisowath Kossamak, and Norodom Sihanouk in 1967.
1404:. Sihanouk continues to be one of the most controversial figures in
3231:
Young, Kenneth Ray (June 1970). "Neutralism in Laos and Cambodia".
1970:
The Geneva Conference was attended by representatives of Cambodia,
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2453:
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2284:
2109:
2035:
1987:
1523:
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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
2476:, North Vietnam's deceased leader, in Hanoi three months later.
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3391:
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In 1951 the ICP was reorganized into three national units—the
2404:, the early nationalist leader once exiled into Thailand; and
179:
77:
36:
3274:
Szaz, Zoltan M. (October 1955). "Cambodia's Foreign Policy".
2791:
The Cambodian Peasants and Their Prospects for Modernization
3135:"11.4m Cambodians counted by census | Phnom Penh Post"
2310:
in April 1955, Sihanouk held private meetings with Premier
2144:
served briefly as secretary of state for commerce in 1963.
2857:, were removed from the Central Committee and replaced by
2805:
on the economic domination of the industrialized nations.
2785:. Inside, the group was still run by the Cercle Marxiste.
2181:
In July 1962, one of the leading leftists in the country,
2520:
were exacerbated by the small amount and poor quality of
2140:
served in several ministries between 1958 and 1963, and
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early-to-mid-1960s, this effort required a tilt toward
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The analogy between the Vietnamese communists and the
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108:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
2801:" school, which blamed lack of development in the
2069:, which, despite its name, contained significant
2302:A welcoming ceremony for Sihanouk in China, 1956
1967:that had been scheduled to begin in late April.
1978:(the predecessor of the Republic of Vietnam or
1448:were allowed to set up bases and in 1969, the
4150:States and territories disestablished in 1970
3403:
3051:Période de la communauté socialiste populaire
2795:Cambodia's Economy and Industrial Development
1932:
1361:
8:
1460:on October 9, 1970 headed by Prime Minister
1427:, France restored its colonial control over
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352:
274:
3027:
371:
334:
254:
71:Learn how and when to remove these messages
4145:States and territories established in 1953
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3750:
3652:
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3410:
3396:
3388:
2974:[preahriəciənaːcakkampuciətiːmuəj]
2698:, he acquired a taste for the classics of
1939:
1925:
1479:
1368:
1354:
1124:
425:
246:
3045:or 'Popular Socialist Community period';
2020:The conference agreement established the
1476:Geneva Conference and Viet Minh incursion
1440:escalated, Cambodia sought to retain its
233:Learn how and when to remove this message
168:Learn how and when to remove this message
3108:(4th ed.). Routledge. p. 235.
2662:), and the "rural committee" (headed by
2435:
2297:
210:of all important aspects of the article.
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1850:
1800:
1757:
1647:
1614:
1559:
1512:
1493:
1482:
1127:
1082:
861:
737:
448:
2730:; Hu Nim obtained his degree from the
1408:'s turbulent and often tragic postwar
206:Please consider expanding the lead to
4125:Former polities of the Indochina Wars
4110:Former countries in Cambodian history
3192:"Cambodia under Sihanouk (1954–1970)"
3021:
2972:
2923:
2716:Institut d'études politiques de Paris
872:
868:
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27:Kingdom in Southeast Asia (1953–1970)
7:
2530:Military Assistance Command--Vietnam
117:"Kingdom of Cambodia" 1953–1970
106:adding citations to reliable sources
4175:Former monarchies of Southeast Asia
3074:"Cambodian Queen is Dead in Peking"
2958:Preăh Réachéanachâkr Kâmpŭchéa ti 1
2925:[preahriəciənaːcakkampuciə]
2845:. The pro-Vietnamese regime of the
2761:, the most tightly disciplined and
2524:, Chinese, and French substitutes.
2210:. In 1963 the prince announced the
1412:. From 1955 until 1970, Sihanouk's
431:Location of the Kingdom of Cambodia
4170:Former countries in Southeast Asia
4160:1970 disestablishments in Cambodia
2555:Early phases of the Cambodian Left
2277:Southeast Asia Treaty Organization
1388:, and commonly referred to as the
1101:who was known as "Chief of State".
461:Recognised national languages
25:
2155:In 1960, the editor of the paper
1963:their bargaining position at the
52:This article has multiple issues.
3972:Courtship, marriage, and divorce
3549:
3358:
2022:International Control Commission
1908:
1504:
1328:
1327:
1141:This article is part of a series
1132:
1052:
1038:
1013:
999:
401:
346:Chéatĕ, Sasânéa, Preăh Môhaksâtr
314:
300:
184:
82:
41:
4155:1953 establishments in Cambodia
3469:French protectorate of Cambodia
3233:International Studies Quarterly
2702:as well as for the writings of
2431:Army of the Republic of Vietnam
1197:French protectorate of Cambodia
1112:Chairman of the Regency Council
198:may be too short to adequately
93:needs additional citations for
60:or discuss these issues on the
18:Kingdom of Cambodia (1953-1970)
3526:Cambodian Conflict (1979–1998)
3521:People's Republic of Kampuchea
3170:. University of Hawaii Press.
