291:(the University of Paris) and the University of Leipzig studying Germanic languages when World War I broke out. He was mobilized on August 12 and sent to the front on October 15. He became a prisoner of war on 16 February 1915. He was interned in the camp at Merseburg with 4000 other prisoners from all nationalities. During his 40 months of captivity, he continued his intense study of languages. He also worked for the German authorities as a French-English-Russian-Italian-German interpreter.
600:
he/she wants to say, whereby this conception consists of words organized hierarchically in terms of connections (structural order). The act of speaking involves transforming structural order to linear order, and conversely, the act of hearing and understanding involves transforming linear order to structural order. This strict separation of the ordering dimensions is a point of contention among modern dependency grammars. Some dependency grammars, i.e. the stratified ones (e.g.
31:
935:. He took articles (definite and indefinite) and clitic pronouns to be indices, and typical translatives were subordinators (subordinate conjunctions) and prepositions. The main task translatives perform is to transfer content words from one category to another. For instance, prepositions typically transfer nouns to adjectives or adverbs, and subordinators typically transfer verbs to nouns. For example, in the phrase
375:"Every word in a sentence is not isolated as it is in the dictionary. The mind perceives connections between a word and its neighbors. The totality of these connections forms the scaffold of the sentence. These connections are not indicated by anything, but it is absolutely crucial that they be perceived by the mind; without them the sentence would not be intelligible. ..., a sentence of the type
1018:
1094:) generally cite Tesnière as the father of modern dependency grammars. Tesnière himself did not set out to produce a dependency grammar, since the distinction between dependency- and constituency-based grammars (phrase structure grammars) was not known to linguistics while Tesnière was alive. The distinction first became established during the reception of Tesnière's ideas.
886:
The number of actants that appear in a clause is limited by the valency characteristics of the clause-establishing verb, whereas the number of circumstants that can appear in a clause is theoretically unlimited, since circumstants are not restricted by verb valency. Modern syntax acknowledges actants
811:
The valency characteristics of verbs play a role in the exploration of various mechanisms of syntax. In particular, various phenomena of diathesis (active, passive, reflexive, reciprocal, recessive) are sensitive to the underlying valency of verbs. The concept of valency is now widely acknowledged in
504:
Tesnière argued vehemently against the binary division of the clause into subject and predicate that was and is prevalent in the study of syntax, and he replaced this division with verb centrality. He stated that the division stems from logic and has no place in linguistics. He positioned the verb as
435:
on the field of syntax. In so doing, he was promoting a break from a tradition in linguistics that focused on concrete forms such as affixes and the inflectional paradigms associated with the study of the languages of antiquity (Latin and Greek). Tesnière argued that the study of syntax should not be
356:
The following subsections consider some of the central ideas and concepts in Tesnière's approach to syntax. The following areas are touched on: (1) connections, (2) autonomous syntax, (3) verb centrality, (4) stemmas, (5) centripetal (head-initial) and centrifugal (head-final) languages, (6) valency,
1097:
Tesnière's legacy is not limited to the development of dependency grammar, however. As stated above, a number of the key concepts that he developed (e.g. valency, arguments vs. adjuncts, head-initial vs head-final languages) are cornerstones of most modern work in the field of syntax. Tesnière does
495:
Tesnière's concept of language is based on the idea that the meaning of a sentence resides on a semantic plane which is two-dimensional (nonlinear). The sentence, on the other hand, belongs to the expression plane which is one-dimensional (linear). When nonlinear meaning is forced into linear form,
599:
are identified; they correspond to complete subtrees. An important aspect of these stemmas is that they are "unordered", i.e. they do not reflect actual word order. For Tesnière, structural order (hierarchical order) preceded linear order in the mind of a speaker. A speaker first conceives of what
656:
Tesnière did not actually produce "ordered" stemmas like the two on the right here. But if one does choose to reflect word order in the stemmas, then the distinction between centrifugal vs. centripetal structures that Tesnière established is clearly visible. The following two trees of the
English
681:
The stemmas clearly show the manner in which centrifugal structures extend down to the right, and centripetal structures down to the left. Tesnière classified languages according to whether they are more centrifugal than centripetal, or vice versa. The distinction has since become a mainstay of
1003:
For Tesnière, the ability to transfer one category to another at will in fluid speech is the primary tool that makes truly productive speech possible. Syntactic categories that alone are not capable of combining with each other can be immediately unified by a translative that effects transfer.
