2419:
probationary sentence where they do not have to go to prison if "the person sentenced should demonstrate that being sentenced was itself sufficient warning that he will not commit any further crimes". Despite having to be put under "supervision of a probation officer", the person is able to avoid the negative aspects of prison such as being "torn away from his previous life, work, and social contracts". Sentences of six months or less are automatically suspended by the court as well as those sentences between six months to a year unless it is "necessary for the person to serve the sentence to preserve legal order". After an offender serves two thirds of their prison sentence, it is possible to have their sentence suspended. The process for having a sentence suspended after serving time is the same as applying for parole. It is also possible for offenders serving life sentences to receive a suspended sentence after serving at least fifteen years. Just like any other probation sentence, if the offender breaks their probation or commits another crime, they can have their freedom revoked and be sent back to prison.
2258:, for a five-year term. Lay judges must be German citizens who have neither been convicted of nor are under investigation for any serious crime. In addition, certain groups of individuals shall not be chosen as lay judges, such as people under the age of 25 or over the age of 69, or individuals working in the court system in a professional capacity (such as lawyers and judges). In addition, individuals over the age of 65 may refuse to serve, as may, for instance, members of federal or state legislatures, doctors, nurses, and those who have served as lay judges in the preceding term. Applications to become lay judges can be made by interested citizens and local governments will typically encourage applications before a new term begins. Welfare institutions, sports clubs, financial and health insurance institutions, trade unions, industrial companies and other public authorities are sometimes called upon to nominate candidates.
3427:
57:
1228:
1214:
2024:). These courts are administratively independent and financially autonomous from any other government body. For instance, a state constitutional court can write its own budget and hire or fire employees, powers that represent a degree of independence unique in the government structure. The courts of each state are also directly authorized by the Basic Law for the Federal Republic.
2768:, para 9.4 (Joint Administrative Regulation of the State of Bavaria instructing municipalities that "it is advisable to point out the possibility of working as a lay judge in the daily press, on the radio, on the internet and on television a reasonable amount of time (about three weeks) before the nomination list is drawn up").
1340:
examination that qualifies them to practice law. At that point, the individual can choose either to be a lawyer or to enter the judiciary. Judicial candidates start working at courts immediately. However, they are subjected to a probationary period of up to five years before being appointed as judges for life.
2232:
even be disclosed to the public. Judicial members of the federal constitutional court are elected in turns by the federal chambers (article 94 of the federal constitution). This decision requiring a large majority, it usually follows a political compromise. Public discussion about candidates is very unusual.
1989:
cases on patents, utility rights and trademarks. In patent, utility rights and trademark matters there is a bifurcation of judiciary responsibilities in
Germany between the Federal Patent Court and the various German Regional Courts. This bifurcated court system has a long tradition in Germany and is
2231:
procedure by a body composed of a
Minister of the federal state, federal MPs and ministers of the states (article 95 para. 2 of the federal constitution). Candidates do not have to be professional judges, but must be lawyers. There are neither public hearings, nor would the identity of any candidate
2182:
The federal courts are administered by the federal government; all the other courts belong to a state and are administered by it. The independence of the judiciary that is laid down in the federal constitution (article 97 para. 1) only refers to the judicial decision-making process of any individual
2113:
The court's jurisdiction is focused on constitutional issues and the compliance of all governmental institution with the constitution. Constitutional amendments or changes passed by the
Parliament are subject to its judicial review, since they have to be compatible with the most basic principles of
1586:
The main difference between the
Federal Constitutional Court and the Federal Court is that the Federal Constitutional Court may only be called if a constitutional matter within a case is in question (e.g., a possible violation of human rights in a criminal trial), while the Federal Court of Justice
1339:
Judges follow a distinct career path. At the end of their legal education at university, all law students must pass a state examination before they can continue on to an apprenticeship that provides them with broad training in the legal profession over two years. They then must pass a second state
2269:
which are tried before a panel of professional judges, all charges are tried before mixed tribunals on which lay judges sit alongside professional judges. The German Code of
Criminal Procedure requires a two-thirds majority for most decisions unfavorable to the defendant; denial of probation by
1506:
between the defense and prosecutors, the judges conduct the majority of the trial. During a trial, the parties are expected to give all their evidence to the judges, who will then call forward and question the witnesses, after which the defense counsel and prosecutor may question the witnesses.