3023:[samajsɑŋkumriəhnijum]
2909:Preăh Réachéanachâkr Kâmpŭchéa
2847:People's Republic of Kampuchea
2314:of China and Foreign Minister
1766:Cambodian Conflict (1979–1998)
1737:People's Republic of Kampuchea
270:Preăh Réachéanachâkr Kâmpŭchéa
208:provide an accessible overview
1:
3206:"Cambodia profile – Timeline"
2735:related to the royal family.
2015:Charter of the United Nations
1832:Cambodian–Thai border dispute
2968:Braḥ Rājāṇācakr Kambujā dī 1
2565:People's Revolutionary Party
1402:military coup d'état in 1970
536:semi-constitutional monarchy
3016:
3007:Sâmoăy Sângkôm Réastrônĭyôm
3006:
2983:Premier royaume du Cambodge
2967:
2957:
2918:
2908:
2832:Workers' Party of Kampuchea
2775:Khmer Students' Association
2561:Indochinese Communist Party
2408:, the military governor of
2247:similar to that of General
2165:One of the named deputies,
1777:United Nations Transitional
1771:1991 Paris Peace Agreements
1742:exiled coalition government
381:
344:
269:
30:For the broader topic, see
4201:
2456:because the government in
2269:non-aligned foreign policy
2007:United States Armed Forces
1988:People's Republic of China
29:
4120:Former monarchies of Asia
4059:
3842:
3753:
3655:
3567:
3547:
3376:Federal Research Division
3017:Samăy Sanggam Rāstraniyam
2997:
2948:
2899:
2400:troops in South Vietnam;
2396:, a leader of right-wing
2263:Nonaligned foreign policy
1648:Independence and conflict
1606:Nguyễn Kingdom's invasion
1446:North Vietnamese soldiers
1386:First Kingdom of Cambodia
1078:
978:
883:
869:
858:
763:
707:
679:
665:
624:
610:
576:• 1953–1955 (first)
570:
424:
372:
366:
335:
330:
296:
291:
255:
4165:20th century in Cambodia
3572:Administrative divisions
3516:Cambodian–Vietnamese War
3319:Philosophy East and West
3166:Ayres, David M. (2000).
2949:ព្រះរាជាណាចក្រកម្ពុជាទី១
2732:University of Phnom Penh
2655:, and their associates.
2429:ground fighting between
2056:. Assuming the title of
1732:Cambodian–Vietnamese War
1089:After the death of King
697:• 1969–1970 (last)
600:• 1960–1970 (last)
359:"Nation, Religion, King"
336:ជាតិ សាសនា ព្រះមហាក្សត្រ
2919:Braḥ Rājāṇācakr Kambujā
2239:became prime minister.
1468:which lasted until the
1295:KR coalition government
1222:Preah Sihanouk province
547:constitutional monarchy
450:Official languages
4185:Golden ages (metaphor)
3806:Special Economic Zones
3801:Science and technology
3050:
2982:
2933:
2843:Vietnam Workers' Party
2759:French Communist Party
2719:(more widely known as
2629:Vietnam Workers' Party
2492:
2448:
2373:Cambodian armed forces
2360:
2303:
2223:" that evolved in the
2044:
1464:, who established the
1264:Later political career
1217:New Khmer Architecture
732:Council of the Kingdom
390:
353:
275:
3105:A History of Cambodia
2900:ព្រះរាជាណាចក្រកម្ពុជា
2815:Kampong Cham Province
2783:Khmer Students' Union
2688:Kampong Thum Province
2490:
2439:
2351:
2301:
2090:1955 general election
2039:
2032:Domestic developments
1827:2003 Phnom Penh riots
1586:Cambodian–Spanish War
1581:Siamese-Cambodian War
1423:Following the end of
1192:Japanese puppet state
354:Nation, Religion, Roi
256:ព្រះរាជាណាចក្រកម្ពុជា
3634:World Heritage Sites
3504:Democratic Kampuchea
3038:Sangkum Reastr Niyum
2998:សម័យសង្គមរាស្ត្រនិយម
2809:KPRP Second Congress
2574:Democratic Kampuchea
1960:United Issarak Front
1822:Khmer Rouge Tribunal
1712:Democratic Kampuchea
1601:Loss of Mekong Delta
1434:United Issarak Front
1384:, also known as the
685:• 1953 (first)
630:• 1960 (first)
102:improve this article
3924:Social organization
3474:Japanese occupation
2934:Royaume du Cambodge
2728:University of Paris
2678:Paris Student Group
2498:Cultural Revolution
2343:First Indochina War
2088:The results of the
1915:Cambodia portal
