1138:. It explicitly encompasses unregulated, historical, and non-Western forms of labor. Here, labor relations define "for or with whom one works and under what rules. These rules (implicit or explicit, written or unwritten) determine the type of work, type and amount of remuneration, working hours, degrees of physical and psychological strain, as well as the degree of freedom and autonomy associated with the work." More specifically in a North American and strictly modern context, labor relations is the study and practice of managing
1047:. In practice, trade unions are declining and fewer companies have industrial relations functions. The number of academic programs in industrial relations is therefore shrinking, while fields such as human resource management and organizational behaviour grow. The importance of this work, however, is stronger than ever, and the lessons of industrial relations remain vital. The challenge for industrial relations is to re-establish these connections with the broader academic, policy, and business worlds.
1080:
inherent in dealing with industrial relations since different sub-groups have different opinions in the day-to-day operations. Consequently, the role of management would lean less towards enforcing and controlling and more toward persuasion and coordination. Trade unions are deemed legitimate representatives of employees, conflict is resolved through collective bargaining and is viewed not necessarily as a bad thing and, if managed, could, in fact, be channeled towards evolution and positive change.
841:-inspired critical camp sees employer–employee conflicts of interest as sharply antagonistic and deeply embedded in the socio-political-economic system. From this perspective, the pursuit of a balanced employment relationship gives too much weight to employers' interests, and instead deep-seated structural reforms are needed to change the sharply antagonistic employment relationship that is inherent within capitalism. Militant trade unions are thus frequently supported.
934:
1120:
1102:
the nature of the capitalist economic system. Conflict is therefore seen as a natural outcome of capitalism, thus it is inevitable and trade unions are a natural response of workers to their exploitation by capital. Whilst there may be periods of acquiescence, the
Marxist view would be that institutions of joint regulation would enhance rather than limit management's position as they presume the continuation of capitalism rather than challenge it.
727:
64:
2473:
715:. However, it is generally regarded as a separate field of study only in English-speaking countries, having no direct equivalent in continental Europe. In recent times, industrial relations has been in decline as a field, in correlation with the decline in importance of trade unions and also with the increasing preference of
777:, employers typically have greater bargaining power than employees. Industrial relations scholarship also assumes that there are at least some inherent conflicts of interest between employers and employees (for example, higher wages versus higher profits) and thus, in contrast to scholarship in human resource management and
781:, conflict is seen as a natural part of the employment relationship. Industrial relations scholars therefore frequently study the diverse institutional arrangements that characterize and shape the employment relationship—from norms and power structures on the shop floor, to employee voice mechanisms in the workplace, to
680:, this is controversial, because of the narrower focus of employee/labour relations, i.e. on employees or labour, from the perspective of employers, managers and/or officials. In addition, employee relations is often perceived as dealing only with non-unionized workers, whereas labour relations is seen as dealing with
813:
institutional interventions, however, differ between two camps within industrial relations. The pluralist camp sees the employment relationship as a mixture of shared interests and conflicts of interests that are largely limited to the employment relationship. In the workplace, pluralists, therefore, champion
1142:
employment situations. In academia, labor relations is frequently a sub-area within industrial relations, though scholars from many disciplines including economics, sociology, history, law, and political science also study labor unions and labor movements. In practice, labor relations is frequently a
1101:
This view of industrial relations looks at the nature of the capitalist society, where there is a fundamental division of interest between capital and labour, and sees workplace relations against this background. This perspective sees inequalities of power and economic wealth as having their roots in
853:
which created the modern employment relationship by spawning free labour markets and large-scale industrial organizations with thousands of wage workers. As society wrestled with these massive economic and social changes, labour problems arose. Low wages, long working hours, monotonous and dangerous
1055:
Industrial relations scholars such as Alan Fox have described three major theoretical perspectives or frameworks, that contrast in their understanding and analysis of workplace relations. The three views are generally known as unitarism, pluralism, and the radical or critical school. Each offers a
943:
However, as the Second World War drew to a close and in anticipation of a renewal of labour–management conflict after the war, there was a wave of creations of new academic institutes and degree programs that sought to analyse such conflicts and the role of collective bargaining. The most known of