1486:
German law is not impregnated with legal positivism to the extent of
Napoleonic legal systems, so Germany's judiciary is not subordinated to the legislature; the Basic Law directly invests supreme judicial power in the Constitutional Court as well as other federal courts and the courts of each
2418:
In addition to reducing an offender's sentence, Germany's corrections system has a form of punishment called suspended sentencing. Depending on the crime, some sentences can take away jail or prison time and replace it with probation. If a person is convicted of a crime, they can be put on a
2202:
As a rule, each decision on the initial employment, vesting with lifetime tenure or promotion of a judge is taken by the department of justice. Yet in some of the states there is some kind of a parliamentary body that needs to be heard or even has a say in some of the decisions on careers of
2414:
can typically apply for parole after 15 years, and if the application is rejected, the defendant can re-apply after a set period no longer than two years. If the court determines that there is a "severe gravity of guilt", parole can be delayed for a non-specific period beyond 15 years.
2427:
Selection of lay judges has been described as a "highly political and discriminatory process". It has been argued that personal acquaintance, political affiliation and occupation have all historically played an important, if publicly unacknowledged, role in the selection procedure.
1602:
have been created. In
January of 2018, the Chamber for International Commercial Disputes of the Landgericht Frankfurt am Main was established. There is also the Commercial Court based in Stuttgart and Mannheim specializing in major commercial and international disputes.
1590:
Ordinary courts are the most numerous by far. Currently there are 828 ordinary courts (687 local, 116 regional, 24 appellate, one federal), 142 labour courts (122 local, 19 appellate, one federal), 69 administrative courts (52 local, 16 higher, one federal), 20
2330:
Lay judges have historically been predominantly middle-aged men from middle-class backgrounds; more recently, the share of male and female judges was about the same. A study conducted in 1969 found that, of the lay judges in its sample, approximately 25% were
1347:. Article 92 of the Basic Law establishes the courts, and states that "the judicial power shall be vested in the judges; it shall be exercised by the Federal Constitutional Court, by the federal courts provided for in this Basic Law, and by the courts of the
2183:
judge, not to the judicial power as a whole. In line with this, the courts are administrative bodies subordinate to the respective department of justice, special rules only applying to the judicial decision-making process and the status of the judges.
2765:
Gemeinsame
Bekanntmachung der Bayerischen Staatsministerien der Justiz und des Innern, für Sport und Integration über die Vorbereitung der Sitzungen der Schöffengerichte und Strafkammern (Schöffenbekanntmachung) vom 27. Oktober 2022 (BayMBl. Nr.
2217:). By some it is regarded as a threat to judicial independence that with a view to their personal career judges might be inclined to specially regard possible political effects of their decisions or may choose to support a political party.
1870:. In these courts, individuals can have wrongful administrative acts overturned. For instance, many lawsuits have been brought in administrative courts by citizens against the government concerning the location and safety standards of
2409:
If a defendant is convicted, the court will usually credit the period of pre-trial confinement as part of the sentence. Sentences can range from one month to life, and typically do not exceed 15 years. Defendants sentenced to
2209:). The mostly decisive influence of the administration on the career of judges is exceptional in continental Europe, where mostly bodies of judges, elected by and within the judiciary take this kind of decision (e.g., France:
1443:(which serves as the nation's constitution), which sets up the modern judiciary, but the law adjudicated in court comes from the German Codes; thus, German law is primarily codal in nature. The court system adjudicates (1)
2322:
1853:
deal with five distinct subject areas: administrative, labour, social, fiscal, and patent law. Like the ordinary courts, they are organized hierarchically with the state court systems under a federal appeals court.
2288:) with a two-thirds majority of attending local councillors. Given the high threshold for inclusion on the municipal council lists, in practice these lists are first compiled by municipal bureaucracies and the
1335:
In
Germany, the independence of the judiciary is historically older than democracy. The organisation of courts is traditionally strong, and almost all federal and state actions are subject to judicial review.
4040:
2102:, the constitutional court is not an integral stage of the judicial or appeals process (aside from in cases concerning constitutional or public international law), and does not serve as a regular
1994:(German Patent and Trademark Office) shall be checked by a particular court created for that purpose, namely, the Federal Patent Court in Munich. Court of appeals is in all cases the (ordinary)
2566:
2186:
All professional judges are members of a common corps in that they are recruited through a common process and their career is governed largely by federal law. However, most judges are state (
2382:), and to have served for two years as an associate to different lawyers from each of their most popular occupations (attorney, judge, administrative official, etc.; this is called the
1595:
courts (19 local, one federal), 86 social courts (69 local, 16 appellate, one federal) and 17 constitutional courts (16 State
Constitutional Courts, one Federal Constitutional Court).