455:'The vertebral silence indisposes the licit sail'. He emphasized that while the sentence is nonsensical, it is well-formed from a syntactic point of view, for the forms of the words and their order of appearance are correct. Noam Chomsky later made the same point with his famous sentence
983:
The translative and the word that it transfers are placed equi-level and a vertical dividing line separates them. The target category, i.e. the category that is the result of transfer, is indicated above the horizontal line. In the first stemma above, the A indicates that
686:: as predominantly head-initial or head-final. The Semitic languages (e.g. Hebrew, Arabic) are, for instance, much more centrifugal than centripetal, and certain East Asian languages are much more centripetal than centrifugal (e.g. Japanese, Korean). English is a
923:: nouns (O), verbs (I), adjectives (A), and adverbs (E). The abbreviations he used for these words (O, I, A, E) match the last letter of the corresponding Esperanto designations. In addition to these four basic content words, he also posited two types of
286:
Lucien Tesnière was born on May 13, 1893, in Mont-Saint-Aignan, now a suburb of Rouen (north-west of France). He studied Latin, Greek, and German in school, spent time abroad as a young man in
England, Germany, and Italy. He was enrolled at the
274:), which most if not all theories of syntax now acknowledge and build on, was central to Tesnière's understanding. Tesnière also argued vehemently that syntax is autonomous from morphology and semantics, although his stance is different from
505:
the root of all clause structure, whereby all other elements in the clause are either directly or indirectly dependent on the verb. Tesnière illustrated the distinction with the diagrammatic representations (stemmas) of the French sentence
448:(i.e. the connections) is abstract, one cannot acknowledge it and explore the central role that it plays in syntax by focusing just on concrete forms. Tesnière was arguing, in other words, that syntax is largely independent of morphology.
549:
are its dependents. The importance of this distinction resides with the overall understanding of sentence structure that arises from these competing views. A theory of syntax that starts with the binary division is likely to become a
919:). Transfer is the component of Tesnière's theory that addresses syntactic categories. Tesnière was interested in keeping the number of principle syntactic categories to a minimum. He acknowledged just four basic categories of
1175:
was due in part to the work of friends, family (especially his widow), and former students of his. These admirers of the linguist ensured that the manuscript he left was organized and put into book form in the years after his
239:(Elements of Structural Syntax), published posthumously in 1959. In the book he proposes a sophisticated formalization of syntactic structures, supported by many examples from a diversity of languages. Tesnière died in
1437:
Actually, Tesnière (1966:33) claimed that
English is a bit more centripetal than centrifugal, a claim that modern language typology disagrees with, since English arguably employs more centrifugal than centripetal
590:
These diagrams show some of the main traits of Tesnière's conception of syntactic structure. Verb centrality is evident, since the verb is the highest word in the stemma (the root). Syntactic units are present;
423:. By acknowledging the totality of connections between the words of a sentence, Tesnière was in a position to assign the sentence a concrete syntactic structure, which he did in terms of the stemma (see below).
1401:
The two examples given here are the
English translations of the French originals. A majority of the stemmas Tesnière produced were (of course) of French sentences and phrases, (since Tesnière was a Frenchman).
487:“When we speak, our intent is not to find meaning afterwards in a pre-existing string of phonemes, but rather to give an easily transmissible form to a thought that precedes the form and which is its sole
1709:
348:, was then published five years later in 1959 due to the constant efforts of his wife Jeanne and the help of colleagues and friends. It was further revised and a second edition published in 1966.
344:
officer for the
Military Intelligence, the so-called Deuxième Bureau. He became very ill after the war in 1947 and his health remained poor until he died on December 6, 1954. His primary oeuvre,
640:(centripetal). Centrifugal structures see governors (heads) preceding their dependents, whereas the situation is reversed for centripetal structures, the dependents preceding their heads, e.g.