1088:
In unitarism, the organization is perceived as an integrated and harmonious whole with the idea of "one happy family" in which management and other members of the staff all share a common purpose by emphasizing mutual co-operation. Furthermore, unitarism has a paternalistic approach: it demands
1079:
divergent sub-groups, each with its own legitimate interests and loyalties and with their own set of objectives and leaders. In particular, the two predominant sub-groups in the pluralist perspective are the management and trade unions. The pluralist perspective also supports that conflict is
812:
to always serve workers' interests, and in extreme cases to prevent worker exploitation. Industrial relations scholars and practitioners, therefore, support institutional interventions to improve the workings of the employment relationship and to protect workers' rights. The nature of these
664:
The newer name, "Employment
Relations" is increasingly taking precedence because "industrial relations" is often seen to have relatively narrow connotations. Nevertheless, industrial relations has frequently been concerned with employment relationships in the broadest sense, including
1089:
loyalty of all employees and is managerial in its emphasis and application. Consequently, trade unions are deemed unnecessary since the loyalty between employees and organizations are considered mutually exclusive, and there cannot be two sides of industry. Conflict is perceived as
1031:
By the early 21st century, the academic field of industrial relations was often described as being in crisis. In academia, its traditional positions are threatened on one side by the dominance of mainstream economics and organizational behaviour, and on the other by
837:, and other employment and labour laws and public policies. These institutional interventions are all seen as methods for balancing the employment relationship to generate not only economic efficiency but also employee equity and voice. In contrast, the
1056:
particular perception of workplace relations and will, therefore, interpret such events as workplace conflict, the role of unions and job regulation differently. The perspective of the critical school is sometimes referred to as the
1161:
and various pieces of state legislation. In other countries, labor relations might be regulated by law or tradition. An important professional association for United States labor relations scholars and practitioners is the
684:, i.e unionized workers. Some academics, universities and other institutions regard human resource management as synonymous with one or more of the above disciplines, although this too is controversial.
945:
937:
692:
Industrial relations examines various employment situations, not just ones with a unionized workforce. However, according to Bruce E. Kaufman, "To a large degree, most scholars regard
1916:
Budd, John W.; Bhave, Devasheesh (2008). "Values, Ideologies, and Frames of
Reference in Industrial Relations". In Blyton, Paul; Bacon, Nicolas; Fiorito, Jack; Heery, Edmund (eds.).
858:, and the threat of social instability. Intellectually, industrial relations was formed at the end of the 19th century as a middle ground between classical economics and
2181:
Taras, Daphne (2008). "How
Industrial Relations Is Marginalized in Business Schools: Using Institutional Theory to Examine Our Home Base". In Whalen, Charles J. (ed.).
1130:
or labor studies is a field of study that can have different meanings depending on the context in which it is used. In an international context, it is a subfield of
1147:. Courses in labor relations typically cover labor history, labor law, union organizing, bargaining, contract administration, and important contemporary topics.
1991:
Hamann, Kerstin; Kelly, John (2008). "Varieties of
Capitalism and Industrial Relations". In Blyton, Paul; Bacon, Nicolas; Fiorito, Jack; Heery, Edmund (eds.).
1943:
Calveley, Moira; Allsop, David; Rocha Lawton, Natalia; Huesmann, Monika (2017). "Managing the
Employment Relationship". In Rees, Gary; Smith, Paul E. (eds.).
971:
In the 1950s, industrial relations was formalized as a distinct academic discipline with the emergence in the UK of the so-called "Oxford school", including
1163:
742:
relationship and its institutions through high-quality, rigorous research. In this vein, industrial relations scholarship intersects with scholarship in
734:
Industrial relations has three faces: science building, problem solving, and ethical. In the science building phase, industrial relations is part of the
1063:, although this is somewhat ambiguous, as pluralism also tends to see conflict as inherent in workplaces. Radical theories are strongly identified with
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When labour markets are seen as imperfect, and when the employment relationship includes conflicts of interest, then one cannot rely on markets or
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2008:
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1839:
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2095:
Kuhn, James W.; Lewin, David; McNulty, Paul J. (1983). "Neil W. Chamberlain: A Retrospective
Analysis of His Scholarly Work and Influence".
323:
98:
1039:
In policy-making circles, the industrial relations emphasis on institutional intervention is trumped by a neoliberal emphasis on the
976:
919:
665:"non-industrial" employment relationships. This is sometimes seen as paralleling a trend in the separate but related discipline of
207:
2076: (2008). "The Original Industrial Relations Paradigm: Foundation for Revitalizing the Field". In Whalen, Charles J. (ed.).
