181:
2591:). These traits appear to be common to all early diverging lineages of non-vascular plants on the land. Their life-cycle is strongly dominated by the haploid gametophyte generation. The sporophyte remains small and dependent on the parent gametophyte for its entire brief life. All other living groups of land plants have a life cycle dominated by the diploid sporophyte generation. It is in the diploid sporophyte that vascular tissue develops. In some ways, the term "non-vascular" is a misnomer. Some mosses and liverworts do produce a special type of vascular tissue composed of complex water-conducting cells. However, this tissue differs from that of "vascular" plants in that these water-conducting cells are not lignified. It is unlikely that water-conducting cells in the mosses is homologous with the vascular tissue in "vascular" plants.
1333:
1239:
2790:. Starting from a plant which disperses by spores, highly complex changes are needed to produce seeds. The sporophyte has two kinds of spore-forming organs or sporangia. One kind, the megasporangium, produces only a single large spore, a megaspore. This sporangium is surrounded by sheathing layers or integuments which form the seed coat. Within the seed coat, the megaspore develops into a tiny gametophyte, which in turn produces one or more egg cells. Before fertilization, the sporangium and its contents plus its coat is called an ovule; after fertilization a seed. In parallel to these developments, the other kind of sporangium, the microsporangium, produces microspores. A tiny gametophyte develops inside the wall of a microspore, producing a
165:
1155:
1209:
2538:
135:
2764:
852:
121:
1182:
218:
1278:
2689:
2604:
6005:
1313:
195:
2435:
7361:
151:
2726:
The euphyllophytes, making up more than 99% of living vascular plant species, have large 'true' leaves (megaphylls), which effectively grow from the sides or the apex, via marginal or apical meristems. One theory is that megaphylls evolved from three-dimensional branching systems by first 'planation'
2741:
The ferns and horsetails (the
Polypodiophyta) form a clade; they use spores as their main method of dispersal. Traditionally, whisk ferns and horsetails were historically treated as distinct from 'true' ferns. Living whisk ferns and horsetails do not have the large leaves (megaphylls) which would be
2594:
Like the vascular plants, they have differentiated stems, and although these are most often no more than a few centimeters tall, they provide mechanical support. Most have leaves, although these typically are one cell thick and lack veins. They lack true roots or any deep anchoring structures. Some
2705:
All the vascular plants which disperse through spores were once thought to be related (and were often grouped as 'ferns and allies'). However, recent research suggests that leaves evolved quite separately in two different lineages. The lycophytes or lycopodiophytes – modern clubmosses, spikemosses
1013:) into a diploid multicellular sporophyte, takes place within the archegonium where it is both protected and provided with nutrition. This second feature is the origin of the term 'embryophyte' – the fertilized egg develops into a protected embryo, rather than dispersing as a single cell. In the
2645:
have a similar life-cycle but have simple tracheids and so are a kind of vascular plant. It was assumed that the gametophyte dominant phase seen in bryophytes used to be the ancestral condition in terrestrial plants, and that the sporophyte dominant stage in vascular plants was a derived trait.
1401:
An updated phylogeny of
Embryophytes based on the work by Novíkov & Barabaš-Krasni 2015 and Hao and Xue 2013 with plant taxon authors from Anderson, Anderson & Cleal 2007 and some additional clade names. Puttick et al./Nishiyama et al. are used for the basal clades.
2806:). When a pollen grain reaches an ovule, it enters via a microscopic gap in the coat, the micropyle. The tiny gametophyte inside the pollen grain then produces sperm cells which move to the egg cell and fertilize it. Seed plants include two clades with living members, the
2706:
and quillworts – make up less than 1% of living vascular plants. They have small leaves, often called 'microphylls' or 'lycophylls', which are borne all along the stems in the clubmosses and spikemosses, and which effectively grow from the base, via an intercalary
1000:
and grow into a gametophyte, thus completing the cycle. Embryophytes have two features related to their reproductive cycles which distinguish them from all other plant lineages. Firstly, their gametophytes produce sperm and eggs in multicellular structures (called
1024:. Metamers are repeated units of development, in which each unit derives from a single cell, but the resulting product tissue or part is largely the same for each cell. The whole organism is thus constructed from similar, repeating parts or
2649:
During the
Devonian period, vascular plants diversified and spread to many different land environments. In addition to vascular tissues which transport water throughout the body, tracheophytes have an outer layer or cuticle that resists
1117:, streptophytes invaded the land and began the evolution of the embryophyte land plants. Present day embryophytes form a clade. Becker and Marin speculate that land plants evolved from streptophytes because living in fresh water pools
2727:– flattening to produce a two dimensional branched structure – and then 'webbing' – tissue growing out between the flattened branches. Others have questioned whether megaphylls evolved in the same way in different groups.
2646:
However, the gametophyte and sporophyte stages were probably equally independent from each other, and that the mosses and vascular plants in that case are both derived, and have evolved in opposite directions.
4330:Štorch, Petr; Žárský, Viktor; Bek, Jiří; Kvaček, Jiří; Libertín, Milan (May 28, 2018). "Sporophytes of polysporangiate land plants from the early Silurian period may have been photosynthetically autonomous".
2814:
or flowering plants. In gymnosperms, the ovules or seeds are not further enclosed. In angiosperms, they are enclosed within the carpel. Angiosperms typically also have other, secondary structures, such as
5835:
4376:
Pryer, K.M.; Schuettpelz, E.; Wolf, P.G.; Schneider, H.; Smith, A.R. & Cranfill, R. (2004), "Phylogeny and evolution of ferns (monilophytes) with a focus on the early leptosporangiate divergences",
1110:. The streptophyte algae (i.e. excluding the land plants) have around 122 genera; they adapted to fresh water very early in their evolutionary history and have not spread back into marine environments.
2557:(Marchantiophyta), are relatively small plants, often confined to environments that are humid or at least seasonally moist. They are limited by their reliance on water needed to disperse their
3374:
Gerrienne, Philippe; Gonez, Paul (January 2011). "Early evolution of life cycles in embryophytes: A focus on the fossil evidence of gametophyte/sporophyte size and morphological complexity".
1121:
them to tolerate a range of environmental conditions found on land, such as exposure to rain, tolerance of temperature variation, high levels of ultra-violet light, and seasonal dehydration.
3476:
Frangedakis, Eftychios; Shimamura, Masaki; Villarreal, Juan Carlos; Li, Fay-Wei; Tomaselli, Marta; Waller, Manuel; Sakakibara, Keiko; Renzaglia, Karen S.; Szövényi, Péter (January 2021).
5840:
2940:
Syllabus der
Vorlesungen über specielle und medicinisch-pharmaceutische Botanik: Eine Uebersicht über das ganze Pflanzensystem mit Berücksichtigung der Medicinal- und Nutzpflanzen.
1009:'), and fertilization of the ovum takes place within the archegonium rather than in the external environment. Secondly, the initial stage of development of the fertilized egg (the
2893:
Rubinstein, C.V.; Gerrienne, P.; De La Puente, G.S.; Astini, R.A. & Steemans, P. (2010), "Early Middle
Ordovician evidence for land plants in Argentina (eastern Gondwana)",
1332:
180:
5973:
4232:
Nishiyama, Tomoaki; Wolf, Paul G.; Kugita, Masanori; Sinclair, Robert B.; Sugita, Mamoru; Sugiura, Chika; Wakasugi, Tatsuya; Yamada, Kyoji; Yoshinaga, Koichi (2004-10-01).
2595:
species grow a filamentous network of horizontal stems, but these have a primary function of mechanical attachment rather than extraction of soil nutrients (Palaeos 2008).
3315:
Puttick, Mark N.; Morris, Jennifer L.; Williams, Tom A.; Cox, Cymon J.; Edwards, Dianne; Kenrick, Paul; Pressel, Silvia; Wellman, Charles H.; Schneider, Harald (2018).
2857:
Gray, J.; Chaloner, W.G. & Westoll, T.S. (1985), "The
Microfossil Record of Early Land Plants: Advances in Understanding of Early Terrestrialization, 1970-1984 ",
2742:
expected of euphyllophytes. This has probably resulted from reduction, as evidenced by early fossil horsetails, in which the leaves are broad with branching veins.
6041:
1238:
1124:
The preponderance of molecular evidence as of 2006 suggested that the groups making up the embryophytes are related as shown in the cladogram below (based on Qiu
2639:
have water-conducting tissue more like that of mosses, but a different life-cycle in which the sporophyte is more developed than the gametophyte. Genera such as
1017:
the sporophyte remains dependent on the gametophyte, while in all other embryophytes the sporophyte generation is dominant and capable of independent existence.
7469:
7533:
5891:
2633:). Some extinct early plants appear to be between the grade of organization of bryophytes and that of true vascular plants (eutracheophytes). Genera such as
2713:
Although the living lycophytes are all relatively small and inconspicuous plants, more common in the moist tropics than in temperate regions, during the
5707:
7456:
3886:
4704:
Hörandl E. Apomixis and the paradox of sex in plants. Ann Bot. 2024 Mar 18:mcae044. doi: 10.1093/aob/mcae044. Epub ahead of print. PMID 38497809
4122:
The early
Devonian Posongchong flora of Yunnan: a contribution to an understanding of the evolution and early diversification of vascular plants
3419:
Su, Danyan; Yang, Lingxiao; Shi, Xuan; Ma, Xiaoya; Zhou, Xiaofan; Hedges, S Blair; Zhong, Bojian (2021-07-29). Battistuzzi, Fabia Ursula (ed.).
4444:
Sahney, S.; Benton, M.J. & Falcon-Lang, H.J. (2010), "Rainforest collapse triggered
Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica",
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4744:
4726:
4687:
4429:
4160:
4130:
4103:
3965:
3131:
7528:
3996:
Qiu, Y.L.; Li, L.; Wang, B.; Chen, Z.; et al. (2006), "The deepest divergences in land plants inferred from phylogenomic evidence",
2802:. Pollen grains can also transfer to an ovule of the same plant, either with the same flower or between two flowers of the same plant (
6034:
3861:
3665:
Donoghue, Philip C.J.; Harrison, C. Jill; Paps, Jordi; Schneider, Harald (October 2021). "The evolutionary emergence of land plants".
5897:
4213:
3204:
Margulis, L (1971). "Whittaker's five kingdoms of organisms: minor revisions suggested by considerations of the origin of mitosis".
2518:
2710:. It is believed that microphylls evolved from outgrowths on stems, such as spines, which later acquired veins (vascular traces).
6084:
4792:
4613:
Rutishauser, R. (1999). "Polymerous Leaf Whorls in
Vascular Plants: Developmental Morphology and Fuzziness of Organ Identities".