2394:
the expectations include outstanding results in the respective exams, which is not expected for attorneys (but, roughly, is expected for prosecutors and administrative officials).
3497:
3414:
313:
3382:
2910:
2358:
It is to be noted that the switching between prosecutorial office and the bench is not only accepted but encouraged so as to allow for the greatest amount of experience.
1196:
915:
910:
905:
780:
775:
1874:. They also decide certain disputes between governmental institutions, eg between a municipality and a state agency or between mayor and council of a municipality. The
1186:
2339:
backgrounds. A study published in 2009 put the proportions at 27% civil service employees versus 8% of the general population and noted the relatively high numbers of
4207:
4050:
3534:
2098:; yet the Court possesses a number of additional powers, and is regarded as among the most interventionist and powerful national courts in the world. Unlike other
1533:). The courts are characterized by being specialist, regional, and hierarchically integrated at the federal level. There are five basic types of courts, plus the
4412:
2060:
1440:
1344:
1268:
68:
950:
945:
940:
935:
930:
925:
920:
2017:
770:
645:
370:
650:
4698:
3938:
4879:
3375:
2372:. This translates literally as "aptitude to be a judge"; however, the basic meaning is to have successfully completed a study of law at roughly a
1875:
1867:
1534:
80:
2273:
The lay judges needed to staff the various tribunals are selected by a selection committee from lists that are passed by the municipal councils (
1936:
payments. They are also responsible for several other cases on social security law, like support for disabled persons or victims of crimes. The
3441:
585:
580:
575:
570:
565:
560:
555:
550:
545:
291:
4172:
3277:
3256:
3235:
3105:
3084:
3041:
3016:
2991:
2977:
1171:
1135:
760:
740:
1099:
485:
4479:
3660:
2289:
450:
4142:
1104:
4326:
4309:
3590:
3527:
1995:
1803:
334:
4217:
4182:
4127:
3368:
2095:
1026:
1021:
765:
153:
116:
4407:
136:
4666:
4570:
1261:
835:
830:
825:
820:
815:
810:
805:
800:
795:
790:
785:
755:
625:
620:
615:
610:
605:
600:
595:
590:
503:
498:
493:
421:
3350:
3155:
1388:
1180:
1031:
981:
735:
220:
3341:
2355:
Public prosecutors, who earn as much as judges, are nonetheless simple ordinary servants lacking the independence of the Bench.
2094:, thus rendering them ineffective. In this respect, it is similar to other supreme courts with judicial review powers, like the
4532:
4132:
3797:
3610:
2683:
1991:
1982:
1937:
1898:
4515:
4331:
4015:
3635:
3520:
2021:
1130:
1051:
225:
141:
529:
524:
519:
4947:
4809:
4585:
4447:
4351:
4250:
3807:
3426:
1114:
1089:
4829:
4557:
4427:
3931:
3895:
3847:
3722:
3717:
3405:
2411:
2033:
1254:
1241:
1158:
1070:
885:
880:
875:
870:
865:
860:
855:
850:
845:
840:
750:
745:
730:
725:
720:
715:
710:
705:
700:
695:
690:
685:
680:
675:
670:
665:
660:
465:
396:
356:
273:
2063:. Since its inception with the beginning of the Federal Republic of Germany, the court has been located in the city of
1897:) also function on three levels and address disputes over collective bargaining agreements and working conditions. The
1109:
1094:
4624:
4537:
3989:
3335:
655:
445:
3880:
1682:
Cases in which the sentence is expected to exceed four years, cases where the prosecutor decided to be not tried by
4547:
4459:
4437:
4356:
4341:
4157:
4137:
3979:
3682:
3033:
3008:
2866:
Hasso Lieber, "Die Ergebnisse der Schöffenwahlen für die Amtszeit 2019 bis 2023" (2020) 32 Richter ohne Robe 3, 5f.
460:
361:
162:
4799:
3984:
3199:
3051:
Wolfe, Nancy Travis (December 1994). "Lay Judges in German Criminal Courts: The Modification of an Institution".