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984:
949:
469:
341:
192:
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Industrial relations scholarship assumes that labour markets are not perfectly competitive and thus, in contrast to mainstream
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544:
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is the multidisciplinary academic field that studies the employment relationship; that is, the complex interrelations between
2477:
834:
830:
242:
237:
31:
1783:
Ackers, Peter; Wilkinson, Adrian (2005). "British
Industrial Relations Paradigm: A Critical Outline History and Prognosis".
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529:
2358:
1150:
1021:
504:
1006:
Industrial relations was formed with a strong problem-solving orientation that rejected both the classical economists'
2503:
2227:
Zhang, Yan (2014). "The
Relationships between Employees and Organizations". In Zhang, Zhi-Xue; Zhang, Jianjun (eds.).
1714:
The Global
Collaboratory on the History of Labour Relations, 1500–2000: Background, Set-Up, Taxonomy, and Applications
751:
1849:
Barchiesi, Franco (2014). "Conflict, Order, and Change". In Wilkinson, Adrian; Wood, Geoffrey; Deeg, Richard (eds.).
1131:
578:
514:
2022:. Cornell Studies in Industrial and Labor Relations. Vol. 25. Ithaca, New York: ILR Press (published 1995).
1144:
1134:
that studies the human relations with regard to work in its broadest sense and how this connects to questions of
1000:
759:
666:
534:
262:
202:
1962:
Farnham, David (2008). "Beatrice and Sidney Webb and the Intellectual Origins of British Industrial Relations".
2210:
New Directions in the Study of Work and Employment: Revitalizing Industrial Relations as an Academic Enterprise
2185:
New Directions in the Study of Work and Employment: Revitalizing Industrial Relations as an Academic Enterprise
2078:
New Directions in the Study of Work and Employment: Revitalizing Industrial Relations as an Academic Enterprise
1025:
992:
778:
509:
484:
212:
113:
912:
892:
884:
524:
53:
988:
980:
825:, collective bargaining, and labour–management partnerships. In the policy arena, pluralists advocate for
711:
Initiated in the United States at end of the 19th century, it took off as a field in conjunction with the
654:
489:
459:
451:
222:
2498:
2405:
948:, founded in 1945. But counting various forms, there were over seventy-five others. These included the
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187:
93:
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747:
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318:
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123:
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148:
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2148:
2129:
2112:
2081:
2051:
2023:
2004:
1979:
1948:
1929:
1902:
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1862:
1835:
1810:
1771:
1422:
1234:
1230:
1224:
1154:
1135:
1058:
956:, which began in 1945. An influential industrial relations scholar in the 1940s and 1950s was
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763:
588:
539:
474:
417:
227:
83:
1858:
876:(1897) being a key intellectual work. Industrial relations thus rejected the classical econ.
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arrangements at company, regional, or national level, to various levels of public policy and
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2182:
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1996:
1971:
1921:
1854:
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923:
798:
743:
681:
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118:
922:, and with that came frequent and sometimes violent labour–management conflict. During the
2282:
1878:
Invisible Hands, Invisible Objectives: Bringing Workplace Law and Public Policy Into Focus
1127:
1112:
961:
900:
896:
888:
880:
774:
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593:
407:
365:
287:
73:
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In the United States, labor relations in most of the private sector is regulated by the
2108:
1896:
1064:
972:
953:
755:
735:
672:
While some scholars regard or treat industrial/employment relations as synonymous with
607:
432:
427:
412:
375:
197:
43:
1403:"John R. Commons and the Wisconsin School on Industrial Relations Strategy and Policy"
2487:
2450:
2183:
2020:
The Origins & Evolution of the Field of Industrial Relations in the United States
1796:
1515:
1033:
1008:
867:
855:
818:
802:
357:
292:
252:
217:
143:
1822:
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1640:
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in 1920. Another scholarly pioneer in industrial relations and labour research was
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402:
385:
282:
267:
232:
182:
177:
169:
103:
2446:
2236:
1139:
1044:
863:
822:
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726:
693:
650:
311:
138:
108:
88:
854:
work, and abusive supervisory practices led to high employee turnover, violent
17:
1975:
1521:"Growth and Variety of University Programs in Labor Studies Shown in a Survey"
1153:. Labor relations in the railroad and airline industries are regulated by the
895:
who supported progressive labour–management relations in the aftermath of the
790:
786:
739:
705:
701:
583:
277:
272:
63:
2116:
2000:
1983:
1925:
1814:
1775:
1426:
1766:
1749:
658:
392:
133:
128:
1851:
The Oxford Handbook of Employment Relations: Comparative Employment Systems
2472:
2341:
Rethinking Industrial Relations: Mobilization, Collectivism and Long Waves
2296:
2044:
The Global Evolution of Industrial Relations: Events, Ideas, and the IIRA
1017:
918:
Beginning in the early 1930s there was a rapid increase in membership of
712:
646:
642:
247:
1229:. Piscataway, New Jersey: Research & Education Association. p.