217:
4657:
4558:
6079:
5231:
2561:; a few are truly aquatic. Most are tropical, but there are many arctic species. They may locally dominate the ground cover in
5712:
2456:
7461:
6163:
6153:
6136:
6027:
5162:
2499:
4481:& Fleming, A.J. (2007), "Zimmermann's telome theory of megaphyll leaf evolution: a molecular and cellular critique",
5881:
5468:
4983:
2471:
2452:
5963:
5717:
1208:
1106:. The chlorophytes, with around 700 genera, were originally marine algae, although some groups have since spread into
164:
4412:
Boyce, C.K. (2005), "The evolutionary history of roots and leaves", in
Holbrook, N.M. & Zwieniecki, M.A. (eds.),
3972:
The hemitracheophytes form a monophyletic group that unites the bryophytes and the tracheophytes (or vascular plants)
3013:
1154:
5697:
2588:
2532:
2478:
969:
820:
2445:
7474:
5847:
2537:
134:
7495:
5985:
5830:
4880:
3421:"Large-Scale Phylogenomic Analyses Reveal the Monophyly of Bryophytes and Neoproterozoic Origin of Land Plants"
2763:
1032:'s definition of Metaphyta places some algae in this group). In all land plants a disc-like structure called a
2841:
integrity and only infrequent combinations of extrinsic and intrinsic factors allow for shifts to asexuality.
851:
2485:
1894:
6168:
4658:"Numbers of Living Species in Australia and the World. Report for the Australian Biological Resources Study"
4281:
Gitzendanner, Matthew A.; Soltis, Pamela S.; Wong, Gane K.-S.; Ruhfel, Brad R.; Soltis, Douglas E. (2018).
2629:), plants evolved which possessed true vascular tissue, including cells with walls strengthened by lignin (
7386:
5815:
5739:
3154:
459:
7072:
1028:. Accordingly, these plants are sometimes termed 'metaphytes' and classified as the group Metaphyta (but
7482:
6131:
5980:
3089:
2541:
Most bryophytes, such as these mosses, produce stalked sporophytes from which their spores are released.
2467:
957:, generally giving them a bright green color. Embryophyte cells also generally have an enlarged central
757:
750:
7060:
3047:
874:
The Embryophytes emerged either a half-billion years ago, at some time in the interval between the mid-
7066:
3890:
3821:
1181:
120:
7443:
7364:
7110:
5702:
5554:
5226:
4785:
4490:
4453:
4005:
3770:
3695:
3674:
3351:
3328:
3260:
3146:
2866:
1021:
360:
6876:
3159:
2069:
7078:
6529:
6512:
6422:
6270:
6019:
5872:
5417:
2834:
891:
7208:
3180:
6805:
6556:
6539:
6381:
6265:
6260:
6148:
6126:
6114:
6089:
5810:
5675:
5544:
5453:
5145:
4931:
4827:
4638:
4581:
4355:
4170:
3788:
3743:
3708:
3401:
3294:
3221:
3112:
3070:
2803:
2670:
1760:
1509:
780:
714:
702:
683:
439:
212:
7487:
6888:
4205:
3957:
2566:
2572:
They are usually studied together because of their many similarities. All three groups share a
7271:
7172:
7160:
7004:
6983:
6697:
6517:
6448:
6438:
6368:
6158:
6121:
6109:
6099:
5968:
4817:
4812:
4758:
4740:
4722:
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4630:
4557:
Smith, A.R.; Pryer, K.M.; Schuettpelz, E.; Korall, P.; Schneider, H. & Wolf, P.G. (2006).
4540:
4506:
4425:
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4347:
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4304:
4263:
4255:
4209:
4156:
4126:
4099:
4069:
4033:
3961:
3931:
3700:
3647:
3639:
3588:
3547:
3507:
3458:
3440:
3356:
3286:
3278:
3229:
3172:
2922:
2007:
1277:
796:
450:
339:
7424:
7184:
7178:
7142:
6825:
6687:
6572:
6473:
6073:
5754:
5660:
5655:
5609:
5502:
5487:
5448:
5373:
5214:
5138:
5035:
4977:
4622:
4573:
4532:
4498:
4461:
4417:
4386:
4339:
4294:
4245:
4091:
4059:
4023:
4013:
3921:
3913:
3829:
3778:
3735:
3690:
3682:
3629:
3619:
3578:
3537:
3497:
3489:
3448:
3432:
3391:
3383:
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3336:
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3164:
3104:
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2874:
2674:
1744:
1523:
1436:
706:
585:
526:
492:
468:
303:
3865:
2688:
882:, or almost a billion years ago, during the Tonian or Cryogenian, probably from freshwater
7523:
7276:
7259:
7166:
6692:
6675:
6458:
6417:
6285:
6275:
6255:
6008:
5990:
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5581:
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5344:
5312:
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4153:
Brief history of the gymnosperms: classification, biodiversity, phytogeography and ecology
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1307:
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791:
during the early stages of its multicellular development within the tissues of the parent
769:
746:
675:
390:
284:
3420:
2492:
4494:
4457:
4283:"Plastid phylogenomic analysis of green plants: A billion years of evolutionary history"
4009:
3904:
Becker, B. & Marin, B. (2009), "Streptophyte algae and the origin of embryophytes",
3774:
3678:
3332:
3264:
3150:
2870:
921:
green algae, but differ in that in cell division the daughter nuclei are separated by a
7196:
7136:
7010:
6977:
6935:
6848:
6776:
6771:
6719:
6189:
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4028:
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3477:
3453:
2700:
2108:
2093:
1983:
1876:
1853:
1705:
1045:
1041:
968:
In common with all groups of multicellular algae they have a life cycle which involves
899:
824:
800:
655:
332:
311:
200:
2603:
1312:
756:
The embryophytes are informally called "land plants" because they thrive primarily in
7517:
7286:
7130:
7093:
7050:
6963:
6939:
6756:
6478:
6453:
6335:
6280:
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5363:
5263:
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4887:
4835:
4589:
4523:
Tomescu, A. (2009), "Megaphylls, microphylls and the evolution of leaf development",
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3847:
3806:
3712:
3542:
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3298:
2953:
2907:
2758:
2719:
2714:
2228:
2211:
1968:
1727:
1290:
1251:
1077:
911:
910:. Embryophytes are primarily adapted for life on land, although some are secondarily
859:
808:
804:
773:
761:
507:
352:
70:
4359:
4050:
Crane, P.R.; Herendeen, P. & Friis, E.M. (2004), "Fossils and plant phylogeny",
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3405:
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7202:
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6551:
6503:
6376:
5933:
5923:
5825:
5549:
5534:
5043:
5010:
4642:
3317:"The Interrelationships of Land Plants and the Nature of the Ancestral Embryophyte"
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260:
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Niklas, K.J.; Kutschera, U. (2010), "The evolution of the land plant life cycle",
1064:, and appears to be essential in the adaptation towards a terrestrial life style.
3168:
917:
On a microscopic level, the cells of charophytes are broadly similar to those of
772:), while the related green algae are primarily aquatic. Embryophytes are complex
7418:
7154:
7148:
6943:
6924:
6882:
6832:
6582:
6523:
6468:
6401:
6351:
6321:
6303:
6295:
5749:
5734:
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5527:
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3018:
Revista de la Facultad Nacional de Agronomia, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín
2783:
2749:. A stereotypical fern has broad, much divided leaves, which grow by unrolling.
2678:
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2577:
2434:
1597:
1573:
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1037:
1006:
1002:
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378:
319:
45:
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4095:
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3248:
2830:
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2778:
Seed plants, which first appeared in the fossil record towards the end of the
2659:
2581:
1803:
1788:
1646:
1328:
1303:
1118:
1114:
989:
977:
907:
883:
879:
788:
742:
738:
690:
687:
659:
384:
186:
140:
90:
55:
7409:
4308:
4259:
3643:
3444:
3436:
3282:
7019:
6915:
6781:
6665:
6463:
6243:
6212:
5886:
5783:
5512:
5317:
5298:
5209:
5133:
5005:
4946:
4926:
4865:
4250:
4233:
4018:
2779:
2654:. The sporophyte is the dominant generation, and in modern species develops
2554:
2161:
2019:
1621:
1549:
1449:
1423:
1272:
1234:
1150:
1057:
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95:
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17:
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5857:
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grain. Pollen grains can be physically transferred between plants by the
2768:
2707:
2630:
2624:
2619:
2615:
2550:
1204:
1049:
875:
816:
718:
667:
296:
170:
85:
80:
65:
60:
50:
4585:
914:. Accordingly, they are often called land plants or terrestrial plants.
150:
7244:
6947:
6746:
6203:
5113:
5108:
5025:
5015:
3747:
3396:
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2585:
2573:
2459: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
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988:
multicellular generation with twice the number of chromosomes – the
4682:(2nd ed.), Amsterdam; Boston: Academic Press, pp. 508ff,
4626:
3887:"All Land Plants Evolved From Single Type of Algae, Scientists Say"
961:
enclosed by a vacuolar membrane or tonoplast, which maintains cell
7369:
7230:
6643:
6341:
6055:
5790:
5724:
5646:
5614:
5571:
5463:
5405:
5400:
5395:
5383:
5368:
5337:
5258:
4916:
4907:
4234:"Chloroplast Phylogeny Indicates that Bryophytes Are Monophyletic"
2762:
2687:
2602:
2536:
2044:
1955:
1073:
993:
867:
850:
828:
663:
575:
571:
372:
229:
7448:
3608:"Xyloglucan evolution and the terrestrialization of green plants"
7015:
6734:
5641:
5636:
5288:
5128:
5103:
5098:
5082:
5053:
4941:
2795:
2787:
2736:
2663:
2655:
2546:
1670:
1268:
1261:
1177:
863:
855:
734:
726:
345:
290:
156:
126:
7384:
6637:
6023:
4774:
3726:
Pickett-Heaps, J. (1976). "Cell division in eucaryotic algae".
5561:
5123:
3848:"Phragmoplastin, green algae and the evolution of cytokinesis"
2998:
Rothmaler, Werner. Über das natürliche System der Organismen.
2428:
945:, which conduct photosynthesis and store food in the form of
3805:
Haeckel, Ernst Heinrich Philipp August (28 September 1894).
3567:"Plant evolution: landmarks on the path to terrestrial life"
3948:
Lecointre, Guillaume; Guyader, Hervé Le (August 28, 2006).
894:. The emergence of the Embryophytes depleted atmospheric CO
642:
636:
627:
621:
615:
603:
591:
556:
547:
544:
532:
7500:
6343:
3809:. Berlin : Georg Reimer – via Internet Archive.
609:
4770:
2569:
habitats or the epiphyte flora in rain forest habitats.
949:, and are characteristically pigmented with chlorophylls
4755:
Paleobotany, The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants
4739:(2nd ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
4680:
Paleobotany, The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants
3048:"The taxa of the higher plants above the rank of order"
6057:
4717:
Raven, P.H.; Evert, R.F. & Eichhorn, S.E. (2005),
3862:"Invasions of the Algae - ScienceNOW - News - Science"
3523:
3521:
3478:"The hornworts: morphology, evolution and development"
2954:"Embryopsida, a new name for the class of land plants"
2829:
in sexual land plants provides a direct mechanism for
2745:
Ferns are a large and diverse group, with some 12,000
3088:
Cronquist, A.; Takhtajan, A.; Zimmermann, W. (1966).