1870:Humanitarian crisis
1793:Khmer Rouge PGNUNSC
1698:Cambodian Civil War
1635:Japanese occupation
1623:French protectorate
1591:Cambodian–Dutch War
1456:was abolished in a
1382:Kingdom of Cambodia
1237:Cambodian Civil War
797:Sangkum established
654:• 1970 (last)
276:Royaume du Cambodge
251:Kingdom of Cambodia
3811:Telecommunications
3509:Cambodian genocide
3464:Post-Angkor period
3276:Far Eastern Survey
3078:The New York Times
2493:
2449:
2410:Siem Reap Province
2361:
2308:Bandung Conference
2304:
2045:
1837:2013–2014 protests
1725:Cambodian genocide
1703:Fall of Phnom Penh
1672:Cambodian campaign
1561:Post-Angkor period
1549:Đại Việt–Khmer War
1470:fall of Phnom Penh
1454:Cambodian monarchy
849:Monarchy abolished
556:regime (1955–1970)
396:"Majestic Kingdom"
391:Royaume majestueux
4135:1960s in Cambodia
4130:1950s in Cambodia
4095:
4094:
4055:
4054:
3889:Human trafficking
3829:
3828:
3788:Natural resources
3740:
3739:
3727:Political parties
3670:Foreign relations
3642:
3641:
3531:State of Cambodia
3139:phnompenhpost.com
3115:978-0-429-96406-0
2799:dependency theory
2700:French literature
2696:François Ponchaud
2622:David P. Chandler
2545:William Shawcross
2506:Ho Chi Minh Trail
2447:in New York, 1961
2083:Pracheachon Party
2054:Norodom Suramarit
1974:, the Associated
1965:Geneva Conference
1949:
1948:
1842:COVID-19 pandemic
1657:Post-independence
1378:
1377:
1303:Death and funeral
1161:
1160:
1123:
1122:
1095:Sisowath Kossamak
1091:Norodom Suramarit
1064:
1063:
1060:
1059:
1026:
1025:
823:Samlaut Rebellion
784:Geneva Conference
748:National Assembly
642:• 1960–1970
635:Sisowath Monireth
605:Sisowath Kossamak
593:Norodom Suramarit
588:• 1955–1960
417:
243:
242:
235:
225:
224:
178:
177:
170:
152:
75:
16:(Redirected from
4192:
4180:Norodom Sihanouk
4140:1970 in Cambodia
4075:
4068:
3840:
3796:
3778:Economic history
3751:
3653:
3565:
3553:
3489:
3412:
3405:
3398:
3389:
3379:
3362:
3361:
3351:
3350:
3314:
3308:
3307:
3271:
3265:
3264:
3228:
3222:
3221:
3219:
3217:
3202:
3196:
3195:
3188:
3182:
3181:
3163:
3157:
3156:
3149:
3143:
3142:
3130:
3124:
3123:
3096:
3090:
3089:
3087:
3085:
3070:
3053:
3044:
3041:
3035:
3032:
3029:
3025:
3019:
3009:
2999:
2991:
2985:
2976:
2970:
2960:
2950:
2942:
2936:
2927:
2921:
2911:
2901:
2893:
2755:Marxism-Leninism
2594:Angkorian period
2514:Nguyễn Văn Thiệu
2281:Jawaharlal Nehru
2229:Ferdinand Marcos
2227:under President
2221:crony capitalism
2026:prisoners of war
1976:State of Vietnam
1941:
1934:
1927:
1913:
1912:
1911:
1875:Military history
1865:Economic history
1782:
1781:(UNTAC, 1992–93)
1639:Cambodia in 1945
1628:French Indochina
1508:
1498:
1480:
1418:sole legal party
1394:Norodom Sihanouk
1370:
1363:
1356:
1336:
1331:
1330:
1257:1970 coup d'état
1232:Samlaut Uprising
1157:
1156:
1155:
1153:
1152:Norodom Sihanouk
1145:
1144:
1136:
1129:
1128:
1125:
1114:
1108:
1102:
1099:Norodom Sihanouk
1087:
1056:
1055:
1042:
1041:
1030:
1029:
1021:French Indochina
1017:
1016:
1003:
1002:
996:
995:
980:
979:
923:
815:14 December 1955
734:
647:Norodom Sihanouk
581:Norodom Sihanouk
462:
439:and largest city
429:
419:
418:
393:
386:
375:
374:
356:
349:
338:
337:
318:
304:
286:
278:
272:
266:
258:
257:
247:
238:
231:
220:
217:
211:
188:
180:
173:
166:
162:
159:
153:
151:
110:
86:
78:
67:
45:
44:
37:
21:
4200:
4199:
4195:
4194:
4193:
4191:
4190:
4189:
4115:Former kingdoms
4100:
4099:
4096:
4091:
4078:
4071:
4064:
4051:
4037:Public holidays
3938:
3914:Sex trafficking
3825:
3794:
3736:
3702:Law enforcement
3638:
3619:Protected areas
3554:
3545:
3541:Modern Cambodia
3487:
3425:
3416:
3371:Country Studies
3368:
3359:
3355:
3354:
3331:10.2307/1397491
3316:
3315:
3311:
3288:10.2307/3024078
3282:(10): 151–158.