1805:
1402:
883:
when he created the first academic industrial relations program at the
838:
809:
422:
730:
Protest against industrial relations legislation in Melbourne in 2005.
2265:
Understanding Work and Employment: Industrial Relations in Transition
1898:
Employment with a Human Face: Balancing Efficiency, Equity, and Voice
1713:
370:
1418:
708:
within which they are embedded, as the core subjects of the field."
2324:. Champaign, Illinois: Industrial Relations Research Association.
1646:
1118:
932:
725:
380:
1945:
Strategic Human Resource Management: An International Perspective
27:
Study of the relationship between employers, employees and others
2322:
Theoretical Perspectives on Work and the Employment Relationship
2080:. Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 31–47.
1075:
In pluralism, the organization is perceived as being made up of
903:, endowed chairs in industrial relations at the universities of
767:
2126:
Employee Relations: Understanding The Employment Relationship
1947:(2nd ed.). London: SAGE Publications. pp. 281–323.
1750:"Reframing Employment Relations: The Case for Neo-Pluralism"
946:
Cornell University School of Industrial and Labor Relations
938:
Cornell University School of Industrial and Labor Relations
897:
bloody strike at a Rockefeller-owned coal mine in Colorado
2189:. Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar Publishing. pp.
2124:
Lewis, Philip; Thornhill, Adrian; Saunders, Mark (2003).
1123:
Vancouver Labour Temple during the general strike in 1918
1012:
solutions to labour problems and the Marxist solution of
1659:
1657:
1655:
1264:
1262:
926:
these were suppressed by the arbitration powers of the
2229:
Understanding Chinese Firms from Multiple Perspectives
1198:
2371:(11th ed.). Harlow, England: Pearson Education.
1853:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 241–259.
879:
Institutionally, industrial relations was founded by
2410:
An Introduction to the Study of Industrial Relations
1157:. Public sector labor relations is regulated by the
2231:. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer. pp. 227–256.
1880:. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
1548:
1519:
891:. Early financial support for the field came from
1834:(1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
899:. In Britain, another progressive industrialist,
2431:(4th ed.). Harlow, England: Prentice Hall.
2212:. Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar Publishing.
1575:
1439:
2263:Ackers, Peter; Wilkinson, Adrian, eds. (2003).
1995:. London: SAGE Publications. pp. 129–148.
1587:
1920:. London: SAGE Publications. pp. 92–112.
1020:legislation in the United States, such as the
817:procedures, employee voice mechanisms such as
704:relations, and the national labour policy and
615:
8:
2313:Industrial Relations: A Marxist Introduction
2166:. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
1510:
1508:
1316:
1210:
1876:Befort, Stephen F.; Budd, John W. (2009).
1352:
1164:Labor and Employment Relations Association
1067:, although they are not limited to these.
849:Industrial relations has its roots in the
622:
608:
38:
2429:Industrial Relations: Theory and Practice
1993:The SAGE Handbook of Industrial Relations
1918:The SAGE Handbook of Industrial Relations
1832:Introduction to Human Resource Management
1804:
1765:
1699:
1687:
1675:
1451:
1340:
1328:
1016:. It is this approach that underlies the
2360:The Nordic Model of Industrial Relations
2369:Management and Organisational Behaviour
2097:British Journal of Industrial Relations
2050:. Geneva: International Labour Office.
1631:
1615:
1599:
1499:
1487:
1475:
1463:
1388:
1376:
1304:
1268:
1186:
1175:
52:
2412:. London: Routledge (published 2003).
2291:. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
1859:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199695096.013.011
1734:, 3rd ed. (Boston: McGraw-Hill/Irwin).