984:– produces sperm and eggs which fuse and grow into a
633:
612:
588:
562:
553:
550:
4753:
Taylor, T.N.; Taylor, E.L. & Krings, M. (2009),
2723:) formed huge forests that dominated the landscape.
639:
618:
600:
597:
559:
541:
538:
7393:
7258:
7217:
7106:
7091:
7046:
7033:
6996:
6961:
6914:
6901:
6865:
6846:
6814:
6802:
6733:
6706:
6674:
6663:
6581:
6565:
6538:
6501:
6431:
6410:
6398:
6367:
6334:
6312:
6294:
6242:
6222:
6202:
6187:
5947:
5911:
5801:
5674:
5590:
5486:
5436:
5161:
5091:
5034:
4996:
4970:
4906:
4826:
4757:(2nd ed.), Amsterdam; Boston: Academic Press,
3247:Delwiche, Charles F.; Timme, Ruth E. (2011-06-07).
630:
606:
594:
535:
529:
27:
Subclade of green plants, also known as land plants
4197:
3949:
3761:Mayr, E. (1990), "A natural system of organisms",
4371:
4369:
764:having evolved secondarily to live once again in
107:(Spores from Dapingian (early Middle Ordovician))
4416:, Burlington: Academic Press, pp. 479–499,
4196:Lecointre, Guillaume; Guyader, Hervé Le (2006).
941:surrounded by two membranes. The latter include
795:. With very few exceptions, embryophytes obtain
4678:Taylor, T.N.; Taylor, E.L.; Krings, M. (2009),
4200:The Tree of Life: A Phylogenetic Classification
3998:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
3952:The Tree of Life: A Phylogenetic Classification
3310:
3308:
2837:appears to be needed for maintaining long-term
1040:, a trait only found in the land plants in the
6645:
4700:
4698:
3014:"Un esbozo de clasificación de los organismos"
1020:Embryophytes also differ from algae by having
6035:
4786:
1044:lineage, some species within their relatives
996:at maturity. The spores divide repeatedly by
8:
5892:International Association for Plant Taxonomy
2666:, while the gametophyte remains very small.
4735:Stewart, W.N. & Rothwell, G.W. (1993),
4119:Hao, Shougang & Xue, Jinzhuang (2013),
3983:
1879:(Clubmosses, Spikemosses & Quillworts)
7381:
7360:
7103:
7043:
7039:
6993:
6969:
6911:
6907:
6862:
6858:
6843:
6811:
6799:
6671:
6660:
6656:
6634:
6578:
6562:
6544:
6535:
6498:
6407:
6395:
6364:
6360:
6199:
6195:
6184:
6042:
6028:
6020:
4993:
4793:
4779:
4771:
31:
4298:
4249:
4063:
4027:
4017:
3925:
3782:
3696:1983/662d176e-fcf4-40bf-aa8c-5694a86bd41d
3694:
3633:
3623:
3582:
3565:de Vries, J; Archibald, JM (March 2018).
3541:
3501:
3452:
3395:
3352:1983/ad32d4da-6cb3-4ed6-add2-2415f81b46da
3350:
3340:
3272:
3158:
2916:
2906:
2878:
2545:The non-vascular land plants, namely the
2519:Learn how and when to remove this message
5836:International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)
4721:(7th ed.), New York: W.H. Freeman,
4737:Paleobotany and the Evolution of Plants
4615:International Journal of Plant Sciences
4151:Anderson, Anderson & Cleal (2007).
4125:, Beijing: Science Press, p. 366,
3132:"New concepts of kingdoms or organisms"
2849:
1072:The green algae and land plants form a
4178:
4168:
1128:2006 with additional names from Crane
654:. They are the most familiar group of
4086:Novíkov & Barabaš-Krasni (2015).
2717:period tree-like lycophytes (such as
7:
4204:. Harvard University Press. p.
4155:. Vol. 20. SANBI. p. 280.
3956:. Harvard University Press. p.
3820:John, Whitfield (19 February 2001).
3606:Del-Bem, Luiz-Eduardo (2018-05-31).
3376:Journal of Systematics and Evolution
3090:"On the Higher Taxa of Embryobionta"
2457:adding citations to reliable sources
7534:Extant Ordovician first appearances
4559:"A classification for extant ferns"
2203:
2177:
2152:
2085:
2060:
2035:
2025:
1999:
1974:
1946:
1869:
1844:
1819:
1794:
1784:
1718:
1711:
1685:
1662:
1637:
1612:
1589:
1564:
1541:
1515:
1455:
1429:
1419:
1409:
1296:
1257:
1227:
1197:
1170:
1143:
1135:
1084:estimates, the Viridiplantae split
25:
5841:ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)
2952:Pirani, J. R.; Prado, J. (2012).
7359:
6004:
6003:
4483:Current Opinion in Plant Biology
4422:10.1016/B978-012088457-5/50025-3
3543:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.03054.x
3388:10.1111/j.1759-6831.2010.00096.x
2908:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03433.x
2433:
1331:
1311:
1276:
1237:
1207:
1180:
1153:
976:generation with a single set of
584:
525:
216:
193:
179:
163:
149:
133:
119:
4238:Molecular Biology and Evolution
3822:"Land plants divided and ruled"
3425:Molecular Biology and Evolution
2444:needs additional citations for
7370:Current definitions of Plantae
2987:Keys to the phyla of organisms
787:of nurturing the young embryo
783:. The name derives from their
717:. Living embryophytes include
709:. Embryophytes consist of the
1:
4537:10.1016/j.tplants.2008.10.008
2684:Lycophytes and euphyllophytes
2607:Reconstruction of a plant of
5882:History of plant systematics
5469:Thorns, spines, and prickles
4414:Vascular Transport in Plants
3169:10.1126/science.163.3863.150
2580:) life cycle and unbranched
906:, and thereby precipitating
682:, having emerged within the
7529:Dapingian first appearances
4656:Chapman, Arthur D. (2009).
2786:-resistant capsules called
1404:
1060:species of the algae order
965:and keeps the plant rigid.
886:, a clade of multicellular
7550:
5698:Alternation of generations
4379:American Journal of Botany
4287:American Journal of Botany
4090:. Liga-Pres. p. 685.
4052:American Journal of Botany
3834:10.1038/conference010222-8
3807:"Systematische phylogenie"
3000:Biologisches Zentralblatt.
2989:. Missoula, Montana. 1939.
2942:Berlin: Gebr. Borntraeger.
2833:in reproductive tissues.
2798:or animals, most commonly
2756:
2734:
2698:
2668:
2533:Alternation of generations
2530:
1036:forms where the cell will
970:alternation of generations
7342:
7042:
6992:
6972:
6910:
6861:
6842:
6798:
6659:
6655:
6633:
6547:
6497:
6394:
6363:
6198:
6183:
6067:
5999:
5848:Cultivated plant taxonomy
5811:Biological classification
4808:
4503:10.1016/j.pbi.2006.11.006
4344:10.1038/s41477-018-0140-y
4096:10.13140/RG.2.1.4745.6164
3687:10.1016/j.cub.2021.07.038
3342:10.1016/j.cub.2018.01.063
3274:10.1016/j.cub.2011.04.021
3130:Whittaker, R. H. (1969).
2226:
2208:
2201:
2182:
2175:
2157:
2150:
2106:
2090:
2083:
2065:
2058:
2040:
2033:
2023:
2004:
1997:
1979:
1972:
1951:
1944:
1890:
1874:
1867:
1849:
1842:
1824:
1817:
1799:
1792:
1782:
1757:
1741:
1723:
1716:
1709:
1690:
1683:
1667:
1660:
1642:
1635:
1617:
1610:
1594:
1587:
1569:
1562:
1546:
1539:
1520:
1513:
1476:
1460:
1453:
1434:
1427:
1417:
1326:
1301:
1294:
1265:
1255:
1232:
1225:
1202:
1195:
1175:
1168:
1148:
1141:
1139:Living embryophytes
785:innovative characteristic
445:
438:
273:
268:
213:Scientific classification
211:
113:
34:
5708:Evolutionary development
4088:Modern plant systematics
3024:: 83–103. Archived from
2819:, which together form a
2553:(Anthocerotophyta), and
2425:Non-vascular land plants
751:diplobiontic life cycles
278:Non-vascular land plants
5359:Hypanthium (Floral cup)
4525:Trends in Plant Science
4019:10.1073/pnas.0603335103
3984:Becker & Marin 2009
2599:Rise of vascular plants
1895:Zosterophyllum deciduum
1096: million years ago
1089: million years ago
992:which produces haploid
831:in order to synthesize
5974:by author abbreviation
5898:Plant taxonomy systems
5816:Botanical nomenclature
4391:10.3732/ajb.91.10.1582
4065:10.3732/ajb.91.10.1683
3828:: conference010222–8.
3437:10.1093/molbev/msab106
2880:10.1098/rstb.1985.0077
2775:
2773:Aesculus hippocastanum
2696:
2611:
2542:
871:
674:. Embryophytes have a
348:– ferns and horsetails
41:Mid Ordovician–Present
7483:Paleobiology Database
5981:Botanical expeditions
4660:. Canberra, Australia
4251:10.1093/molbev/msh203
3046:Takhtajan, A (1964).
2782:era, reproduce using
2766:
2693:Lycopodiella inundata
2691:
2669:Further information:
2606:
2540:
2531:Further information:
1113:Some time during the
854:
749:). Embryophytes have
7365:List of plant orders
7245:Pinopsida (conifers)
7231:Cycadopsida (cycads)
7223:(living gymnosperms)
6720:Leiosporocerotopsida
6439:Nephroselmidophyceae
5713:Evolutionary history
5703:Double fertilization
5555:Cellular respiration
3893:on January 26, 2002.
2731:Ferns and horsetails
2625:440 to 360
2453:improve this article
1056:, as well as within
758:terrestrial habitats
402:Traditional groups:
361:Pteridospermatophyta
7073:Archaeopteridopsida
6806:Polysporangiophytes
6530:Klebsormidiophyceae
6513:Mesostigmatophyceae
6459:Chlorodendrophyceae
6423:Pyramimonadophyceae
6377:Prasinodermophyceae
6271:Compsopogonophyceae
4932:Non-vascular plants
4495:2007COPB...10....4B
4458:2010Geo....38.1079S
4010:2006PNAS..10315511Q
3775:1990Natur.348..491M
3679:2021CBio...31R1281D
3673:(19): R1281–R1298.