496:
its structure will have to break. The outcome does not reflect logic or psychology, but brute necessity. Tesnière's grammar is the semantic, nonlinear analysis of the linear sentence form.
1704:
1699:
413:
Two words that are connected by a dependency do not have equal status, but rather the one word is the superior, and the other its subordinate. Tesnière called the superior word the
464:
Although both Tesnière and
Chomsky argue for 'autonomy of syntax', their concepts are quite different and should not be confused with one another. The central issue is in language
1098:
not receive the full credit that he perhaps deserves for his contribution to the field of syntax. Tesnière died shortly before the initiation of generative grammar, and his
436:
limited to the examination of concrete forms, but rather one has to acknowledge and explore the connections (as just described above). He pointed to the key concept of
231:. However, his importance in the history of linguistics is based mainly on his development of an approach to the syntax of natural languages that would become known as
714:. Tesnière distinguished between verbs that are avalent (no actant), monovalent (one actant), divalent (two actants), and trivalent (three actants). English examples:
574:
contains over 350 of them. These stemmas show the connections and the manner in which the connections link the words of sentences into a hierarchy of structure, e.g.
399:
consists of only two elements is to analyze it in a superficial manner, purely morphologically, while neglecting the essential aspect that is the syntactic link."
521:
566:
Tesnière relied heavily on tree-like diagrams to represent the understanding of sentence structure and syntax that he was pursuing. He called these diagrams
1082:
as the starting point and impetus for the development of dependency grammar. Thus the frameworks of syntax and grammar that are dependency-based (e.g.
582:
1221:
The biographical information here is an abbreviated version of the biography produced in the
Translators' introduction to the English version of the
529:
The diagram of the French sentence above illustrates the binary division that Tesnière rejected; the clause is divided into two parts, the subject
369:. Connections are present between words of sentences. They group the words together, creating units that can be assigned meaning. Tesnière writes:
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673:
648:
1719:
1251:
to describe the theory of syntax he was proposing. That concept arose later in the 1960s as Tesnière's theory was being received and evaluated.
1354:
457:
451:
Tesnière also saw syntax and semantics as separate domains of language. To illustrate this separation, he produced the nonsensical sentence
828:). While the actants that appear with a verb are important for completing the meaning of the verb, circumstants add optional content, e.g.
1039:
306:, the most prominent French linguist of the first half of the 20th century. In 1920 Tesnière was invited as a lecturer in French to the
1646:
1632:
1091:
1065:
605:
1102:
remained untranslated to
English until 2015. Thus his influence has been greater in Europe than in English-speaking North America.
698:
With the "valency" metaphor, Tesnière contributed to our understanding of the nature of the lexicon. This metaphor, borrowed from
1191:"Approche morphodynamique de l'iconicité des stémmas. Des connexions tesnièriennes aux images-schèmes des grammaires cognitives"
1724:
395:, and the third the connection that unites them – without which there would be no sentence. To say that a sentence of the type
1694:
1043:
1171:
Due to illness at the end of his life, Tesnière did not manage to see his central work published. The actual publication of
620:
Given the hierarchical organization of syntactic units that he posited (and represented using stemmas), Tesnière identified
683:
1496:
690:
language according to Tesnière, meaning that it contains a good mixture of both centrifugal and centripetal structures.
1341:
1312:
Note that Tesnière died in 1954, whereas
Chomsky's famous sentence appears in his book Syntactic Structures (1957:15).
955:, although it is technically not an adjective, comes to function like an adjective by the addition of the translative
1028:
1047:
1032:
899:, so again, Tesnière identified and explored key concepts that are now a mainstay in the modern study of syntax.
592:
334:
224:
146:
608:) build on this strict separation of structural order and linear order, whereas other dependency grammars (e.g.
1137:
1127:
551:
432:
415:
326:
220:
142:
1419:
The distinction between centripetal and centrifugal structures is first presented in chapter 8 (1966:22ff.).