511:
412:
403:
3852:
1413:, or emergency decree) was passed in January 1924 abolishing juries and replacing them with the mixed system of
4776:
4738:
4575:
4346:
3857:
3782:
3450:
2939:
2315:
1436:
1293:
1046:
1016:
286:
195:
1929:
1455:), that is, administrative law (civil-government litigation or litigation between two government bodies) and
4912:
4786:
4766:
4743:
4723:
4683:
4646:
4595:
4469:
4432:
4202:
3924:
3752:
3712:
3692:
3672:
3575:
3227:
1176:
996:
112:
85:
3905:
3890:
3837:
3762:
2618:
2281:
1519:
1376:
1056:
242:
4713:
4688:
4651:
4510:
4442:
4271:
4162:
4152:
3885:
3702:
3687:
3620:
3580:
3053:
2270:
simple majority is an important exception. In most cases, lay judges do not have access to the case file.
1951:
1366:
455:
174:
3677:
2764:
2634:
2254:
are ordinary members of the public selected for this role by a special committee, at the suggestion of a
2157:
The court's practice of enormous constitutional control frequency on the one hand, and the continuity in
4874:
4693:
4678:
4641:
3875:
3812:
3767:
3737:
3595:
2293:
2143:
1986:
1925:
1664:
1191:
1162:
1041:
1001:
249:
4656:
4600:
4484:
4422:
4387:
4319:
4297:
4245:
4147:
3802:
3792:
3742:
3655:
3650:
3625:
3615:
3600:
3585:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3477:
3468:
3459:
3306:
2205:
2151:
2056:
1967:
1836:, in 1969 there were 468,273 criminal cases in Germany, and 388,619 or 83% of these were held in the
1499:
1476:
1305:
1036:
537:
436:
387:
306:
301:
296:
233:
104:
3248:
The Creation of the Modern German Army: General Walther Reinhardt and the Weimar Republic, 1914-1930
4839:
4733:
4708:
4703:
4580:
4525:
4464:
4370:
4101:
4035:
3900:
3842:
3787:
3777:
3757:
3747:
3732:
3727:
3707:
3645:
3630:
3605:
3194:
3164:
1587:
may be called in any case. Only the Constitutional Court can declare an Act of Parliament invalid.
1392:
1006:
986:
42:
1636:
4905:
4898:
4753:
4718:
4605:
4590:
4520:
4498:
4474:
4402:
4336:
4266:
4177:
4096:
4065:
3974:
3951:
3817:
3772:
3697:
3667:
3181:
3143:
3061:
2964:
2956:
2336:
2158:
1850:
1579:
1555:
1491:
1313:
991:
183:
2373:
1722:
4859:
4834:
4781:
4728:
4542:
4314:
4106:
3316:
3310:
3294:
3288:
3273:
3252:
3246:
3231:
3124:
3101:
3095:
3080:
3074:
3037:
3027:
3012:
3002:
2987:
2255:
2091:
2013:
1714:
1503:
1348:
1011:
344:
3267:
3221:
2981:
1487:
Länder, and case law has greater importance, though not to the extent of common law systems.
4921:
4869:
4864:
4854:
4849:
4844:
4671:
4636:
4610:
4282:
4086:
4055:
4010:
4005:
3173:
3133:
3115:
2948:
2684:"Bifurcation of judiciary responsibilities: Federal Patent Court and German Regional Courts"
2080:
1978:) is the highest tax law court and hears appeals against the decisions of the Fiscal Courts.
1921:
1400:
380:
4824:
4819:
4814:
4761:
4187:
3354:
2398:
2266:
2123:
2103:
2087:
1933:
1833:
1732:
1599:
1541:
1480:
1404:
1329:
1232:
1140:
2067:—intentionally in a certain geographical distance from the other federal institutions in
1966:
courts or finance courts, hear tax-related cases and have only a two-tier structure. The
2194:) civil servants and follow state rules on legal education, appointment, and promotion.
56:
4926:
4804:
4791:
4454:
4212:
3347:
3138:
3119:
2930:
2915:(7th ed.). Federal Ministry of Justice and Consumer Protection. Accessed 10 April 2021.
2344:
1430:
1218:
188:
2366:
A lawyer can only qualify as a defense attorney if they fulfill/possess the so-called
1658:
Criminal offenses in which the sentence is expected to be between two and four years.