3571:The New Phytologist
3333:2018CBio...28E.733P
3265:2011CBio...21.R417D
3151:1969Sci...163..150W
2871:1985RSPTB.309..167G
2835:Sexual reproduction
1510:Polysporangiomorpha
892:Klebsormidiophyceae
781:reproductive organs
715:polysporangiophytes
7264:(flowering plants)
7185:Lyginopteridopsida
6978:Eophyllophytopsida
6931:Zosterophyllopsida
6869:Paratracheophytes*
6647:sensu strictissimo
6557:Coleochaetophyceae
6540:Phragmoplastophyta
6382:Palmophyllophyceae
6304:Glaucocystophyceae
6266:Stylonematophyceae
6261:Porphyridiophyceae
6050:Classification of
5437:Surface structures
5232:Flower development
4220:hemitracheophytes.
3918:10.1093/aob/mcp044
3002:67: 242-250. 1948.
2973:10.1002/tax.615014
2804:self-fertilization
2776:
2697:
2671:Polysporangiophyte
2612:
2543:
1761:Zosterophyllopsida
1437:Anthocerotophytina
972:. A multicellular
890:similar to extant
872:
703:Coleochaetophyceae
684:Phragmoplastophyta
393:– flowering plants
327:Zosterophyllophyta
7511:
7510:
7387:Taxon identifiers
7378:
7377:
7338:
7337:
7334:
7333:
7330:
7329:
7326:
7325:
7322:
7321:
7318:
7317:
7314:
7313:
7310:
7309:
7306:
7305:
7302:
7301:
7272:Basal angiosperms
7173:Gigantopteridales
7122:seed plant groups
7120:and other extinct
7087:
7086:
7061:Noeggerathiopsida
7029:
7028:
6984:Trimerophytopsida
6957:
6956:
6897:
6896:
6853:(vascular plants)
6818:Protracheophytes*
6794:
6793:
6790:
6789:
6757:Andreaeobryopsida
6698:Jungermanniopsida
6629:
6628:
6625:
6624:
6621:
6620:
6617:
6616:
6613:
6612:
6609:
6608:
6605:
6604:
6601:
6600:
6518:Chlorokybophyceae
6493:
6492:
6489:
6488:
6449:Chloropicophyceae
6390:
6389:
6369:Prasinodermophyta
6330:
6329:
6017:
6016:
5656:Herbaceous plants
5482:
5481:
4764:978-0-12-373972-8
4746:978-0-521-38294-6
4728:978-0-7167-1007-3
4719:Biology of Plants
4689:978-0-12-373972-8
4452:(12): 1079–1082,
4431:978-0-12-088457-5
4300:10.1002/ajb2.1048
4244:(10): 1813–1819.
4162:978-1-919976-39-6
4132:978-7-03-036616-0
4105:978-966-397-276-3
3967:978-0-6740-2183-9
3625:10.1111/nph.15191
3584:10.1111/nph.14975
3494:10.1111/nph.16874
3327:(5): 733–745.e2.
3259:(11): R417–R422.
3145:(3863): 150–160.
3012:Barkley, Fred A.
2985:Barkley, Fred A.
2938:Engler, A. 1892.
2865:(1138): 167–195,
2627:million years ago
2529:
2528:
2521:
2503:
2417:
2416:
2408:Paratracheophytes
2402:
2401:
2393:
2392:
2384:
2383:
2375:
2374:
2366:
2365:
2357:
2356:
2348:
2347:
2339:
2338:
2330:
2329:
2321:
2320:
2312:
2311:
2303:
2302:
2294:
2293:
2285:
2284:
2276:
2275:
2267:
2266:
2258:
2257:
2249:
2248:
2240:
2239:
2138:
2137:
2129:
2128:
2120:
2119:
2008:Trimerophytopsida
1933:
1932:
1924:
1923:
1915:
1914:
1906:
1905:
1771:
1770:
1499:
1498:
1490:
1489:
1479:Marchantiophytina
1398:
1397:
1389:
1388:
1380:
1379:
1371:
1370:
1362:
1361:
1353:
1352:
1344:
1343:
1098:into two clades:
797:biological energy
779:with specialized
693:green algae as a
658:that make up the
517:
516:
511:
502:
496:
487:
478:
472:
463:
454:
340:Trimerophytophyta
264:
108:
16:(Redirected from
7541:
7504:
7503:
7491:
7490:
7478:
7477:
7465:
7464:
7452:
7451:
7439:
7438:
7429:
7428:
7427:
7414:
7413:
7412:
7382:
7363:
7362:
7277:Core angiosperms
7265:
7224:
7219:Acrogymnospermae
7197:Peltaspermopsida
7179:Glossopteridales
7161:Corystospermales
7143:Callistophytales
7123:
7115:
7109:
7104:
7100:
7099:
7067:Aneurophytopsida
7049:
7044:
7040:
7036:
6994:
6970:
6966:
6925:Barinophytopsida
6912:
6908:
6904:
6868:
6863:
6859:
6855:
6854:
6844:
6826:Horneophytopsida
6817:
6812:
6808:
6800:
6740:
6725:Anthocerotopsida
6713:
6708:Anthocerotophyta
6688:Haplomitriopsida
6681:
6672:
6668:
6661:
6657:
6649:
6635:
6588:
6579:
6573:Zygnematophyceae
6563:
6545:
6536:
6506:
6499:
6474:Trebouxiophyceae
6444:Picocystophyceae
6408:
6404:
6396:
6365:
6361:
6357:
6347:
6249:
6200:
6196:
6192:
6185:
6096:
6076:
6061:
6044:
6037:
6030:
6021:
6007:
6006:
5986:Individual trees
5661:Secondary growth
5632:Succulent plants
5620:Prostrate shrubs
5503:Apical dominance
5488:Plant physiology
5449:Epicuticular wax
4994:
4987:
4978:Plant morphology
4795:
4788:
4781:
4772:
4767:
4749:
4731:
4705:
4702:
4693:
4692:
4675:
4669:
4668:
4666:
4665:
4653:
4647:
4646:
4610:
4604:
4603:
4601:
4600:
4594:
4588:. Archived from
4578:10.2307/25065646
4563:
4554:
4548:
4547:
4520:
4514:
4513:
4475:
4469:
4468:
4466:10.1130/G31182.1
4441:
4435:
4434:
4409:
4403:
4401:
4373:
4364:
4363:
4327:
4321:
4320:
4302:
4278:
4272:
4271:
4253:
4229:
4223:
4222:
4203:
4193:
4187:
4186:
4180:
4176:
4174:
4166:
4148:
4142:
4141:
4140:
4139:
4116:
4110:
4109:
4083:
4077:
4076:
4067:
4047:
4041:
4040:
4031:
4021:
3993:
3987:
3981:
3975:
3974:
3955:
3945:
3939:
3938:
3929:
3906:Annals of Botany
3901:
3895:
3894:
3889:. Archived from
3883:
3877:
3876:
3874:
3873:
3864:. Archived from
3858:
3852:
3851:
3844:
3838:
3837:
3817:
3811:
3810:
3802:
3796:
3795:
3786:
3784:10.1038/348491a0
3758:
3752:
3751:
3723:
3717:
3716:
3698:
3662:
3656:
3655:
3637:
3627:
3618:(4): 1150–1153.
3603:
3597:
3596:
3586:
3577:(4): 1428–1434.
3562:
3556:
3555:
3545:
3525:
3516:
3515:
3505:
3473:
3467:
3466:
3456:
3431:(8): 3332–3344.
3416:
3410:
3409:
3399:
3371:
3365:
3364:
3354:
3344:
3312:
3303:
3302:
3276:
3244:
3238:
3237:
3201:
3195:
3194:
3192:
3191:
3185:
3179:. Archived from
3162:
3136:
3127:
3121:
3120:
3094:
3085:
3079:
3078:
3052:
3043:
3037:
3036:
3034:
3033:
3009:
3003:
2996:
2990:
2983:
2977:
2976:
2967:(5): 1096–1098.