959:. Transfer is represented in stemmas using a special convention. The following stemmas represent the phrase
554:(a constituency grammar), whereas a theory of syntax that starts with verb centrality is likely to become a
307:
138:
1714:
1117:
889:
699:
255:
1152:
711:
251:
246:
Many central concepts that the modern study of syntax takes for granted were developed and presented in
174:
105:
1410:
Tesnière discusses the distinction between structural order and linear order in chapter 6 (1966:19ff.).
483:, but as a tool for linguistic analysis. Tesnière argues for a one-way link from meaning to expression:
992:) to an adjective. The stemma below shows two instances of transfer, whereby the first indicates that
520:
1689:
1684:
441:
299:
101:
1638:
1574:
Tesnière presents the four basic word categories and their abbreviations in chapter 33 (1966:63f.).
1142:
1087:
601:
288:
91:
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the study of syntax, even most phrase structure grammars acknowledging the valency of predicates.
1521:
1132:
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555:
480:
275:
232:
170:
184:
804:- The verb give is trivalent; it takes three actants, a subject actant, and two object actants.
702:, compares verbs to molecules. As an oxygen atom O attracts two hydrogen atoms H to create an H
325:
In
February 1924, Tesnière became associate professor of Slavic language and literature at the
1642:
1628:
1513:
1476:
1350:
1147:
1112:
895:
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and circumstants of course also, although it uses different terminology. Actants are known as
263:
216:
51:
1505:
1468:
581:
537:. The Latin sentence below illustrates the verb centrality that Tesnière espoused; the verb
228:
30:
1190:
303:
295:
204:
1428:
The two ordered stemmas on the right here have been included merely to aid understanding.
1281:
Tesnière states in chapter 15 that morphology and syntax are separate domains (1966:34]).
974:
672:
647:
1678:
1538:
Tesnière discusses valency and diathesis in detail in chapters 97-119 (1966:238-280).
1525:
924:
209:
128:
1375:
Tesnière discusses the binary division and verb centrality in chapters 48-49 of the
1556:
This second example illustrating circumstants corresponds to stemma 121 (1966:126).
1083:
920:
630:
609:
341:
1494:
Przepiórkowski, Adam (2018). "The origin of the valency metaphor in linguistics".
1017:
329:, where he taught Russian and Old Slavic. Tesnière was promoted to professor of
240:
212:
156:
70:
1547:
This first example illustrating circumstants corresponds to stemma 118 (1959 ).
1343:
Elements of Structural Syntax. Translated by Timothy Osborne and Sylvain Kahane
479:, is fully non-psychological. Tesnière's grammar is not meant to be taken as a
1459:
636:
472:
405:
Tesnière calls the asymmetrical connections that he describes in this passage
278:
which takes syntax to be a separate module of the human faculty for language.
1517:
1480:
465:
1472:
1078:
Tesnière's legacy resides primarily with the widespread view that sees his
314:), where he wrote his doctoral thesis on the disappearance of the dual in
1655:. Trans. Timothy Osborne & Sylvain Kahane. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
1509:
784:
is divalent; it takes two actants, a subject actant and an object actant.
469:
315:
311:
208:; May 13, 1893 – December 6, 1954) was a prominent and influential
294:
He continued his studies at the Sorbonne after the war. He studied with
1667:
Timothy Osborne & Sylvain Kahane. ‘Translators' introduction’, in
475:
phenomenon. In contrast, Tesnière's concept of autonomy of syntax, or
596:
319:
259:
160:
1447:
Tesnière develops the "valency" metaphor in chapter 97 (1966:238).
1303:
This nonsensical sentence is discussed in chapter 20 (1966:40-42).
365:
Tesnière begins the presentation of his theory of syntax with the
616:
Centrifugal (head-initial) and centripetal (head-final) languages
612:) are monostratal (in syntax) and hence reject the separation.
1011:
682:
language typology. Languages are classified in terms of their
468:
which is elementary for Chomsky who claims that syntax is an
1583:
Translatives are first discussed in chapter 40 (1966:82f.).