1515:
The primary legislation concerning court organization is the Courts Constitution Act (
1227:
4941:
4167:
2968:
2332:
2262:
2139:
2127:
2107:
2099:
2053:
1871:
1472:
1372:
170:
17:
3159:
4552:
4227:
4222:
4197:
4192:
4091:
4045:
2131:
1629:
1545:
1456:
1396:
2296:
and generate names randomly. The selection committee consists of a judge from the
1316:
where the role of the judge is primarily that of an impartial referee between the
4562:
4276:
4111:
4060:
2299:
2276:
2161:
and political revision on the other hand, have created a unique defender of the
1866:) consist of local administrative courts, higher administrative courts, and the
1838:
1549:
1460:
1312:
are actively involved in investigating the facts of the case, as compared to an
149:
3076:
Democracy in the Courts: Lay Participation in European Criminal Justice Systems
2934:
2523:
2169:
since World War II and given it a valuable role in Germany's modern democracy.
1645:
Criminal offences in which the sentence is expected to be less than two years.
4771:
4392:
2147:
1573:
1567:
1495:
1444:
1360:
1317:
1301:
3298:
2592:"Commercial Court Baden-Württemberg: Commercial Court Stuttgart and Mannheim"
4382:
4030:
3320:
2467:
2465:
2340:
2246:
2241:
2135:
2064:
1418:
1325:
1321:
214:
1498:
countries, the German system of criminal (and administrative) procedure is
1387:) consisting of 3 judges and 12 jurymen. During a state of emergency under
1920:), organized at three levels, adjudicate cases relating to the system of
3512:
2304:, a representative of the state government, and ten "trusted citizens" (
4661:
4081:
4025:
3947:
3360:
3185:
3147:
1963:
1592:
1561:
1297:
1286:
3100:. International and Comparative Criminal Justice. Ashgate Publishing.
3065:
2960:
2591:
2397:
Defense attorneys are grouped into divisions of their local or state
2076:
2068:
1582:
courts, focusing on judicial review and constitutional interpretation
3177:
3916:
2952:
2638:
4020:
1414:
1343:
The judicial system is established and governed by part IX of the
1309:
3344:: German government's explanation of the advantages of German law
2072:
3920:
3516:
3364:
3269:
The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany
2327:) who are also elected by two thirds of the municipal council.
1285:
is the system of courts that interprets and applies the law in
3251:. Monographs in German History. Vol. 12. Berghahn Books.
2886:
2884:
2812:
2810:
2808:
2806:
2793:
2791:
1471:). German law—especially private law—is mainly based on early
4041:
Chronology of warfare between the Romans and Germanic peoples
1304:
systems. In criminal and administrative law, Germany uses an
2937:(January 1972). "Lay Judges in the German Criminal Courts".
55:
1741:
The appellate courts in criminal matters are composed of:
2524:"How to Germany - German Law and the German Legal System"
2850:
2848:
2778:
2776:
2774:
3500:
Gemeinsamer Senat der obersten Gerichtshöfe des Bundes
3498:
Joint Senate of the Supreme Courts of the Federation (
2835:
2833:
2831:
2829:
2827:
2825:
2090:, and it may declare any federal or state legislation
1707:
for felonies resulting in death and economics crimes.
2549:
2547:
2545:
2016:
has its own state constitutional court (see e.g. the
3213:
The Hitler Trial Before the People's Court in Munich
2388:). However, to actually become a judge, besides the
1818:
Appeal for error of law from trial decisions of the
4752:
4623:
4497:
4369:
4296:
4259:
4238:
4120:
4074:
3998:
3967:
3958:
3866:
3828:
3548:
3490:
3434:
3398:
2376:
level, being finally examined by the state itself (
2347:employees, and the relative old age of lay judges.
1793:Appeal for error of law from certain decisions of
1611:Trial courts in criminal matters are composed of:
3209:Der Hitler-Prozeß vor dem Volksgericht in München
1832:For a comparison of the relative activity of the
1363:from the Middle Ages onwards, for example in the
3029:Judiciaries Within Europe: A Comparative Review
2567:"Chamber for International Commercial Disputes"
2727:Section 42(1) Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz (GVG).