3273:
3272:
3268:
3245:10.2307/3013517
3230:
3229:
3225:
3215:
3213:
3204:
3203:
3199:
3190:
3189:
3185:
3178:
3165:
3164:
3160:
3151:
3150:
3146:
3133:Moorthy, Beth.
3132:
3131:
3127:
3116:
3100:Chandler, David
3098:
3097:
3093:
3083:
3081:
3080:. 28 April 1975
3072:
3071:
3067:
3062:
3057:
3056:
3042:
3036:
3033:
3030:
2992:
2988:
2943:
2939:
2894:
2890:
2885:
2811:
2680:
2670:overthrow the "
2557:
2441:John F. Kennedy
2265:
2212:nationalization
2034:
1984:Kingdom of Laos
1945:
1909:
1907:
1889:
1846:
1802:Modern Cambodia
1784:
1780:
1778:
1753:
1615:Colonial period
1610:
1555:
1544:Khmer–Cham wars
1496:
1489:
1478:
1374:
1326:
1312:
1299:
1261:
1201:
1188:
1151:
1149:
1148:
1147:
1146:
1142:
1140:
1139:
1119:
1118:
1117:
1109:
1105:
1088:
1084:
1053:
1039:
1014:
1007:French Cambodia
1000:
918:
910:
876:
851:
838:
825:
812:
799:
786:
776:9 November 1953
773:
744:
730:
727:
698:
686:
655:
643:
631:
601:
589:
577:
539:
516:
492:other religions
460:
440:
432:
420:
402:
399:
376:
362:
339:
326:
325:
324:
319:
311:
310:
305:
287:
280:
273:
267:
260:
252:
239:
228:
227:
226:
221:
215:
212:
205:
193:This article's
189:
174:
163:
157:
154:
111:
109:
99:
87:
46:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4198:
4196:
4188:
4187:
4182:
4177:
4172:
4167:
4162:
4157:
4152:
4147:
4142:
4137:
4132:
4127:
4122:
4117:
4112:
4102:
4101:
4093:
4092:
4090:
4089:
4084:
4077:
4076:
4069:
4061:
4060:
4057:
4056:
4053:
4052:
4050:
4049:
4044:
4039:
4034:
4029:
4024:
4019:
4014:
4009:
4004:
3999:
3994:
3989:
3984:
3974:
3969:
3964:
3959:
3954:
3948:
3946:
3940:
3939:
3937:
3936:
3931:
3926:
3921:
3916:
3911:
3906:
3901:
3896:
3891:
3886:
3881:
3880:
3879:
3869:
3864:
3859:
3854:
3849:
3843:
3837:
3831:
3830:
3827:
3826:
3824:
3823:
3821:Transportation
3818:
3813:
3808:
3803:
3798:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3760:
3754:
3748:
3742:
3741:
3738:
3737:
3735:
3734:
3732:Prime Minister
3729:
3724:
3719:
3714:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3694:
3689:
3688:
3687:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3662:
3656:
3650:
3644:
3643:
3640:
3639:
3637:
3636:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3615:
3614:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3589:
3587:Climate change
3584:
3579:
3574:
3568:
3562:
3556:
3555:
3548:
3546:
3544:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3523:
3518:
3513:
3512:
3511:
3501:
3496:
3494:Khmer Republic
3491:
3483:
3482:
3481:
3471:
3466:
3461:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3441:
3435:
3433:
3427:
3426:
3417:
3415:
3414:
3407:
3400:
3392:
3386:
3385:
3353:
3352:
3325:(4): 292–307.
3309:
3266:
3239:(2): 219–226.
3223:
3212:. 7 April 2011
3197:
3183:
3176:
3158:
3144:
3125:
3114:
3102:(4 May 2018).