1234:
The passage cited here is taken from the first page of the
1565:
Tesnière discusses circumstants in chapter 56 (1966 :125).
1322:
Tesnière, Lucien (1959). "Preface par Jean Fourquet".
1710:
Members of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts
1388:
The following two stemmas are from chapter 48 of the
1637:
1965. Revised and corrected 2nd edition. Preface by
628:
structures. The modern terms for these concepts are
939:'the book of Peter, Peter's book', the preposition
180:
166:
152:
134:
124:
116:
111:
97:
87:
82:
59:
37:
21:
1457:Peirce, Charles (1897). "The logic of relatives".
250:. For instance, Tesnière developed the concept of
1290:Tesnière first mentions Wilhelm von Humboldt and
996:is transferred to an adverb, and the second that
1335:
1333:
1247:Note that Tesnière never actually used the term
387:, but rather of three elements, the first being
357:(7) actants and circonstants, and (8) transfer.
352:Central ideas in Tesnière's conception of syntax
1705:Academic staff of the University of Montpellier
254:in detail, and the primary distinction between
1700:Academic staff of the University of Strasbourg
1184:
1182:
820:In addition to actants, Tesnière acknowledged
509:'Alfred speaks slowly' and the Latin sentence
453:Le silence vertébral indispose la voile licite
227:(1937), he published many papers and books on
219:on May 13, 1893. As a senior lecturer at the
8:
477:antinomy between structural and linear order
427:Antinomy between structural and linear order
1046:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1268:) are first presented in chapter 2 of the
541:is the root of the clause and the subject
18:
1066:Learn how and when to remove this message
947:to an adjective that can modify the noun
379:is not composed of just the two elements
340:During World War II Tesnière worked as a
1604:Cours élémentaire de syntaxe structurale
760:is monovalent; it takes a single actant.
710:to create clauses. Verbs therefore have
1164:
322:and fathered three children with her.
235:. He presented his theory in his book
911:(300 pages) focuses on the theory of
458:Colorless green ideas sleep furiously
203:
7:
1044:adding citations to reliable sources
967:'Write in the book of your friend':
351:
440:'inner speech form' established by
431:Tesnière rejected the influence of
1671:. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2015.
1618:Esquisse d'une syntaxe structurale
965:Écrivez dans le livre de votre ami
223:(1924) and later professor at the
14:
1092:Functional generative description
606:Functional generative description
1225:. See Kahane and Osborne (2015).
1016:
1000:is transferred to an adjective.
973:
671:
646:
580:
519:
513:'(The) son loves (the) father':
29:
1625:Éléments de syntaxe structurale
1324:Éléments de syntaxe structurale
663:His sister's attempts succeeded
346:Éléments de syntaxe structurale
318:. He married Jeanne Roulier in
298:, and attended lectures at the
237:Éléments de syntaxe structurale
1:
1720:People from Mont-Saint-Aignan
1669:Elements of structural syntax
1653:Elements of Structural Syntax
863:a lot all the time everywhere
684:head-directionality parameter
1611:Cours de syntaxe structurale
1497:Lingvisticae Investigationes
963:'of Peter' and the sentence
943:serves to transfer the noun
665:illustrate the distinction:
419:, and the inferior word the
409:(Chapter 2), hence the term
951:. In other words, the noun
16:French linguist (1893–1954)
1741:
706:O molecule, verbs attract
659:Stop attempting to do that
1641:, professor at Sorbonne.
1340:Tesnière, Lucien (2015).
988:has been transferred (by
733:is avalent. (The pronoun
335:University of Montpellier
225:University of Montpellier
190:
147:University of Montpellier
78:
28:
1294:in chapter 1 (1966:13]).
1138:Phrase structure grammar
816:Actants vs. circumstants
552:phrase structure grammar
327:University of Strasbourg
221:University of Strasbourg
143:University of Strasbourg
994:dans livre de votre ami
907:The second half of the
308:University of Ljubljana
139:University of Ljubljana
1725:20th-century linguists
1627:. Paris: Klincksieck.
1599:. Paris: Henri Didier.