1619:
1611:
1280:
1182:
1830:Banfield, Paul; Kay, Rebecca (2008).
1663:
1407:Industrial and Labor Relations Review
1292:
7:
2164:Montague Burton: The Tailor of Taste
1364:
1253:
1199:Lewis, Thornhill & Saunders 2003
2267:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1732:Labor Relations: Striking a Balance
298:Workers' right to access the toilet
2459:. London: Longmans, Green, and Co.
2388:The Sociology of Industrial Injury
2147:. Harlow, England: Prentice Hall.
2128:. Harlow, England: Prentice Hall.
2109:10.1111/j.1467-8543.1983.tb00127.x
1550:"Behavior Studied for Labor Peace"
25:
920:trade unions in the United States
738:, and it seeks to understand the
2471:
2363:. Lund: Department of Sociology.
2208:Whalen, Charles J., ed. (2008).
1797:10.1111/j.1472-9296.2005.00184.x
1547:Porter, Russell (15 July 1946).
1159:Civil Service Reform Act of 1978
1111:This section is an excerpt from
950:Yale Labor and Management Center
193:Diversity, equity, and inclusion
62:
2320:Kaufman, Bruce E., ed. (2004).
1901:. Ithaca, New York: ILR Press.
1785:Journal of Industrial Relations
1711:Karin Hofmeester et al. (2015)
1097:Radical or critical perspective
1093:the result of poor management.
2390:. London: Mansell Publishing.
1576:Kuhn, Lewin & McNulty 1983
1440:Kuhn, Lewin & McNulty 1983
835:international labour standards
831:occupational health and safety
243:Occupational safety and health
238:Occupational safety and health
32:Industrial Relations (journal)
1:
1226:CLEP Principles of Management
366:Chronological list of strikes
1754:Industrial Relations Journal
1151:National Labor Relations Act
1022:National Labor Relations Act
2367:Mullins, Laurie J. (2016).
2237:10.1007/978-3-642-54417-0_9
2162:Sigsworth, Eric M. (1990).
1588:Ackers & Wilkinson 2005
2520:
2018:Kaufman, Bruce E. (1993).
1401:Kaufman, Bruce E. (2003).
1110:
29:
2427:Salamon, Michael (2000).
2357:Kjellberg, Anders (2022)
1976:10.1108/01425450810888295
1223:Ogilvie, John R. (2006).
1145:human resource management
1001:Brasenose College, Oxford
789:regimes, to varieties of
760:human resource management
667:human resource management
329:International comparisons
263:Right to rest and leisure
203:Employment discrimination
2001:10.4135/9781849200431.n7
1926:10.4135/9781849200431.n5
1490:, pp. 61–67, 80–81.
1051:Theoretical perspectives
1026:Fair Labor Standards Act
993:Nuffield College, Oxford
928:National War Labor Board
779:organizational behaviour
114:Social movement unionism
2311:Hyman, Richard (1975).
1767:10.1111/1468-2338.00216
1317:Hamann & Kelly 2008
1211:Banfield & Kay 2008
991:(all of whom taught at
893:John D. Rockefeller Jr.
885:University of Wisconsin
719:for the human resource
324:Trade union federations
319:Trade unions by country
2386:Nichols, Theo (1997).
1895:Budd, John W. (2004).
1748:Ackers, Peter (2002).
1690:, pp. 92–93, 103.
1353:Befort & Budd 2009
1124:
940:
731:
655:employer organizations
223:Freedom of association
94:Exploitation of labour
2343:. London: Routledge.
1700:Budd & Bhave 2008
1688:Budd & Bhave 2008
1341:Budd & Bhave 2008
1329:Budd & Bhave 2008
1122:
1084:Unitarist perspective
1071:Pluralist perspective
936:
851:Industrial Revolution
783:collective bargaining
729:
698:collective bargaining
208:Employment protection
188:Collective bargaining
30:For the journal, see
2494:Industrial relations
2480:at Wikimedia Commons
2478:Industrial relations
2456:Industrial Democracy
2406:Richardson, J. Henry
2339:Kelly, John (1998).
2315:. London: Macmillan.
2145:Employment Relations
1730:John W. Budd (2010)
1647:Calveley et al. 2017
1634:, pp. 189, 192.
873:Industrial Democracy
748:industrial sociology
639:employment relations
635:Industrial relations
569:Industrial relations
558:Academic disciplines
154:National-syndicalism
124:Democratic socialism
2288:Industrial Goodwill
1518:(9 February 1947).