2958:
2949:
2943:
2936:
2930:
2929:
2920:
2910:
2890:
2884:
2883:
2882:
2854:
2675:Horneophytopsida
2628:
2622:periods (around
2524:
2517:
2513:
2510:
2504:
2502:
2461:
2437:
2429:
2204:
2178:
2153:
2086:
2061:
2036:
2026:
2000:
1975:
1947:
1870:
1845:
1820:
1795:
1785:
1745:Barinophytopsida
1719:
1712:
1686:
1663:
1638:
1613:
1590:
1565:
1542:
1524:Horneophytopsida
1516:
1456:
1430:
1420:
1410:
1405:
1335:
1315:
1308:flowering plants
1297:
1280:
1258:
1241:
1228:
1211:
1198:
1184:
1171:
1157:
1144:
1136:
1097:
1090:
835:while releasing
770:aquatic habitats
747:flowering plants
707:Zygnematophyceae
649:
648:
645:
644:
641:
638:
635:
632:
629:
624:
623:
620:
617:
614:
611:
608:
605:
602:
599:
596:
593:
590:
578:, also known as
569:
568:
565:
564:
561:
558:
555:
552:
549:
546:
543:
540:
537:
534:
531:
506:
500:
491:
482:
476:
467:
458:
449:
355:(spermatophytes)
304:Horneophytopsida
297:Anthocerotophyta
259:
221:
220:
197:
183:
167:
153:
137:
123:
106:
105:
42:
38:Temporal range:
32:
21:
7549:
7548:
7544:
7543:
7542:
7540:
7539:
7538:
7514:
7513:
7512:
7507:
7499:
7494:
7486:
7481:
7473:
7468:
7460:
7455:
7447:
7442:
7434:
7432:
7423:
7422:
7417:
7408:
7407:
7402:
7389:
7379:
7374:
7298:
7263:
7262:
7254:
7222:
7221:
7213:
7167:Czekanowskiales
7121:
7119:
7117:
7116:
7113:
7107:
7097:
7096:
7092:
7083:
7047:
7034:
7025:
6997:Moniliformopses
6988:
6962:
6953:
6903:Eutracheophytes
6902:
6893:
6866:
6852:
6851:
6847:
6838:
6815:
6803:
6786:
6777:Polytrichopsida
6772:Tetraphidopsida
6738:
6737:
6729:
6711:
6710:
6702:
6693:Marchantiopsida
6679:
6678:
6676:Marchantiophyta
6664:
6651:
6597:
6586:
6585:
6577:
6561:
6534:
6502:
6485:
6427:
6418:Mamiellophyceae
6399:
6386:
6355:
6349:
6339:
6338:
6326:
6308:
6290:
6286:Florideophyceae
6276:Rhodellophyceae
6256:Cyanidiophyceae
6247:
6246:
6238:
6218:
6188:
6179:
6178:
6094:
6072:
6063:
6048:
6018:
6013:
5995:
5964:Botanical terms
5957:
5943:
5907:
5853:Citrus taxonomy
5831:Author citation
5797:
5691:
5670:
5592:
5586:
5582:Turgor pressure
5490:
5478:
5432:
5247:Floral symmetry
5165:
5157:
5087:
5076:Vascular bundle
5071:Vascular tissue
5030:
4990:
4981:
4980:
4966:
4937:Vascular plants
4902:
4898:Plant pathology
4822:
4804:
4799:
4765:
4752:
4747:
4734:
4729:
4716:
4713:
4708:
4703:
4696:
4690:
4677:
4676:
4672:
4663:
4661:
4655:
4654:
4650:
4612:
4611:
4607:
4598:
4596:
4592:
4561:
4556:
4555:
4551:
4522:
4521:
4517:
4477:
4476:
4472:
4443:
4442:
4438:
4432:
4411:
4410:
4406:
4385:(10): 1582–98,
4375:
4374:
4367:
4329:
4328:
4324:
4280:
4279:
4275:
4231:
4230:
4226:
4216:
4195:
4194:
4190:
4177:
4167:
4163:
4150:
4149:
4145:
4137:
4135:
4133:
4118:
4117:
4113:
4106:
4085:
4084:
4080:
4058:(10): 1683–99,
4049:
4048:
4044:
4004:(42): 15511–6,
3995:
3994:
3990:
3982:
3978:
3968:
3947:
3946:
3942:
3912:(7): 999–1004,
3903:
3902:
3898:
3885:
3884:
3880:
3871:
3869:
3860:
3859:
3855:
3846:
3845:
3841:
3819:
3818:
3814:
3804:
3803:
3799:
3760:
3759:
3755:
3740:10.2307/1297481
3725:
3724:
3720:
3667:Current Biology
3664:
3663:
3659:
3612:New Phytologist
3605:
3604:
3600:
3564:
3563:
3559:
3530:New Phytologist
3527:
3526:
3519:
3482:New Phytologist
3475:
3474:
3470:
3418:
3417:
3413:
3373:
3372:
3368:
3321:Current Biology
3314:
3313:
3306:
3253:Current Biology
3246:
3245:
3241:
3218:10.2307/2406516
3203:
3202:
3198:
3189:
3187:
3183:
3160:10.1.1.403.5430
3134:
3129:
3128:
3124:
3109:10.2307/1217531
3092:
3087:
3086:
3082:
3067:10.2307/1216134
3050:
3045:
3044:
3040:
3031:
3029:
3011:
3010:
3006:
2997:
2993:
2984:
2980:
2956:
2951:
2950:
2946:
2937:
2933:
2895:New Phytologist
2892:
2891:
2887:
2856:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2761:
2755:
2739:
2733:
2703:
2686:
2681:
2623:
2601:
2535:
2525:
2514:
2508:
2505:
2462:
2460:
2450:
2438:
2427:
2422:
2413:
2412:
2409:
2403:
2394:
2385:
2376:
2367:
2358:
2349:
2340:
2331:
2322:
2313:
2304:
2295:
2286:
2277:
2268:
2259:
2250:
2241:
2215:(paraphyletic)
2214:
2139:
2130:
2121:
2030:Moniliformopses
1934:
1925:
1916:
1907:
1772:
1706:Eutracheophytes
1500:
1491:
1399:
1390:
1381:
1372:
1363:
1354:
1345:
1262:Polypodiophytes
1092:
1085:
1082:molecular clock
1080:. According to
1070:
1062:Trentepohliales
897:
870:in a greenhouse
849:
821:carbon fixation
811:to harvest the
676:common ancestor
656:photoautotrophs
626:
587:
583:
528:
524:
501:Whittaker, 1969
400:
342:– trimerophytes
329:– zosterophylls
314:(tracheophytes)
312:Vascular plants
285:Marchantiophyta
258:
215:
207:
206:
205:
204:
203:
198:
190:
189:
184:
175:
174:
173:
168:
160:
159:
154:
145:
144:
143:
138:
130:
129:
124:
109:
104:
103:
98:
93:
88:
83:
78:
73:
68:
63:
58:
53:
48:
40:
39:
36:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7547:
7545:
7537:
7536:
7531:
7526:
7516:
7515:
7509:
7508:
7506:
7505:
7492:
7479:
7466:
7453:
7440:
7430:
7415:
7399:
7397:
7391:
7390:
7385:
7376:
7375:
7373:
7372:
7367:
7357:
7351:
7343:
7340:
7339:
7336:
7335:
7332:
7331:
7328:
7327:
7324:
7323:
7320:
7319:
7316:
7315:
7312:
7311:
7308:
7307:
7304:
7303:
7300:
7299:
7297:
7296:
7295:
7294:
7289:
7284:
7274:
7268:
7266:
7256:
7255:
7253:
7252:
7247:
7242:
7233:
7227:
7225:
7215:
7214:
7212:
7211:
7205:
7203:Pentoxylopsida
7199:
7193:
7187:
7181:
7175:
7169:
7163:
7157:
7151:
7145:
7139:
7137:Calamopityales
7133:
7126:
7124:
7101:
7094:Spermatophytes
7089:
7088:
7085:
7084:
7082:
7081:
7075:
7069:
7063:
7056:
7054:
7051:Progymnosperms
7037:
7031:
7030:
7027:
7026:
7024:
7023:
7016:Polypodiopsida
7013:
7011:Cladoxylopsida
7007:
7000:
6998:
6990:
6989:
6987:
6986:
6980:
6973:
6967:
6964:Euphyllophytes
6959:
6958:
6955:
6954:
6952:
6951:
6936:Lycopodiopsida
6933:
6927:
6920:
6918:
6905:
6899:
6898:
6895:
6894:
6892:
6891:
6885:
6879:
6877:Cooksoniopsida
6872:
6870:
6856:
6840:
6839:
6837:
6836:
6828:
6821:
6819:
6809:
6796:
6795:
6792:
6791:
6788:
6787:
6785:
6784:
6779:
6774:
6769:
6767:Oedipodiopsida
6764:
6759:
6754:
6749:
6743:
6741:
6731:
6730:
6728:
6727:
6722:
6716:
6714:
6704:
6703:
6701:
6700:
6695:
6690:
6684:
6682:
6669:
6653:
6652:
6638:
6631:
6630:
6627:
6626:
6623:
6622:
6619:
6618:
6615:
6614:
6611:
6610:
6607:
6606:
6603:
6602:
6599:
6598:
6596:
6595:
6591:
6589:
6576:
6575:
6569:
6567:
6560:
6559:
6554:
6548:
6542:
6533:
6532:
6527:
6520:
6515:
6509:
6507:
6495:
6494:
6491:
6490:
6487:
6486:
6484:
6483:
6482:
6481:
6476:
6471:
6461:
6456:
6451:
6446:
6441:
6435:
6433:
6429:
6428:
6426:
6425:
6420:
6414:
6412:
6411:Prasinophytina
6405:
6392:
6391:
6388:
6387:
6385:
6384:
6379:
6373:
6371:
6358:
6332:
6331:
6328:
6327:
6325:
6324:
6318:
6316:
6314:incertae sedis
6310:
6309:
6307:
6306:
6300:
6298:
6292:
6291:
6289:
6288:
6283:
6278:
6273:
6268:
6263:
6258:
6252:
6250:
6240:
6239:
6237:
6236:
6228:
6226:
6220:
6219:
6217:
6216:
6208:
6206:
6193:
6190:Archaeplastida
6181:
6180:
6177:
6176:
6175:
6174:
6173:
6172:
6169:Mesomycetozoea
6166:
6161:
6151:
6141:
6140:
6139:
6134:
6129:
6124:
6119:
6118:
6117:
6105:Diaphoretickes
6102:
6097:
6092:
6087:
6082:
6077:
6069:
6068:
6065:
6064:
6052:Archaeplastida
6049:
6047:
6046:
6039:
6032:
6024:
6015:
6014:
6012:
6011:
6000:
5997:
5996:
5994:
5993:
5988:
5983:
5978:
5977:
5976:
5966:
5960:
5958:
5956:
5955:
5954:Related topics
5952:
5948:
5945:
5944:
5942:
5941:
5936:
5931:
5926:
5921:
5915:
5913:
5909:
5908:
5906:
5905:
5903:Taxonomic rank
5900:
5895:
5889:
5884:
5879:
5878:
5877:
5876:
5875:
5870:
5865:
5855:
5845:
5844:
5843:
5838:
5833:
5828:
5823:
5821:Botanical name
5813:
5807:
5805:
5803:Plant taxonomy
5799:
5798:
5796:
5795:
5794:
5793:
5788:
5787:
5786:
5779:Megasporangium
5776:
5775:
5774:
5767:Microsporangia
5759:
5758:
5757:
5752:
5747:
5742:
5732:
5727:
5722:
5721:
5720:
5710:
5705:
5700:
5694:
5692:
5690:
5689:
5684:
5678:
5672:
5671:
5669:
5668:
5663:
5658:
5653:
5652:
5651:
5650:
5649:
5639:
5634:
5629:
5628:
5627:
5622:
5612:
5607:
5605:Cushion plants
5596:
5594:
5588:
5587:
5585:
5584:
5579:
5574:
5569:
5564:
5559:
5558:
5557:
5552:
5542:
5540:Plant hormones
5537:
5532:
5531:
5530:
5523:Photosynthesis
5520:
5515:
5510:
5505:
5500:
5494:
5492:
5484:
5483:
5480:
5479:
5477:
5476:
5471:
5466:
5461:
5456:
5451:
5446:
5440:
5438:
5434:
5433:
5431:
5430:
5425:
5420:
5415:
5410:
5409:
5408:
5403:
5398:
5388:
5387:
5386:
5381:
5376:
5371:
5361:
5356:
5355:
5354:
5353:
5352:
5347:
5342:
5341:
5340:
5335:
5315:
5310:
5305:
5304:
5303:
5302:
5301:
5296:
5286:
5281:
5276:
5271:
5266:
5256:
5255:
5254:
5249:
5244:
5242:Floral formula
5239:
5237:Floral diagram
5234:
5229:
5219:
5218:
5217:
5212:
5207:
5206:
5205:
5200:
5190:
5180:
5175:
5169:
5167:
5166:(incl. Flower)
5159:
5158:
5156:
5155:
5154:
5153:
5148:
5143:
5142:
5141:
5136:
5126:
5116:
5111:
5106:
5101:
5095:
5093:
5089:
5088:
5086:
5085:
5080:
5079:
5078:
5068:
5066:Storage organs
5063:
5058:
5057:
5056:
5046:
5040:
5038:
5032:
5031:
5029:
5028:
5023:
5018:
5013:
5008:
5002:
5000:
4991:
4989:
4988:
4974:
4968:
4967:
4965:
4964:
4959:
4954:
4952:Spermatophytes
4949:
4944:
4939:
4934:
4929:
4924:
4922:Archaeplastida
4919:
4913:
4911:
4904:
4903:
4901:
4900:
4895:
4890:
4885:
4884:
4883:
4876:Phytogeography
4873:
4871:Phytochemistry
4868:
4863:
4858:
4853:
4848:
4843:
4838:
4832:
4830:
4828:Subdisciplines
4824:
4823:
4821:
4820:
4815:
4809:
4806:
4805:
4800:
4798:
4797:
4790:
4783:
4775:
4769:
4768:
4763:
4750:
4745:
4732:
4727:
4712:
4709:
4707:
4706:
4694:
4688:
4670:
4648:
4627:10.1086/314221
4605:
4572:(3): 705–731.