3091:
3064:
3063:
3061:
3058:
3055:
3054:
2986:
2937:
2887:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2810:
2807:
2711:Lycée Sisowath
2679:
2676:
2586:Nguyễn dynasty
2556:
2553:
2402:Son Ngoc Thanh
2388:known as the "
2264:
2261:
2076:Son Ngoc Thanh
2033:
2030:
1947:
1946:
1944:
1943:
1936:
1929:
1921:
1918:
1917:
1904:
1903:
1902:
1901:
1891:
1890:
1888:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1867:
1862:
1856:
1853:
1852:
1848:
1847:
1845:
1844:
1839:
1834:
1829:
1824:
1819:
1814:
1808:
1805:
1804:
1798:
1797:
1796:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1775:
1773:
1768:
1760:
1759:
1755:
1754:
1752:
1751:
1750:
1749:
1744:
1734:
1729:
1728:
1727:
1722:
1708:
1707:
1706:
1705:
1695:
1694:
1693:
1686:Khmer Republic
1682:
1681:
1680:
1679:
1674:
1669:
1667:Sihanouk Trail
1664:
1653:
1650:
1649:
1645:
1644:
1643:
1642:
1632:
1631:
1630:
1617:
1616:
1612:
1611:
1609:
1608:
1603:
1598:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1578:
1573:
1567:
1564:
1563:
1557:
1556:
1554:
1553:
1552:
1551:
1546:
1541:
1531:
1526:
1520:
1517:
1516:
1510:
1509:
1501:
1500:
1491:
1490:
1483:
1477:
1474:
1466:Khmer Republic
1406:Southeast Asia
1390:Sangkum period
1376:
1375:
1373:
1372:
1365:
1358:
1350:
1347:
1346:
1345:
1344:
1337:
1324:
1314:
1313:
1311:
1310:
1305:
1298:
1297:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1277:
1272:
1260:
1259:
1254:
1252:Operation Menu
1249:
1247:Sihanouk Trail
1244:
1239:
1234:
1229:
1224:
1219:
1214:
1200:
1199:
1194:
1187:
1186:
1181:
1176:
1171:
1163:
1162:
1159:
1158:
1137:
1121:
1120:
1116:
1115:
1103:
1081:
1080:
1079:
1076:
1075:
1070:
1066:
1065:
1062:
1061:
1058:
1057:
1050:
1044:
1043:
1036:
1034:Khmer Republic
1027:
1024:
1023:
1018:
1010:
1009:
1004:
992:
991:
986:
976:
975:
970:
964:
963:
958:
952:
951:
948:
942:
941:
934:
930:
929:
916:
912:
911:
909:
908:
898:
891:
889:
885:
884:
881:
880:
877:
874:
871:
870:
867:
866:
860:
859:
856:
855:
854:9 October 1970
852:
846:
843:
842:
839:
833:
830:
829:
826:
820:
817:
816:
813:
807:
804:
803:
800:
794:
791:
790:
787:
781:
778:
777:
774:
768:
765:
764:
761:
760:
755:
754:Historical era
751:
750:
745:
739:
736:
735:
728:
722:
719:
718:
713:
709:
708:
705:
704:
699:
696:
693:
692:
687:
684:
681:
680:
677:
676:
673:
671:Prime Minister
667:
666:
663:
662:
656:
653:
650:
649:
644:
641:
638:
637:
632:
629:
626:
625:
622:
621:
618:
616:Chief of State
612:
611:
608:
607:
602:
599:
596:
595:
590:
587:
584:
583:
578:
575:
572:
571:
568:
567:
564:
558:
557:
530:dominant-party
524:
518:
517:
515:
514:
509:
503:
501:
495:
494:
473:
469:
468:
463:
457:
456:
451:
447:
446:
441:
438:
434:
433:
430:
422:
421:
400:
398:
397:
394:
387:
377:
364:
363:
361:
360:
357:
350:
340:
328:
327:
320:
313:
312:
306:
299:
298:
297:
294:
293:
289:
288:
253:
250:
241:
240:
223:
222:
202:the key points
192:
190:
183:
176:
175:
90:
88:
81:
76:
50:
49:
47:
40:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4197:
4186:
4183:
4181:
4178:
4176:
4173:
4171:
4168:
4166:
4163:
4161:
4158:
4156:
4153:
4151:
4148:
4146:
4143:
4141:
4138:
4136:
4133:
4131:
4128:
4126:
4123:
4121:
4118:
4116:
4113:
4111:
4108:
4107:
4105:
4098:
4088:
4085:
4083:
4080:
4079:
4074:
4070:
4067:
4063:
4062:
4058:
4048:
4045:
4043:
4040:
4038:
4035:
4033:
4032:Ornamentation
4030:
4028:
4025:
4023:
4020:
4018:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3998:
3995:
3993:
3990:
3988:
3985:
3982:
3981:royal cuisine
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3949:
3947:
3945:
3941:
3935:
3932:
3930:
3927:
3925:
3922:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3912:
3910:
3907:
3905:
3902:
3900:
3897:
3895:
3892:
3890:
3887:
3885:
3882:
3878:
3875:
3874:
3873:
3870:
3868:
3865:
3863:
3862:Ethnic groups
3860:
3858:
3855:
3853:
3850:
3848:
3845:
3844:
3841:
3838:
3836:
3832:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3797:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3755:
3752:
3749:
3747:
3743:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3708:
3705:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3686:
3683:
3682:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3657:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3645:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3613:
3610:
3609:
3608:
3605:
3603:
3600:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3592:Deforestation
3590:
3588:
3585:
3583:
3580:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3570:
3569:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3557:
3552:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3517:
3514:
3510:
3507:
3506:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3486:Sihanouk era
3484:
3480:
3477:
3476:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3444:Early history
3442:
3440:
3437:
3436:
3434:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3413:
3408:
3406:
3401:
3399:
3394:
3393:
3390:
3383:
3377:
3373:
3372:
3366:
3365:public domain
3357:
3356:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3313:
3310:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3270:
3267:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3227:
3224:
3211:
3207:
3201:
3198:
3193:
3187:
3184:
3179:
3177:0-8248-2238-2
3173:
3169:
3162:
3159:
3154:
3148:
3145:
3140:
3136:
3129:
3126:
3122:
3117:
3111:
3107:
3106:
3101:
3095:
3092:
3079:
3075:
3069:
3066:
3059:
3052:
3048:
3039:
3024:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2995:
2990:
2987:
2984:
2980:
2975:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2946:
2941:
2938:
2935:
2931:
2926:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2897:
2892:
2889:
2882:
2880:
2878:
2873:
2871:
2866:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2850:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2835:
2833:
2827:
2825:
2824:
2823:L'Observateur
2818:
2816:
2808:
2806:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2786:
2784:
2778:
2776:
2770:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2751:
2749:
2748:Khieu Thirith
2745:
2744:Khieu Ponnary
2741:
2736:
2733:
2729:
2724:
2722:
2718:
2717:
2712:
2707:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2684:
2677:
2675:
2673:
2667:
2665:
2661:
2656:
2654:
2653:Khieu Samphan
2650:
2644:
2640:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2625:
2623:
2619:
2618:Son Ngoc Minh
2613:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2597:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2582:
2578:
2575:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2554:
2552:
2548:
2546:
2542:
2537:
2535:
2531:
2525:
2523:
2517:
2515:
2511:
2510:Tet Offensive
2507:
2501:
2499:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2475:
2469:
2465:
2463:
2462:Ngo Dinh Diem
2459:
2455:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2432:
2427:
2421:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2385:
2382:
2376:
2374:
2369:
2367:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2344:
2338:
2336:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2321:
2320:North Vietnam
2317:
2316:Phạm Văn Đồng
2313:
2309:
2300:
2296:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2262:
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2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
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2216:
2213:
2209:
2203:
2199:
2195:
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2189:
2184:
2179:
2176:
2175:l'Observateur
2172:
2168:
2163:
2160:
2159:
2158:l'Observateur
2153:
2150:
2145:
2143:
2142:Khieu Samphan
2139:
2135:
2131:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2098:
2096:
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2077:
2072:
2068:
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2061:
2060:
2055:
2051:
2042:
2038:
2031:
2029:
2027:
2023:
2018:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2003:
1999:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1980:South Vietnam
1977:
1973:
1972:North Vietnam
1968:
1966:
1961:
1957:
1954:
1942:
1937:
1935:
1930:
1928:
1923:
1922:
1920:
1919:
1916:
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1799:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1788:1993 election
1786:
1783:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1763:
1762:
1761:
1758:Peace process
1756:
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1735:
1733:
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1597:
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1592:
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1587:
1584:
1582:
1579:
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1574:
1572:
1571:Chaktomuk era
1569:
1568:
1566:
1565:
1562:
1558:
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1547:
1545:
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1537:
1536:
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1525:
1522:
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1515:
1514:Early history
1511:
1507:
1503:
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1499:
1492:
1487:
1481:
1475:
1473:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1450:United States
1447:
1444:but in 1965,
1443:
1439:
1435:
1430:
1426:
1421:
1420:in Cambodia.
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1400:in 1953 to a
1399:
1395:
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1371:
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1227:Sihanoukville
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1069:Today part of
1067:
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1005:
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997:
994:
993:
990:
987:
985:
982:
981:
977:
974:
971:
969:
968:ISO 3166 code
965:
962:
959:
957:
953:
949:
947:
943:
939:
935:
931:
927:
921:
917:
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902:
899:
896:
893:
892:
890:
886:
882:
878:
865:
857:
853:
850:
841:18 March 1970
840:
837:
827:
824:
814:
811:
802:22 March 1955
801:
798:
788:
785:
775:
772:
759:
756:
752:
749:
746:
743:
733:
729:
726:
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714:
710:
706:
703:
700:
691:
688:
674:
672:
664:
660:
657:
648:
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636:
633:
619:
617:
609:
606:
603:
594:
591:
582:
579:
565:
563:
555:
554:authoritarian
552:
548:
545:
544:parliamentary
542:
537:
534:
533:parliamentary
531:
528:
525:
523:
519:
513:
510:
508:
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502:
500:
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489:
485:
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477:
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428:
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388:
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329:
323:
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295:
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284:
277:
271:
264:
248:
245:
237:
234:
219:
209:
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196:
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187:
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172:
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161:
158:November 2012
150:
147:
143:
140:
136:
133:
129:
126:
122:
119: –
118:
114:
113:Find sources:
107:
103:
97:
96:
91:This article
89:
85:
80:
79:
74:
72:
65:
64:
59:
58:
53:
48:
39:
38:
33:
19:
4097:
3952:Architecture
3919:Social class
3899:Prostitution
3852:Demographics
3768:Child labour
3680:Human rights
3485:
3479:Puppet state
3459:Khmer Empire
3370:
3322:
3318:
3312:
3279:
3275:
3269:
3236:
3232:
3226:
3214:. Retrieved
3209:
3200:
3186:
3167:
3161:
3147:
3138:
3128:
3119:
3104:
3094:
3082:. Retrieved
3077:
3068:
2989:
2940:
2891:
2874:
2867:
2851:
2836:
2828:
2821:
2819:
2812:
2794:
2790:
2787:
2779:
2771:
2752:
2737:
2725:
2720:
2714:
2708:
2694:priest, Fr.