958:Neil W. Chamberlain
770:, and other areas.
721:management paradigm
651:labor/trade unions
149:Anarcho-syndicalism
2504:Employee relations
1964:Employee Relations
1555:The New York Times
1526:The New York Times
1125:
941:
732:
674:employee relations
258:Professional abuse
2476:Media related to
2438:978-0-273-64646-4
2419:978-0-415-31384-1
2397:978-0-7201-2255-8
2378:978-1-292-08848-8
2350:978-0-415-18672-8
2331:978-0-913447-88-8
2274:978-0-19-924066-1
2246:978-3-642-54417-0
2219:978-1-84844-520-8
2200:978-1-84844-520-8
2173:978-0-7190-2364-4
2154:978-0-273-71008-0
2143:Rose, Ed (2008).
2135:978-0-273-64625-9
2087:978-1-84844-520-8
2057:978-92-2-114153-2
2029:978-0-87546-192-2
2010:978-1-84920-043-1
1954:978-1-4739-6931-5
1935:978-1-84920-043-1
1908:978-0-8014-4208-7
1887:978-0-8047-6153-6
1868:978-0-19-969509-6
1841:978-0-19-929152-6
1466:, pp. 61–62.
1379:, pp. 15–16.
1240:978-0-7386-0125-0
1155:Railway Labor Act
1136:social inequality
764:political science
632:
631:
589:Post-work society
418:Solidarity action
228:Legal working age
84:Conflict theories
16:(Redirected from
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2475:
2460:
2442:
2423:
2401:
2382:
2354:
2335:
2316:
2307:
2305:
2303:
2283:Commons, John R.
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2014:
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1220:
1214:
1208:
1202:
1196:
1190:
1180:
1092:
1078:
1065:Marxist theories
1014:class revolution
997:Otto Kahn-Freund
985:William McCarthy
924:Second World War
799:social democracy
744:labour economics
717:business schools
682:organized labour
678:labour relations
624:
617:
610:
574:Labour economics
564:Critique of work
408:Pen-down strikes
119:Social democracy
66:
56:
55:Organized labour
46:
39:
21:
2519:
2518:
2514:
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2510:
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2484:
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2256:Further reading
2253:
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2123:
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2073:
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2062:
2060:
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2047:
2041: (2004).
2038:
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2030:
2017:
2011:
1990:
1961:
1955:
1942:
1936:
1915:
1909:
1894:
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1419:10.2307/3590979
1400:
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1217:
1209:
1205:
1197:
1193:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1168:
1167:
1143:subarea within
1128:Labor relations
1116:
1113:Labor relations
1108:
1106:Labor relations
1099:
1091:destructive and
1090:
1086:
1076:
1073:
1053:
901:Montague Burton
889:Robert F. Hoxie
881:John R. Commons
847:
775:economic theory
736:social sciences
690:
628:
599:
598:
594:Refusal of work
559:
551:
550:
549:
454:
444:
443:
442:
433:Wildcat strikes
428:Whipsaw strikes
413:Sitdown strikes
360:
350:
349:
346:
314:
304:
303:
302:
288:Toxic workplace
172:
162:
161:
158:
76:
74:Labour movement
54:
44:
35:
28:
23:
22:
18:Labor Relations
15:
12:
11:
5:
2517:
2515:
2507:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2486:
2485:
2482:
2481:
2467:
2466:External links
2464:
2462:
2461:
2451:Webb, Beatrice
2443:
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2418:
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2199:
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2159:
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2140:
2134:
2121:
2103:(2): 143–160.
2092:
2086:
2069:
2056:
2034:
2028:
2015:
2009:
1988:
1970:(5): 534–552.
1959:
1953:
1940:
1934:
1913:
1907:
1892:
1886:
1873:
1867:
1846:
1840:
1827:
1791:(4): 443–456.
1780:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1737:
1736:
1723:
1704:
1702:, p. 103.
1692:
1680:
1678:, p. 243.
1676:Barchiesi 2014
1668:
1666:, p. 228.
1651:
1649:, p. 290.
1636:
1624:
1604:
1602:, p. 187.
1592:
1590:, p. 446.
1580:
1568:
1539:
1516:Fine, Benjamin
1504:
1492:
1480:
1468:
1456:
1454:, p. 124.