4549:
4515:
4479:Beerling, D.J.
4470:
4436:
4430:
4404:
4365:
4338:(5): 269–271.
4322:
4293:(3): 291–301.
4273:
4224:
4214:
4188:
4179:|journal=
4161:
4143:
4131:
4111:
4104:
4078:
4042:
3988:
3986:, p. 1001
3976:
3966:
3940:
3896:
3878:
3853:
3839:
3812:
3797:
3753:
3734:(7): 445–450.
3718:
3657:
3598:
3557:
3517:
3488:(2): 735–754.
3468:
3411:
3366:
3304:
3239:
3212:(1): 242–245.
3196:
3122:
3103:(4): 129–134.
3080:
3061:(5): 160–164.
3038:
3004:
2991:
2978:
2944:
2931:
2885:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2769:horse chestnut
2767:Large seed of
2757:Main article:
2754:
2751:
2735:Main article:
2732:
2729:
2701:Lycopodiophyta
2699:Main article:
2685:
2682:
2600:
2597:
2527:
2526:
2441:
2439:
2432:
2426:
2423:
2421:
2418:
2415:
2414:
2410:
2407:
2406:
2404:
2400:
2399:
2396:
2395:
2391:
2390:
2387:
2386:
2382:
2381:
2378:
2377:
2373:
2372:
2369:
2368:
2364:
2363:
2360:
2359:
2355:
2354:
2351:
2350:
2346:
2345:
2342:
2341:
2337:
2336:
2333:
2332:
2328:
2327:
2324:
2323:
2319:
2318:
2315:
2314:
2310:
2309:
2306:
2305:
2301:
2300:
2297:
2296:
2292:
2291:
2288:
2287:
2283:
2282:
2279:
2278:
2274:
2273:
2270:
2269:
2265:
2264:
2261:
2260:
2256:
2255:
2252:
2251:
2247:
2246:
2243:
2242:
2238:
2237:
2234:
2233:
2231:(seed plants)
2229:Spermatophytes
2225:
2222:
2221:
2218:
2217:
2212:Progymnosperms
2207:
2202:
2200:
2196:
2195:
2192:
2191:
2181:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2170:
2167:
2166:
2156:
2151:
2149:
2145:
2144:
2141:
2140:
2136:
2135:
2132:
2131:
2127:
2126:
2123:
2122:
2118:
2117:
2114:
2113:
2109:Polypodiopsida
2105:
2102:
2101:
2098:
2097:
2094:Cladoxylopsida
2089:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2078:
2075:
2074:
2070:Pauthecophyton
2064:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2053:
2050:
2049:
2039:
2034:
2032:
2024:
2022:
2016:
2015:
2012:
2011:
2003:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1992:
1989:
1988:
1984:Eophyllophyton
1978:
1973:
1971:
1969:Euphyllophytes
1965:
1964:
1961:
1960:
1950:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1939:
1936:
1935:
1931:
1930:
1927:
1926:
1922:
1921:
1918:
1917:
1913:
1912:
1909:
1908:
1904:
1903:
1900:
1899:
1889:
1886:
1885:
1882:
1881:
1877:Lycopodiopsida
1873:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1862:
1859:
1858:
1848:
1843:
1841:
1838:
1837:
1834:
1833:
1823:
1818:
1816:
1813:
1812:
1809:
1808:
1798:
1793:
1791:
1783:
1781:
1778:
1777:
1774:
1773:
1769:
1768:
1765:
1764:
1756:
1753:
1752:
1749:
1748:
1740:
1737:
1736:
1733:
1732:
1722:
1717:
1715:
1710:
1708:
1702:
1701:
1698:
1697:
1689:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1678:
1675:
1674:
1666:
1661:
1659:
1656:
1655:
1652:
1651:
1641:
1636:
1634:
1631:
1630:
1627:
1626:
1616:
1611:
1609:
1606:
1605:
1602:
1601:
1593:
1588:
1586:
1583:
1582:
1579:
1578:
1568:
1563:
1561:
1558:
1557:
1554:
1553:
1545:
1540:
1538:
1536:Tracheophytina
1532:
1531:
1528:
1527:
1519:
1514:
1512:
1506:
1505:
1502:
1501:
1497:
1496:
1493:
1492:
1488:
1487:
1484:
1483:
1475:
1472:
1471:
1468:
1467:
1459:
1454:
1452:
1446:
1445:
1442:
1441:
1433:
1428:
1426:
1418:
1416:
1408:
1396:
1395:
1392:
1391:
1387:
1386:
1383:
1382:
1378:
1377:
1374:
1373:
1369:
1368:
1365:
1364:
1360:
1359:
1356:
1355:
1351:
1350:
1347:
1346:
1342:
1341:
1338:
1337:
1325:
1322:
1321:
1318:
1317:
1300:
1295:
1293:
1291:Spermatophytes
1287:
1286:
1283:
1282:
1264:
1256:
1254:
1252:Euphyllophytes
1248:
1247:
1244:
1243:
1231:
1226:
1224:
1218:
1217:
1214:
1213:
1201:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1190:
1187:
1186:
1174:
1169:
1167:
1164:
1163:
1160:
1159:
1147:
1142:
1140:
1134:
1069:
1066:
1046:Coleochaetales
904:global cooling
902:), leading to
900:greenhouse gas
895:
848:
845:
825:carbon dioxide
801:photosynthesis
515:
514:
513:
512:
503:
497:
488:
479:
473:
464:
455:
443:
442:
436:
435:
434:
433:
428:
420:
412:
399:
398:
397:
396:
395:
394:
388:
382:
376:
370:
364:
349:
346:Polypodiophyta
343:
336:
333:Lycopodiophyta
330:
323:
322:– rhyniophytes
308:
307:
306:
300:
294:
288:
271:
270:
266:
265:
253:
246:
245:
240:
233:
232:
227:
223:
222:
209:
208:
199:
192:
191:
185:
178:
177:
176:
169:
162:
161:
155:
148:
147:
146:
139:
132:
131:
125:
118:
117:
116:
115:
114:
111:
110:
99:
94:
89:
84:
79:
74:
69:
64:
59:
54:
49:
44:
43:
37:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7546:
7535:
7532:
7530:
7527:
7525:
7522:
7521:
7519:
7502:
7497:
7493:
7489:
7484:
7480:
7476:
7471:
7467:
7463:
7458:
7454:
7450:
7445:
7441:
7437:
7431:
7426:
7420:
7416:
7411:
7405:
7401:
7400:
7398:
7396:
7392:
7388:
7383:
7371:
7368:
7366:
7358:
7356:
7352:
7349:
7345:
7344:
7341:
7293:
7290:
7288:
7285:
7283:
7280:
7279:
7278:
7275:
7273:
7270:
7269:
7267:
7261:
7257:
7251:
7248:
7246:
7243:
7241:
7239:
7234:
7232:
7229:
7228:
7226:
7220:
7216:
7210:
7206:
7204:
7200:
7198:
7194:
7192:
7188:
7186:
7182:
7180:
7176:
7174:
7170:
7168:
7164:
7162:
7158:
7156:
7152:
7150:
7146:
7144:
7140:
7138:
7134:
7132:
7131:Bennettitales
7128:
7127:
7125:
7112:
7111:Pteridosperms
7105:
7102:
7098:(seed plants)
7095:
7090:
7080:
7079:Protopityales
7076:
7074:
7070:
7068:
7064:
7062:
7058:
7057:
7055:
7052:
7045:
7041:
7038:
7032:
7021:
7017:
7014:
7012:
7008:
7006:
7002:
7001:
6999:
6995:
6991:
6985:
6981:
6979:
6975:
6974:
6971:
6968:
6965:
6960:
6949:
6945:
6941:
6937:
6934:
6932:
6928:
6926:
6922:
6921:
6919:
6917:
6913:
6909:
6906:
6900:
6890:
6886:
6884:
6880:
6878:
6874:
6873:
6871:
6864:
6860:
6857:
6850:
6849:Tracheophytes
6845:
6841:
6835:
6834:
6829:
6827:
6823:
6822:
6820:
6813:
6810:
6807:
6801:
6797:
6783:
6780:
6778:
6775:
6773:
6770:
6768:
6765:
6763:
6762:Andreaeopsida
6760:
6758:
6755:
6753:
6750:
6748:
6745:
6744:
6742:
6736:
6732:
6726:
6723:
6721:
6718:
6717:
6715:
6709:
6705:
6699:
6696:
6694:
6691:
6689:
6686:
6685:
6683:
6677:
6673:
6670:
6667:
6662:
6658:
6654:
6650:
6648:
6641:
6636:
6632:
6593:
6592:
6590:
6587:(land plants)
6584:
6580:
6574:
6571:
6570:
6568:
6564:
6558:
6555:
6553:
6550:
6549:
6546:
6543:
6541:
6537:
6531:
6528:
6526:
6525:
6521:
6519:
6516:
6514:
6511:
6510:
6508:
6505:
6500:
6496:
6480:
6479:Chlorophyceae
6477:
6475:
6472:
6470:
6467:
6466:
6465:
6462:
6460:
6457:
6455:
6454:Pedinophyceae
6452:
6450:
6447:
6445:
6442:
6440:
6437:
6436:
6434:
6432:Chlorophytina
6430:
6424:
6421:
6419:
6416:
6415:
6413:
6409:
6406:
6403:
6397:
6393:
6383:
6380:
6378:
6375:
6374:
6372:
6370:
6366:
6362:
6359:
6353:
6348:
6346:
6337:
6336:Viridiplantae
6333:
6323:
6320:
6319:
6317:
6315:
6311:
6305:
6302:
6301:
6299:
6297:
6293:
6287:
6284:
6282:
6281:Bangiophyceae
6279:
6277:
6274:
6272:
6269:
6267:
6264:
6262:
6259:
6257:
6254:
6253:
6251:
6245:
6241:
6235:
6234:
6230:
6229:
6227:
6225:
6221:
6215:
6214:
6210:
6209:
6207:
6205:
6201:
6197:
6194:
6191:
6186:
6182:
6170:
6167:
6165:
6162:
6160:
6157:
6156:
6155:
6152:
6150:
6147:
6146:
6145:
6142:
6138:
6135:
6133:
6132:Stramenopiles
6130:
6128:
6125:
6123:
6120:
6116:
6113:
6112:
6111:
6108:
6107:
6106:
6103:
6101:
6098:
6095:(major groups
6093:
6091:
6088:
6086:
6083:
6081:
6078:
6075:
6071:
6070:
6066:
6062:
6060:
6053:
6045:
6040:
6038:
6033:
6031:
6026:
6025:
6022:
6010:
6002:
6001:
5998:
5992:
5989:
5987:
5984:
5982:
5979:
5975:
5972:
5971:
5970:
5967:
5965:
5962:
5961:
5959:
5953:
5950:
5949:
5946:
5940:
5939:Phytochemical
5937:
5935:
5932:
5930:
5927:
5925:
5922:
5920:
5917:
5916:
5914:
5910:
5904:
5901:
5899:
5896:
5893:
5890:
5888:
5885:
5883:
5880:
5874:
5871:
5869:
5866:
5864:
5861:
5860:
5859:
5856:
5854:
5851:
5850:
5849:
5846:
5842:
5839:
5837:
5834:
5832:
5829:
5827:
5824:
5822:
5819:
5818:
5817:
5814:
5812:
5809:
5808:
5806:
5804:
5800:
5792:
5789:
5785:
5782:
5781:
5780:
5777:
5773:
5770:
5769:
5768:
5765:
5764:
5763:
5760:
5756:
5753:
5751:
5748:
5746:
5743:
5741:
5738:
5737:
5736:
5733:
5731:
5728:
5726:
5723:
5719:
5716:
5715:
5714:
5711:
5709:
5706:
5704:
5701:
5699:
5696:
5695:
5693:
5688:
5685:
5683:
5680:
5679:
5677:
5673:
5667:
5664:
5662:
5659:
5657:
5654:
5648:
5645:
5644:
5643:
5640:
5638:
5635:
5633:
5630:
5626:
5623:
5621:
5618:
5617:
5616:
5613:
5611:
5608:
5606:
5603:
5602:
5601:
5598:
5597:
5595:
5589:
5583:
5580:
5578:
5577:Transpiration
5575:
5573:
5570:
5568:
5565:
5563:
5560:
5556:
5553:
5551:
5548:
5547:
5546:
5543:
5541:
5538:
5536:
5533:
5529:
5526:
5525:
5524:
5521:
5519:
5516:
5514:
5511:
5509:
5506:
5504:
5501:
5499:
5496:
5495:
5493:
5489:
5485:
5475:
5472:
5470:
5467:
5465:
5462:
5460:
5457:
5455:
5452:
5450:
5447:
5445:
5442:
5441:
5439:
5435:
5429:
5426:
5424:
5421:
5419:
5416:
5414:
5411:
5407:
5404:
5402:
5399:
5397:
5394:
5393:
5392:
5389:
5385:
5382:
5380:
5377:
5375:
5372:
5370:
5367:
5366:
5365:
5364:Inflorescence
5362:
5360:
5357:
5351:
5348:
5346:
5343:
5339:
5336:
5334:
5331:
5330:
5329:
5326:
5325:
5324:
5321:
5320:
5319:
5316:
5314:
5311:
5309:
5306:
5300:
5297:
5295:
5292:
5291:
5290:
5287:
5285:
5282:
5280:
5277:
5275:
5272:
5270:
5267:
5265:
5262:
5261:
5260:
5257:
5253:
5250:
5248:
5245:
5243:
5240:
5238:
5235:
5233:
5230:
5228:
5225:
5224:
5223:
5220:
5216:
5213:
5211:
5208:
5204:
5201:
5199:
5196:
5195:
5194:
5191:
5189:
5186:
5185:
5184:
5181:
5179:
5176:
5174:
5171:
5170:
5168:
5164:
5160:
5152:
5149:
5147:
5144:
5140:
5137:
5135:
5132:
5131:
5130:
5127:
5125:
5122:
5121:
5120:
5117:
5115:
5112:
5110:
5107:
5105:
5102:
5100:
5097:
5096:
5094:
5090:
5084:
5081:
5077:
5074:
5073:
5072:
5069:
5067:
5064:
5062:
5059:
5055:
5052:
5051:
5050:
5049:Ground tissue
5047:
5045:
5042:
5041:
5039:
5037:
5033:
5027:
5024:
5022:
5019:
5017:
5014:
5012:
5009:
5007:
5004:
5003:
5001:
4999:
4995:
4992:
4985:
4979:
4976:
4975:
4973:
4972:Plant anatomy
4969:
4963:
4960:
4958:
4955:
4953:
4950:
4948:
4945:
4943:
4940:
4938:
4935:
4933:
4930:
4928:
4925:
4923:
4920:
4918:
4915:
4914:
4912:
4909:
4905:
4899:
4896:
4894:
4893:Plant ecology
4891:
4889:
4888:Plant anatomy
4886:
4882:
4879:
4878:
4877:
4874:
4872:
4869:
4867:
4864:
4862:
4859:
4857:
4854:
4852:
4849:
4847:
4844:
4842:
4839:
4837:
4836:Archaeobotany
4834:
4833:
4831:
4829:
4825:
4819:
4816:
4814:
4811:
4810:
4807:
4803:
4796:
4791:
4789:
4784:
4782:
4777:
4776:
4773:
4766:
4760:
4756:
4751:
4748:
4742:
4738:
4733:
4730:
4724:
4720:
4715:
4714:
4710:
4701:
4699:
4695:
4691:
4685:
4681:
4674:
4671:
4659:
4652:
4649:
4644:
4640:
4636:
4632:
4628:
4624:
4621:(6): 81–103.
4620:
4616:
4609:
4606:
4595:on 2008-02-26
4591:
4587:
4583:
4579:
4575:
4571:
4567:
4560:
4553:
4550:
4546:
4542:
4538:
4534:
4530:
4526:
4519:
4516:
4512:
4508:
4504:
4500:
4496:
4492:
4488:
4484:
4480:
4474:
4471:
4467:
4463:
4459:
4455:
4451:
4447:
4440:
4437:
4433:
4427:
4423:
4419:
4415:
4408:
4405:
4400:
4396:
4392:
4388:
4384:
4380:
4372:
4370:
4366:
4361:
4357:
4353:
4349:
4345:
4341:
4337:
4333:
4332:Nature Plants
4326:
4323:
4318:
4314:
4310:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4292:
4288:
4284:
4277:
4274:
4269:
4265:
4261:
4257:
4252:
4247:
4243:
4239:
4235:
4228:
4225:
4221:
4217:
4215:9780674021839
4211:
4207:
4202:
4201:
4192:
4189:
4184:
4172:
4164:
4158:
4154:
4147:
4144:
4134:
4128:
4124:
4123:
4115:
4112:
4107:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4082:
4079:
4075:
4071:
4066:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4046:
4043:
4039:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4011:
4007:
4003:
3999:
3992:
3989:
3985:
3980:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3963:
3959:
3954:
3953:
3944:
3941:
3937:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3919:
3915:
3911:
3907:
3900:
3897:
3892:
3888:
3882:
3879:
3868:on 2013-06-02
3867:
3863:
3857:
3854:
3849:
3843:
3840:
3835:
3831:
3827:
3823:
3816:
3813:
3808:
3801:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3785:
3780:
3776:
3772:
3769:(6301): 491,
3768:
3764:
3757:
3754:
3749:
3745:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3722:
3719:
3714:
3710:
3706:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3688:
3684:
3680:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3661:
3658:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3636:
3631:
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3599:
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3407:
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3398:
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3385:
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3377:
3370:
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3362:
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3353:
3348:
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3338:
3334:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3311:
3309:
3305:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3275:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3243:
3240:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3211:
3207:
3200:
3197:
3186:on 2017-11-17
3182:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3133:
3126:
3123:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3091:
3084:
3081:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3049:
3042:
3039:
3028:on 2020-04-21
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3008:
3005:
3001:
2995:
2992:
2988:
2982:
2979:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2955:
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2928:
2924:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2889:
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2881:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2853:
2850:
2844:
2842:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2831:repairing DNA
2828:
2824:
2822:
2818:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2774:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2759:Spermatophyte
2752:
2750:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2730:
2728:
2724:
2722:
2721:
2720:Lepidodendron
2716:
2715:Carboniferous
2711:
2709:
2702:
2695:, a lycophyte
2694:
2690:
2683:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2667:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2647:
2644:
2643:
2638:
2637:
2632:
2626:
2621:
2617:
2610:
2605:
2598:
2596:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2584:(the plant's
2583:
2579:
2575:
2570:
2568:
2567:Arctic–alpine
2564:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2549:(Bryophyta),
2548:
2539:
2534:
2523:
2520:
2512:
2509:November 2018
2501:
2498:
2494:
2491:
2487:
2484:
2480:
2477:
2473:
2470: –
2469:
2468:"Embryophyte"
2465:
2464:Find sources:
2458:
2454:
2448:
2447:
2442:This section
2440:
2436:
2431:
2430:
2424:
2419:
2405:
2398:
2397:
2389:
2388:
2380:
2379:
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2326:
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2254:
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2219:
2216:
2213:
2206:
2205:
2198:
2197:
2194:
2193:
2190:
2189:
2188:
2180:
2179:
2173:
2172:
2169:
2168:
2165:
2164:
2163:
2155:
2154:
2147:
2146:
2143:
2142:
2134:
2133:
2125:
2124:
2116:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2104:
2103:
2100:
2099:
2096:
2095:
2088:
2087:
2081:
2080:
2077:
2076:
2073:
2072:
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2063:
2062:
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2055:
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2051:
2048:
2047:
2046:
2038:
2037:
2031:
2028:
2027:
2021:
2018:
2017:
2014:
2013:
2010:
2009:
2002:
2001:
1995:
1994:
1991:
1990:
1987:
1986:
1985:
1977:
1976:
1970:
1967:
1966:
1963:
1962:
1959:
1958:
1957:
1949:
1948:
1942:
1941:
1938:
1937:
1929:
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1920:
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1911:
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1902:
1901:
1898:
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1865:
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1857:
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1855:
1847:
1846:
1840:
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1836:
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1832:
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1807:
1806:
1805:
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1775:
1767:
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1762:
1755:
1754:
1751:
1750:
1747:
1746:
1739:
1738:
1735:
1734:
1731:
1730:
1729:
1728:Adoketophyton
1721:
1720:
1714:
1713:
1707:
1704:
1703:
1700:
1699:
1696:
1695:
1688:
1687:
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1603:
1600:
1599:
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1585:
1584:
1581:
1580:
1577:
1576:
1575:
1567:
1566:
1560:
1559:
1556:
1555:
1552:
1551:
1550:Cooksoniaceae
1544:
1543:
1537:
1534:
1533:
1530:
1529:
1526:
1525:
1518:
1517:
1511:
1508:
1507:
1504:
1503:
1495:
1494:
1486:
1485:
1482:
1481:(Liverworts)
1480:
1474:
1473:
1470:
1469:
1466:
1464:
1458:
1457:
1451:
1448:
1447:
1444:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1432:
1431:
1425:
1422:
1421:
1415:
1412:
1411:
1407:
1406:
1403:
1394:
1393:
1385:
1384:
1376:
1375:
1367:
1366:
1358:
1357:
1349:
1348:
1340:
1339:
1336:
1334:
1330:
1324:
1323:
1320:
1319:
1316:
1314:
1309:
1305:
1299:
1298:
1292:
1289:
1288:
1285:
1284:
1281:
1279:
1274:
1270:
1263:
1260:
1259:
1253:
1250:
1249:
1246:
1245:
1242:
1240:
1236:
1230:
1229:
1223:
1222:Tracheophytes
1220:
1219:
1216:
1215:
1212:
1210:
1206:
1200:
1199:
1193:
1192:
1189:
1188:
1185:
1183:
1179:
1173:
1172:
1166:
1165:
1162:
1161:
1158:
1156:
1152:
1146:
1145:
1138:
1137:
1133:
1131:
1127:
1122:
1120:
1116:
1111:
1109:
1105:
1104:streptophytes
1101:
1095:
1088:
1083:
1079:
1078:Viridiplantae
1075:
1067:
1065:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1018:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
966:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
915:
913:
909:
905:
901:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
869:
865:
861:
857:
853:
846:
844:
842:
838:
834:
833:carbohydrates
830:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
805:chlorophyll a
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
782:
778:
775:
774:multicellular
771:
767:
763:
759:
754:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
696:
692:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
647:
581:
577:
573:
567:
522:
509:
504:
498:
494:
490:Embryobionta
489:
485:
481:Telomobionta
480:
477:Barkley, 1949
474:
470:
465:
461:
456:
452:
447:
446:
444:
441:
437:
432:
429:
427:
424:
421:
419:
416:
413:
411:
408:
405:
404:
403:
392:
391:Magnoliophyta
389:
386:
383:
380:
377:
374:
371:
368:
365:
362:
358:
357:
356:
354:
350:
347:
344:
341:
337:
334:
331:
328:
324:
321:
317:
316:
315:
313:
309:
305:
301:
298:
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292:
289:
286:
283:
282:
281:
279:
275:
274:
272:
267:
262:
257:
254:
251:
248:
247:
244:
241:
238:
235:
234:
231:
228:
225:
224:
219:
214:
210:
202:
196:
188:
182:
172:
166:
158:
152:
142:
136:
128:
122:
112:
102:
97:
92:
87:
82:
77:
72:
67:
62:
57:
52:
47:
33:
30:
19:
7496:Tree of Life
7395:Embryophytes
7394:
7348:paraphyletic
7260:Angiospermae
7237:
7236:Ginkgoales (
7209:Petriellales
7191:Medullosales
7118:(seed ferns)
6831:
6752:Sphagnopsida
6747:Takakiopsida
6680:(liverworts)
6646:
6640:Embryophytes
6639:
6594:(see below↓)
6552:Charophyceae
6522:
6504:Streptophyta
6356:land plants)
6344:
6313:
6231:
6224:Rhodelphidia
6211:
6154:Opisthokonta
6058:
5934:Horticulture
5924:Floriculture
5826:Correct name
5676:Reproduction
5666:Woody plants
5591:Plant growth
5550:Gas Exchange
5535:Phytomelanin
5413:Plant embryo
5163:Reproductive
5011:Phragmoplast
4754:
4736:
4718:
4711:Bibliography
4679:
4673:
4662:. Retrieved
4651:
4618:
4614:
4608:
4597:. Retrieved
4590:the original
4569:
4565:
4552:
4528:
4524:
4518:
4486:
4482:
4473:
4449:
4445:
4439:
4413:
4407:
4402:, pp. 1582–3
4382:
4378:
4335:
4331:
4325:
4290:
4286:
4276:
4241:
4237:
4227:
4219:
4199:
4191:
4152:
4146:
4136:, retrieved
4121:
4114:
4087:
4081:
4055:
4051:
4045:
4001:
3997:
3991:
3979:
3971:
3951:
3943:
3909:
3905:
3899:
3891:the original
3881:
3870:. Retrieved
3866:the original
3856:
3842:
3825:
3815:
3800:
3766:
3762:
3756:
3731:
3727:
3721:
3670:
3666:
3660:
3615:
3611:
3601:
3574:
3570:
3560:
3536:(1): 27–41,
3533:
3529:
3485:
3481:
3471:
3428:
3424:
3414:
3379:
3375:
3369:
3324:
3320:
3256:
3252:
3242:
3209:
3205:
3199:
3188:. Retrieved
3181:the original
3142:
3138:
3125:
3100:
3096:
3083:
3058:
3054:
3041:
3030:. Retrieved
3026:the original
3021:
3017:
3007:
2999:
2994:
2986:
2981:
2964:
2960:
2947:
2939:
2934:
2901:(2): 365–9,
2898:
2894:
2888:
2862:
2858:
2852:
2825:
2777:
2772:
2744:
2740:
2725:
2718:
2712:
2704:
2692:
2648:
2640:
2636:Horneophyton
2634:
2613:
2608:
2593:
2571:
2544:
2515:
2506:
2496:
2489:
2482:
2475:
2463:
2451:Please help
2446:verification
2443:
2227:
2209:
2199:Lignophytes
2185:
2183:
2160:
2158:
2148:Radiatopses
2107:
2091:
2068:
2066:
2043:
2041:
2005:
1982:
1980:
1954:
1952:
1893:
1891:
1875:
1852:
1850:
1827:
1825:
1802:
1800:
1758:
1742:
1726:
1724:
1691:
1668:
1645:
1643:
1620:
1618:
1595:
1572:
1570:
1547:
1521:
1477:
1461:
1439:(Hornworts)
1435:
1414:Embryophytes
1413:
1400:
1327:
1302:
1266:
1233:
1203:
1176:
1149:
1129:
1125:
1123:
1112:
1100:chlorophytes
1071:
1054:Zygnematales
1042:streptophyte
1034:phragmoplast
1025:
1019:
967:
954:
950:
943:chloroplasts
933:composed of
923:phragmoplast
916:
873:
813:light energy
762:some members
755:
699:Charophyceae
695:sister taxon
651:
579:
521:embryophytes
520:
518:
466:Cormobionta
431:Angiospermae
423:Gymnospermae
415:Pteridophyta
401:
363:– seed ferns
351:
335:– clubmosses
310:
287:– liverworts
280:(bryophytes)
276:
256:Embryophytes
255:
249:
243:Streptophyta
236:
29:
7425:Embryophyta
7419:Wikispecies
7155:Cordaitales
7149:Caytoniales
7035:Lignophytes
7018:(ferns and
6944:spikemosses
6883:Rhyniopsida
6833:Aglaophyton
6712:(hornworts)
6583:Embryophyta
6566:Anydrophyta
6524:Spirotaenia
6469:Ulvophyceae
6402:Chlorophyta
6352:green algae
6322:Algospongia
6296:Glaucophyta
6248:(red algae)
5750:Pollen tube
5745:Pollinators
5735:Pollination
5730:Germination
5545:Respiration
5528:Chlorophyll
5374:Pedicellate
5308:Gametophyte
5227:Aestivation
5178:Antheridium
5173:Archegonium
5021:Plasmodesma
4998:Plant cells
4861:Paleobotany
4856:Ethnobotany
4841:Astrobotany
4531:(1): 5–12,
4489:(1): 4–12,
3826:Nature News
3397:2268/101745
3382:(1): 1–16.
2918:11336/55341
2812:angiosperms
2808:gymnosperms
2784:desiccation
2753:Seed plants
2679:Rhyniopsida
2614:During the
2582:sporophytes
2578:gametophyte
2576:-dominant (
1789:Microphylls
1694:Renaliaceae
1598:Rhyniopsida
1574:Aglaophyton
1463:Bryophytina
1329:Gymnosperms
1304:Angiosperms
1119:pre-adapted
1108:fresh water
982:gametophyte
978:chromosomes
925:. They are
919:chlorophyte
908:glaciations
888:green algae
884:charophytes
847:Description
793:gametophyte
766:semiaquatic
743:angiosperms
739:gymnosperms
680:green algae
652:land plants
580:Embryophyta
495:et al. 1966
448:Cormophyta
379:Ginkgophyta
373:Cycadophyta
353:Seed plants
320:Rhyniophyta
299:– hornworts
35:Land plants
18:Land plants
7518:Categories
7282:Magnoliids
7250:Gnetopsida
7020:horsetails
6948:quillworts
6940:clubmosses
6916:Lycophytes
6889:Renaliales
6666:Bryophytes
6244:Rhodophyta
6233:Rhodelphis
5772:Microspore
5762:Sporangium
5740:Artificial
5428:Sporophyte
5423:Sporophyll
5418:Receptacle
5313:Gynandrium
5183:Androecium
5092:Vegetative
4962:Angiosperm
4957:Gymnosperm
4851:Dendrology
4664:2011-03-11
4599:2011-01-28
4138:2019-10-25
3872:2013-03-27
3728:BioScience
3635:1843/36860
3190:2014-11-28
3032:2014-11-04
2845:References
2652:drying out
2589:generation
2555:liverworts
2479:newspapers
2411:Lycophytes
2020:Megaphylls
1804:Hicklingia
1647:Aberlemnia
1273:horsetails
1235:Lycophytes
1151:Liverworts
1115:Ordovician
1015:bryophytes
1007:archegonia
1003:antheridia
990:sporophyte
927:eukaryotic
880:Ordovician
878:and early
789:sporophyte
777:eukaryotes
731:lycophytes
723:liverworts
711:bryophytes
691:charophyte
688:freshwater
660:vegetation
499:Metaphyta
385:Gnetophyta
369:– conifers
269:Divisions
187:Gymnosperm
141:Angiosperm
6782:Bryopsida
6735:Bryophyta
6464:UTC clade
6213:Picomonas
6149:Amoebozoa
6127:Alveolata
6115:Cryptista
6090:Eukaryota
5969:Botanists
5887:Herbarium
5784:Megaspore
5682:Evolution
5625:Subshrubs
5593:and habit
5518:Nutrition
5513:Cellulose
5508:Bulk flow
5491:Materials
5454:Epidermis
5318:Gynoecium
5299:Endosperm
5294:Dispersal
5210:Staminode
5146:Sessility
5134:Cataphyll
5054:Mesophyll
5006:Cell wall
4947:Lycophyte
4927:Bryophyte
4881:Geobotany
4866:Phycology
4309:0002-9122
4260:0737-4038
4181:ignored (
4171:cite book
3713:238588736
3644:0028-646X
3445:1537-1719
3299:235312105
3283:0960-9822
3206:Evolution
3155:CiteSeerX
2780:Paleozoic
2631:tracheids
2551:hornworts
2420:Diversity
2162:Celatheca
1622:Catenalis
1465:(Mosses)
1450:Setaphyta
1424:Bryophyta
1205:Hornworts
1068:Evolution
1058:subaerial
935:cellulose
931:cell wall
929:, with a
841:byproduct
760:(despite
719:hornworts
686:clade of
668:dry lands
493:Cronquist
484:Takhtajan
475:Euplanta
469:Rothmaler
451:Endlicher
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7449:47170524
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1076:, the
1038:divide
1011:zygote
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980:– the
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