1597:Petite grammaire russe
1473:10.5840/monist18977231
1189:Petitot, Jean (1995).
893:, and circumstants as
737:is devoid of meaning.)
507:Alfred parle lentement
493:
205:[lysjɛ̃tɛnjɛʁ]
1695:Linguists from France
1620:. Paris: Klincksieck.
879:add optional content.
851:add optional content.
485:
243:on December 6, 1954.
106:Ferdinand de Saussure
1510:10.1075/li.00017.prz
1040:improve this section
442:Wilhelm von Humboldt
310:(now the capital of
171:Dependency (grammar)
102:Wilhelm von Humboldt
1088:Meaning-text theory
867:- The circumstants
843:- The circumstants
602:Meaning-text theory
411:dependency grammar.
125:School or tradition
92:University of Paris
83:Academic background
1349:. John Benjamins.
1249:dependency grammar
1123:Dependency grammar
937:le livre de Pierre
837:Alfred is leaving
634:(centrifugal) and
556:dependency grammar
533:and the predicate
511:Filius amat patrem
481:theory of language
331:grammaire comparée
276:generative grammar
233:dependency grammar
1356:978-90-272-6999-7
1292:innere Sprachform
1260:These key terms (
1076:
1075:
1068:
880:
852:
805:
785:
761:
747:Monovalent verb:
738:
446:innere Sprachform
438:innere Sprachform
300:Collège de France
217:Mont-Saint-Aignan
215:. He was born in
194:
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52:Mont-Saint-Aignan
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977:
866:
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794:Trivalent verb:
779:
755:
728:
675:
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584:
523:
229:Slavic languages
207:
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66:
47:
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33:
19:
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1662:Secondary works
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1379:(1966:102-105).
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770:Divalent verb:
705:
696:
618:
564:
545:and the object
535:parle lentement
502:
500:Verb centrality
429:
363:
354:
304:Antoine Meillet
296:Joseph Vendryes
284:
200:
197:Lucien Tesnière
145:
141:
74:
68:
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63:6 December 1954
55:
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23:Lucien Tesnière
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1549:
1540:
1531:
1504:(1): 152–159.
1486:
1467:(2): 161–217.
1449:
1440:
1430:
1421:
1412:
1403:
1394:
1381:
1368:
1355:
1329:
1326:. Klincksieck.
1314:
1305:
1296:
1283:
1274:
1253:
1240:
1227:
1214:
1178:
1163:
1161:
1158:
1156:
1155:
1150:
1145:
1140:
1135:
1130:
1125:
1120:
1115:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1074:
1073:
1024:
1022:
1015:
1009:
1006:
981:
980:
979:
978:
925:function words
904:
901:
884:
883:
882:
881:
856:
855:
854:
853:
817:
814:
809:
808:
807:
806:
800:Susan earrings
789:
788:
787:
786:
765:
764:
763:
762:
742:
741:
740:
739:
720:Avalent verb:
703:
700:Charles Peirce
695:
692:
679:
678:
677:
676:
654:
653:
652:
651:
617:
614:
588:
587:
586:
585:
563:
560:
527:
526:
525:
524:
501:
498:
428:
425:
403:
402:
401:
400:
362:
359:
353:
350:
283:
280:
192:
191:
188:
187:
182:
178:
177:
168:
164:
163:
154:
153:Main interests
150:
149:
136:
132:
131:
126:
122:
121:
118:
114:
113:
109:
108:
99:
95:
94:
89:
85:
84:
80:
79:
76:
75:
69:
67:(aged 61)
61:
57:
56:
50:
39:
35:
34:
26:
25:
22:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1737:
1726:
1723:
1721:
1718:
1716:
1715:Syntacticians
1713:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1693:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1683:
1682:
1680:
1670:
1666:
1665:
1661:
1654:
1650:
1648:
1647:2-252-02620-0
1644:
1640:
1639:Jean Fourquet
1636:
1635:
1634:
1633:2-252-01861-5
1630:
1626:
1622:
1619:
1615:
1612:
1608:
1605:
1601:
1598:
1594:
1593:
1589:
1580:
1577:
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1553:
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1535:
1532:
1527:
1523:
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1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1498:
1490:
1487:
1482:
1478:
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1453:
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1444:
1441:
1434:
1431:
1425:
1422:
1416:
1413:
1407:
1404:
1398:
1395:
1391:
1385:
1382:
1378:
1372:
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1358:
1352:
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1336:
1334:
1330:
1325:
1318:
1315:
1309:
1306:
1300:
1297:
1293:
1287:
1284:
1278:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1257:
1254:
1250:
1244:
1241:
1237:
1231:
1228:
1224:
1218:
1215:
1203:
1199:
1192:
1185:
1183:
1179:
1174:
1168:
1165:
1159:
1154:
1151:
1149:
1146:
1144:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1129:
1126:
1124:
1121:
1119:
1116:
1114:
1111:
1110:
1105:
1103:
1101:
1095:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1070:
1067:
1059:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1035:
1034:
1030:
1025:This section
1023:
1019:
1014:
1013:
1007:
1005:
1001:
999:
995:
991:
987:
976:
972:
971:
970:
969:
968:
966:
962:
958:
954:
950:
946:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
922:
921:content words
918:
914:
910:
902:
900:
898:
897:
892:
891:
878:
874:
870:
864:
861:One sees him
860:
859:
858:
857:
850:
846:
840:
836:
833:
832:
831:
830:
829:
827:
823:
815:
813:
801:
799:
793:
792:
791:
790:
783:
777:
775:
769:
768:
767:
766:
759:
753:
752:
746:
745:
744:
743:
736:
732:
726:
725:
719:
718:
717:
716:
715:
713:
709:
701:
693:
691:
689:
685:
674:
670:
669:
668:
667:
666:
664:
660:
649:
645:
644:
643:
642:
641:
639:
638:
633:
632:
627:
623:
615:
613:
611:
607:
603:
598:
594:
583:
579:
578:
577:
576:
575:
573:
569:
561:
559:
557:
553:
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
522:
518:
517:
516:
515:
514:
512:
508:
499:
497:
492:
490:
489:raison d’être
484:
482:
478:
474:
473:psychological
471:
467:
462:
460:
459:
454:
449:
447:
443:
439:
434:
426:
424:
422:
418:
417:
412:
408:
398:
394:
391:, the second
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
373:
372:
371:
370:
368:
360:
358:
349:
347:
343:
338:
336:
332:
328:
323:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
292:
290:
281:
279:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
257:
253:
249:
244:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
211:
206:
198:
189:
186:
183:
179:
176:
172:
169:
167:Notable ideas
165:
162:
158:
155:
151:
148:
144:
140:
137:
133:
130:
129:Structuralism
127:
123:
119:
115:
112:Academic work
110:
107:
103:
100:
96:
93:
90:
86:
81:
77:
72:
62:
58:
53:
40:
36:
32:
27:
20:
1668:
1652:
1624:
1617:
1610:
1603:
1596:
1579:
1570:
1561:
1552:
1543:
1534:
1501:
1495:
1489:
1464:
1458:
1452:
1443:
1433:
1424:
1415:
1406:
1397:
1389:
1384:
1376:
1371:
1360:. Retrieved
1342:
1323:
1317:
1308:
1299:
1291:
1286:
1277:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1256:
1248:
1243:
1235:
1230:
1222:
1217:
1206:. Retrieved
1201:
1197:
1172:
1167:
1099:
1096:
1084:Word grammar
1079:
1077:
1062:
1053:
1038:Please help
1026:
1002:
998:de votre ami
997:
993:
989:
985:
982:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
933:translatives
932:
928:
916:
912:
908:
906:
894:
888:
885:
876:
873:all the time
872:
868:
862:
848:
844:
838:
834:
826:circonstants
825:
822:circumstants
821:
819:
810:
797:
795:
781:
773:
771:
757:
750:
748:
734:
730:
723:
721:
707:
697:
687:
680:
662:
658:
655:
635:
631:head-initial
629:
625:
621:
619:
610:Word grammar
593:constituents
589:
571:
567:
565:
546:
542:
538:
534:
530:
528:
510:
506:
503:
494:
488:
486:
476:
463:
456:
452:
450:
445:
437:
430:
420:
414:
410:
407:dependencies
406:
404:
397:Alfred spoke
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
377:Alfred spoke
376:
366:
364:
355:
345:
342:cryptography
339:
330:
324:
293:
285:
272:circonstants
271:
268:circumstants
267:
247:
245:
236:
196:
195:
185:Igor Mel'čuk
135:Institutions
120:20th century
65:(1954-12-06)
1690:1954 deaths
1685:1893 births
1438:structures.