1452:Sigsworth 1990
1444:
1442:, p. 157.
1432:
1393:
1381:
1369:
1357:
1345:
1343:, p. 104.
1333:
1321:
1319:, p. 129.
1309:
1297:
1295:, p. 124.
1285:
1273:
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1246:
1239:
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1213:, p. 114.
1203:
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1107:
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1098:
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1049:
995:), as well as
973:Allan Flanders
968:universities.
954:E. Wight Bakke
952:, directed by
944:these was the
915:in 1929–1930.
846:
843:
819:works councils
756:social history
694:trade unionism
689:
686:
630:
629:
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2046:
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2021:
2016:
2012:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1960:
1956:
1950:
1946:
1941:
1937:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1914:
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1527:
1522:
1517:
1511:
1509:
1505:
1502:, p. 63.
1501:
1496:
1493:
1489:
1484:
1481:
1478:, p. 62.
1477:
1472:
1469:
1465:
1460:
1457:
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1448:
1445:
1441:
1436:
1433:
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1337:
1334:
1330:
1325:
1322:
1318:
1313:
1310:
1307:, p. 94.
1306:
1301:
1298:
1294:
1289:
1286:
1282:
1277:
1274:
1271:, p. 31.
1270:
1265:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1250:
1247:
1242:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1227:
1219:
1216:
1212:
1207:
1204:
1200:
1195:
1192:
1189:, p. 94.
1188:
1184:
1179:
1176:
1170:
1165:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1146:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1132:labor history
1129:
1121:
1114:
1105:
1103:
1096:
1094:
1083:
1081:
1070:
1068:
1066:
1062:
1060:
1050:
1048:
1046:
1043:promotion of
1042:
1041:laissez-faire
1037:
1035:
1034:postmodernism
1029:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1010:
1009:laissez-faire
1004:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
986:
982:
978:
974:
969:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
947:
939:
935:
931:
929:
925:
921:
916:
914:
910:
906:
902:
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
877:
875:
874:
869:
868:Beatrice Webb
865:
861:
857:
852:
844:
842:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
811:
806:
804:
803:neoliberalism
800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
771:
769:
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761:
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753:
749:
745:
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582:
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567:
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562:
561:
555:
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543:
541:
538:
536:
533:
531:
528:
526:
523:
521:
518:
516:
513:
511:
508:
506:
505:New Caledonia
503:
501:
498:
496:
493:
491:
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483:
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468:
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436:
434:
431:
429:
426:
424:
421:
419:
416:
414:
411:
409:
406:
404:
403:Overtime bans
401:
399:
396:
394:
391:
387:
384:
382:
379:
378:
377:
374:
372:
369:
367:
364:
363:
359:
358:Strike action
354:
353:
343:
340:
338:
335:
334:
332:
330:
327:
325:
322:
320:
317:
316:
313:
308:
307:
299:
296:
294:
293:Unfree labour
291:
289:
286:
284:
281:
279:
276:
274:
271:
269:
266:
264:
261:
259:
256:
254:
253:Paid time off
251:
249:
246:
244:
241:
239:
236:
234:
231:
229:
226:
224:
221:
219:
218:Four-day week
216:
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209:
206:
204:
201:
199:
196:
194:
191:
189:
186:
184:
181:
179:
176:
175:
171:
170:Labour rights
166:
165:
155:
152:
150:
147:
145:
144:Union busting
142:
140:
137:
135:
132:
130:
127:
125:
122:
120:
117:
115:
112:
110:
107:
105:
102:
100:
97:
95:
92:
90:
87:
85:
82:
81:
79:
78:
75:
70:
69:
65:
61:
60:
57:
51:
47:
41:
40:
37:
33:
19:
2499:Business law
2455:
2447:Webb, Sidney
2428:
2409:
2387:
2368:
2359:
2340:
2321:
2312:
2300:. Retrieved
2287:
2264:
2228:
2209:
2184:
2163:
2144:
2125:
2100:
2096:
2077:
2061:. Retrieved
2043:
2019:
1992:
1967:
1963:
1944:
1917:
1897:
1877:
1850:
1831:
1788:
1784:
1757:
1753:
1741:Bibliography
1731:
1726:
1712:
1707:
1695:
1683:
1671:
1632:Kaufman 1993
1627:
1616:Kaufman 2004
1607:
1600:Kaufman 1993
1595:
1583:
1571:
1559:. Retrieved
1557:. p. 23
1554:
1542:
1530:. Retrieved
1528:. p. E9
1525:
1500:Kaufman 1993
1495:
1488:Kaufman 1993
1483:
1476:Kaufman 1993
1471:
1464:Kaufman 1993
1459:
1447:
1435:
1410:
1406:
1396:
1389:Farnham 2008
1384:
1377:Kaufman 2004
1372:
1360:
1348:
1336:
1324:
1312:
1305:Kaufman 2004
1300:
1288:
1276:
1269:Kaufman 2008
1249:
1225:
1218:
1206:
1201:, p. 3.