2685:
2681:
2668:
2657:
2645:
2641:
2626:
2614:
2598:
2590:Confucianism
2583:
2579:
2558:
2549:
2538:
2526:
2518:
2502:
2494:
2482:
2478:
2470:
2466:
2450:
2422:
2414:Kampong Thum
2390:Bangkok Plot
2386:
2377:
2370:
2362:
2339:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2305:
2266:
2241:
2233:
2217:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2180:
2174:
2164:
2156:
2154:
2146:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2099:
2095:Philip Short
2087:
2064:
2057:
2046:
2019:
2004:
2000:
1992:Soviet Union
1969:
1950:
1897:
1717:
1656:
1534:Khmer Empire
1425:World War II
1422:
1392:, refers to
1389:
1385:
1381:
1379:
1340:
1320:
1263:
1262:
1242:Bangkok Plot
1204:
1203:
1202:
1106:
1085:
989:Succeeded by
988:
983:
956:Calling code
936:dd/mm/yyyy (
897:(until 1955)
875:• 1962
828:2 April 1967
810:UN admission
789:21 July 1954
771:Independence
484:Christianity
367:
332:Motto:
331:
244:
229:
213:
197:
195:lead section
164:
155:
145:
138:
131:
124:
112:
100:Please help
95:verification
92:
68:
61:
55:
54:Please help
51:
4017:Mat weaving
4012:Manuscripts
3758:Agriculture
3449:Nokor Phnom
2803:Third World
2767:East Berlin
2721:Sciences Po
2660:Tou Samouth
2609:Cochinchina
2474:Ho Chi Minh
2443:and Prince
2426:Khmer Serei
2398:Khmer Serei
2287:'s Premier
2267:Sihanouk's
2245:coup d'état
2225:Philippines
2183:Tou Samouth
2169:, tabled a
2149:Nop Bophann
2130:Khmer Rouge
1576:Longvek era
1495:History of
1438:Vietnam War
1280:Khmer Rouge
1205:Sangkum era
1179:Filmography
1169:Sihanoukism
984:Preceded by
933:Date format
742:Lower house
725:Upper house
712:Legislature
538:(1953–1955)
490:, and
383:Nôkôr Réach
4104:Categories
4007:Literature
3795:(currency)
3722:Parliament
3675:Government
3597:Ecoregions
3060:References
2877:Khmer Loeu
2870:Rotanokiri
2837:His ally,
2637:Khmer Krom
2633:Lao Itsala
2406:Dap Chhuon
2353:Eisenhower
2312:Zhou Enlai
2188:Phnom Penh
2078:, and the
2071:right-wing
2041:Phnom Penh
1779:Authority
1691:US bombing
1662:US bombing
1596:Oudong era
1442:neutrality
864:Population
716:Parliament
690:Penn Nouth
659:Cheng Heng
522:Government
499:Demonym(s)
444:Phnom Penh
322:Royal arms
128:newspapers
57:improve it
3997:Jewellery
3992:Epigraphy
3929:Squatting
3894:Languages
3857:Education
3692:Judiciary
3665:Elections
3612:Tonlé Sap
3560:Geography
3499:Civil War
3488:(1953–70)
3339:0031-8221
3296:0362-8949
3253:0020-8833
3121:purposes.
2839:Nuon Chea
2763:Stalinist
2672:feudalist
2664:Sieu Heng
2649:Ieng Sary
2607:, and in
2381:Viet Cong
2366:communism
2253:Indonesia
2208:patronage
2106:Theravada
2050:Democrats
1996:Indochina
1956:Viet Minh
1953:communist
1817:1997 coup
1677:1970 coup
1472:in 1975.
1436:. As the
1429:Indochina
1290:FUNCINPEC
1285:MOULINAKA
946:Drives on
915:Time zone
879:5,728,771
836:1970 coup
551:one-party
507:Cambodian
472:Religion
292:1953–1970
216:July 2021
200:summarize
63:talk page
4082:Category
4002:Keyboard
3967:Clothing
3904:Religion
3877:HIV/AIDS
3867:Gambling
3712:Monarchy
3707:Military
3648:Politics
3629:Wildlife
3439:Timeline
3423:articles
3419:Cambodia
3382:Cambodia
3210:BBC News
2863:Vorn Vet
2855:Keo Meas
2740:Monivong
2692:Catholic
2445:Sihanouk
2418:Boun Oum
2394:Sam Sary
2357:Sihanouk
2293:Thailand
2257:Son Sann
2138:Hou Yuon
2102:Buddhist
2043:in 1964.