1392:(1966:102).
1272:(1966:13]).
1266:subordinate
917:translation
780:- The verb
756:- The verb
729:- The verb
626:centrifugal
622:centripetal
421:subordinate
361:Connections
241:Montpellier
157:Linguistics
71:Montpellier
48:13 May 1893
1679:Categories
1590:Main works
1460:The Monist
1362:2020-07-09
1208:2020-07-09
1198:Connexions
1128:Government
877:everywhere
657:sentences
637:head-final
433:morphology
367:connection
181:Influenced
98:Influences
44:1893-05-13
1526:126385283
1518:0378-4169
1481:0026-9662
1204:(1): 1–19
1143:Predicate
1056:July 2020
1027:does not
961:de Pierre
890:arguments
688:mitigated
466:cognition
337:in 1937.
316:Slovenian
282:Biography
270:, French
256:arguments
88:Education
1390:Éléments
1377:Éléments
1270:Éléments
1262:governor
1236:Éléments
1223:Éléments
1173:Éléments
1118:Argument
1106:See also
1100:Éléments
1080:Éléments
915:(French
913:transfer
909:Éléments
903:Transfer
896:adjuncts
845:tomorrow
835:Tomorrow
824:(French
572:Éléments
444:. Since
416:governor
312:Slovenia
289:Sorbonne
264:adjuncts
248:Éléments
213:linguist
73:, France
54:, France
1238:(1966).
1153:Valency
1148:Subject
1113:Adjunct
1048:removed
1033:sources
929:indices
849:at noon
839:at noon
712:valency
708:actants
694:Valency
597:phrases
568:stemmas
562:Stemmas
333:at the
260:actants
252:valency
201:French:
175:valency
1651:2015.
1645:
1631:
1623:1959.
1616:1953.
1609:1943.
1602:1938.
1595:1934.
1524:
1516:
1479:
1353:
1176:death.
1008:Legacy
986:Pierre
953:Pierre
945:Pierre
875:, and
772:Susan
724:rained
570:- the
547:patrem
543:filius
531:Alfred
470:innate
389:Alfred
381:Alfred
320:Zagreb
262:) and
210:French
161:syntax
1522:S2CID
1347:(PDF)
1194:(PDF)
1160:Notes
949:livre
869:a lot
774:knows
758:sleep
751:slept
393:spoke
385:spoke
1643:ISBN
1629:ISBN
1514:ISSN
1477:ISSN
1351:ISBN
1264:and
1133:Head
1031:any
1029:cite
931:and
847:and
798:gave
796:Sam
782:know
749:Sam
731:rain
661:and
624:and
604:and
595:and
539:amat
383:and
60:Died
38:Born
1506:doi
1469:doi
1465:VII
1042:by
776:Sam
722:It
302:by
117:Era
1681::
1520:.
1512:.
1502:41
1500:.
1475:.
1463:.
1332:^
1202:10
1200:.
1196:.
1181:^
1090:,
1086:,
990:de
957:de
941:de
927:,
871:,
865:.
841:.
802:.
778:.
754:.
735:it
727:.
558:.
461:.
173:,
159:,
104:,
1613:.
1606:.
1528:.
1508::
1483:.
1471::
1365:.
1211:.
1069:)
1063:(
1058:)
1054:(
1050:.
1036:.
704:2
491:”
266:(
258:(
199:(
46:)
42:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