1194:
1187:Kaufman 2004
1178:
1126:
1100:
1087:
1077:powerful and
1074:
1057:
1054:
1045:free markets
1040:
1038:
1030:
1007:
1005:
970:
942:
917:
878:
871:
848:
827:minimum wage
823:trade unions
807:
772:
733:
710:
691:
673:
671:
663:
638:
634:
633:
568:
438:Work-to-rule
312:Trade unions
283:Six-hour day
268:Right to sit
233:Minimum wage
183:Child labour
178:Annual leave
104:New unionism
36:
1806:10072/15401
1760:(1): 2–19.
1721:Dataverse).
1620:Whalen 2008
1612:Ackers 2002
1413:(1): 3–30.
1281:Ackers 2002
1183:Ackers 2002
989:George Bain
864:Sidney Webb
833:standards,
795:corporatism
700:and labour–
535:South Korea
515:Netherlands
510:New Zealand
139:Syndicalism
109:Proletariat
89:Decent work
2488:Categories
1664:Zhang 2014
1293:Taras 2008
1171:References
977:Hugh Clegg
791:capitalism
787:labour law
740:employment
706:labour law
702:management
584:Labour law
393:Green bans
386:newspapers
278:Sick leave
273:Sabbatical
2117:1467-8543
1984:0142-5455
1815:1472-9296
1776:1468-2338
1427:0019-7939
1365:Budd 2004
1254:Rose 2008
1140:unionized
913:Cambridge
815:grievance
793:(such as
659:the state
647:employees
643:employers
530:Singapore
485:Hong Kong
460:Australia
213:Equal pay
134:Communism
129:Socialism
2453:(1897).
2408:(1954).
2285:(1919).
1823:44227768
1059:conflict
1024:and the
1018:New Deal
981:Alan Fox
966:Columbia
810:managers
713:New Deal
688:Overview
525:Portugal
465:Barbados
423:Walkouts
398:Lockouts
248:Overwork
99:Timeline
45:a series
42:Part of
2302:14 July
2063:13 July
1561:14 July
1532:14 July
983:, Lord
909:Cardiff
862:, with
860:Marxism
856:strikes
845:History
839:Marxist
490:Ireland
480:Georgia
2435:
2416:
2394:
2375:
2347:
2328:
2297:429243
2295:
2271:
2243:
2216:
2197:
2193:–141.
2170:
2151:
2132:
2115:
2084:
2072:
2054:
2037:
2026:
2007:
1982:
1951:
1932:
1905:
1884:
1865:
1838:
1821:
1813:
1774:
1425:
1237:
987:, Sir
979:, and
911:, and
829:laws,
801:, and
752:labour
657:, and
545:Sweden
520:Norway
495:Israel
470:Brazil
371:Hartal
2048:(PDF)
1819:S2CID
1061:model
905:Leeds
500:Malta
381:Bandh
2433:ISBN
2414:ISBN
2392:ISBN
2373:ISBN
2345:ISBN
2326:ISBN
2304:2018
2293:OCLC
2269:ISBN
2241:ISBN
2214:ISBN
2195:ISBN
2168:ISBN
2149:ISBN
2130:ISBN
2113:ISSN
2082:ISBN
2065:2018
2052:ISBN
2024:ISBN
2005:ISBN
1980:ISSN
1949:ISBN
1930:ISBN
1903:ISBN
1882:ISBN
1863:ISBN
1836:ISBN
1811:ISSN
1772:ISSN
1719:IISH
1563:2018
1534:2018
1423:ISSN
1235:ISBN
964:and
962:Yale
866:and
821:and
754:and
676:and
645:and
475:Fiji
342:WFTU
337:ITUC
2233:doi
2191:123
2105:doi
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