2011:Sam Sary
1898:Timeline
1880:Monarchy
1860:Buddhism
1851:By topic
1720:incident
1718:Mayaguez
1497:Cambodia
1486:a series
1484:Part of
1416:was the
1334:Category
1308:Memorial
1184:Ancestry
1093:, Queen
1073:Cambodia
888:Currency
758:Cold War
661:(acting)
549:under a
480:official
476:Buddhism
32:Cambodia
4066:Outline
4047:Theatre
3977:Cuisine
3944:Culture
3884:Hunting
3835:Society
3816:Tourism
3763:Banking
3746:Economy
3660:Cabinet
3602:Islands
3577:Borders
3431:History
3347:1397491
3304:3024078
3261:3013517
3216:29 June
3084:19 July
3031:
2859:Son Sen
2834:(WPK).
2569:Pol Pot
2359:in 1959
2335:Beijing
2306:At the
2249:Suharto
2237:Lon Nol
2171:censure
2167:Uch Ven
2080:leftist
2067:Sangkum
2059:Samdech
1812:Economy
1747:K5 Plan
1462:Lon Nol
1414:Sangkum
1410:history
1321:Gallery
1212:Sangkum
1174:Honours
895:Piastre
847:•
834:•
821:•
808:•
795:•
782:•
769:•
740:•
723:•
702:Lon Nol
562:Monarch
541:Unitary
527:Unitary
437:Capital
368:Anthem:
142:scholar
4087:Portal
3962:Cinema
3872:Health
3783:Mining
3773:Energy
3624:Rivers
3582:Cities
3454:Chenla
3421:
3367:.
3345:
3337:
3302:
3294:
3259:
3251:
3174:
3112:
3047:French
3040:period
3012:ALA-LC
3002:UNGEGN
2979:French
2963:ALA-LC
2953:UNGEGN
2930:French
2914:ALA-LC
2904:UNGEGN
2631:, the
2601:Tonkin
2522:Soviet
2458:Saigon
2134:Hu Nim
2116:army.
1990:, the
1986:, the
1539:Angkor
1529:Chenla
1488:on the
1398:France
1341:Quotes
1332:
922:+07:00
675:
620:
566:
466:French
373:នគររាជ
370:
283:French
279:
259:
144:
137:
130:
123:
115:
4073:Index
4042:Sport
4027:Music
4022:Media
3987:Dance
3934:Youth
3909:Women
3847:Crime
3793:Riel
3717:Motto
3607:Lakes
3536:UNTAC
3343:JSTOR
3300:JSTOR
3257:JSTOR
2994:Khmer
2945:Khmer
2896:Khmer
2883:Notes
2605:Annam
2603:, in
2541:Nixon
2454:Hanoi
2285:Burma
2110:karma
1885:Names
1524:Funan
1275:GRUNK
1143:about
1048:GRUNK
950:right
903:(៛) (
512:Khmer
488:Islam
454:Khmer
263:Khmer
149:JSTOR
135:books
3685:LGBT
3335:ISSN
3292:ISSN
3249:ISSN
3218:2023
3172:ISBN
3110:ISBN
3086:2021
3028:lit.
2861:and
2746:and
2704:Marx
2534:Menu
2355:and
2289:U Nu
2283:and
2136:and
1958:and
1458:coup
1380:The
1270:FUNK
961:+855
901:Riel
308:Flag
121:news
3957:Art
3697:Law
3327:doi
3284:doi
3241:doi
2345:).
2318:of
2273:war
2251:in
1982:),
1110:as
926:ICT
920:UTC
905:KHR
482:),
104:by
4106::
3374:.
3341:.
3333:.
3321:.
3298:.
3290:.
3280:24
3278:.
3255:.
3247:.
3237:14
3235:.
3208:.
3137:.
3118:.
3076:.
3049::
3026:;
3020:,
3014::
3010:,
3004::
3000:,
2996::
2981::
2977:;
2971:,
2965::
2961:,
2955::
2951:,
2947::
2932::
2928:;
2922:,
2916::
2912:,
2906::
2902:,
2898::
2706:.
2651:,
2596:.
2420:.
2190:.
2132:.
973:KH
938:CE
486:,
66:.
3983:)
3979:(
3411:e
3404:t
3397:v
3384:)
3380:(
3378:.
3349:.
3329::
3323:2
3306:.
3286::
3263:.
3243::
3220:.
3194:.
3180:.
3141:.
3088:.
3043:'
3034:'
1940:e
1933:t
1926:v
1641:)
1637:(
1369:e
1362:t
1355:v
940:)
928:)
924:(
907:)
478:(
285:)
281:(
265:)
261:(
236:)
230:(
218:)
214:(
204:.
171:)
165:(
160:)
156:(
146:·
139:·
132:·
125:·
98:.
73:)
69:(
34:.
20:)
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