1379:(GVG) of 27 January 1877 with the jury court (
1296:mostly based on a comprehensive compendium of
3932:
3528:
3376:
1441:Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany
1345:Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany
1262:
8:
2890:
2875:
2816:
2797:
2669:
2657:
2626:
2616:
2507:
2456:
2389:
2383:
2377:
2367:
2305:
2297:
2274:
2249:
2188:
2163:
2116:
2046:
2038:
1972:
1956:
1942:
1914:
1903:
1891:
1880:
1860:
1771:Appeal for review of facts and law from the
1712:
1527:
1517:
1465:
1449:
1408:
1381:
1364:
4051:Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16)
2736:Section 32 Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz (GVG).
2539:. Albanese, Jay and Reichel, Phillip. p. 33
2537:Handbook of Transnational Crime and Justice
2495:
2335:employees, compared to only about 12% from
2265:is a single professional judge and serious
2226:
2018:Constitutional Court of the State of Berlin
1395:), and about one month before the trial of
4629:
4503:
4375:
4302:
3964:
3939:
3925:
3917:
3535:
3521:
3513:
3383:
3369:
3361:
3357:: Independence of the judiciary in Germany
1990:based on the notion that decisions of the
1886:) is the highest administrative law court.
1269:
1255:
29:
3223:Press and Politics in the Weimar Republic
3137:
2905:
2903:
2901:
2899:
1371:. The jury system was implemented in the
3120:"On Uses and Misuses of Comparative Law"
1743:
1613:
1537:and the Länder's constitutional courts:
1439:whose highest source of law is the 1949
538:Federal Republic of Germany (since 1949)
2518:
2516:
2444:
2437:
41:
35:This article is part of a series on the
2854:
2782:
2292:, but some municipal councils rely on
2215:consiglio superiore della magistratura
2483:
2471:
2314:
2261:Except for most crimes for which the
7:
3193:Bauer, Franz J. (23 December 2009).
2839:
2715:
2703:
2553:
2211:conseil superieur de la magistrature
2059:established by the constitution or
1996:Federal Court of Justice of Germany
3139:10.1111/j.1468-2230.1974.tb02366.x
2978:German Federal Ministry of Justice
2571:Ordentliche Gerichtsbarkeit Hessen
2401:in which membership is mandatory.
2126:"), those being the principles of
2110:on any violation of federal laws.
2096:Supreme Court of the United States
1948:) is the highest social law court.
1909:) is the highest labour law court.
1479:, and to a much lesser extent the
25:
2316:[fɛɐ̯ˈtʁaʊ̯ənspɛʁˌzoːnən]
3491:Collaborations of Supreme Courts
3425:
3097:A World View of Criminal Justice
2225:Federal judges are picked in an
1226:
1212:
4143:German revolutions of 1848–1849
4112:Ostsiedlung (East Colonisation)
3290:European Constitutional History
3001:Delmas-Marty, Mireille (2002).
2343:, the relatively low number of
1992:Deutsches Patent- und Markenamt
27:Overview of German court system
4128:Early modern period, 1500–1800
4016:List of early Germanic peoples
3442:Federal Administrative Court (
3406:Federal Constitutional Court (
2086:The sole task of the court is
2022:Constitutional Court of Saxony
1686:, and minor political crimes.
1131:Politics of the European Union
1:
4251:History of Germany since 1990
3160:"Criminal Justice in Germany"
2635:"Courts Constitution Act GVG"
1292:The German legal system is a
3200:Historisches Lexikon Bayerns
3004:European Criminal Procedures
2474:, footnote 7, pp. 1069–1070.
2290:political parties in Germany
2034:Federal Constitutional Court
1876:Federal Administrative Court
1868:Federal Administrative Court
1842:composed of a single judge.
1679:2 or 3 judges, 2 lay judges
1655:1 or 2 judges, 2 lay judges
1535:Federal Constitutional Court
1435:Germany's legal system is a
1082:Foreign relations by country
274:Federal Constitutional Court
81:Federal Constitutional Court
3266:Shirer, William L. (1990).
2983:Criminal Justice in Germany
2912:Criminal Justice in Germany
2909:Jehle, Jörg-Martin (2019).
1858:Administrative law courts (
1807:(Federal Court of Justice)
1598:More recently, specialized
486:Weimar Republic (1919–1933)
321:
4964:
4158:North German Confederation
4138:Confederation of the Rhine
3451:Federal Court of Justice (
3338:: Courts of law in Germany
3245:Mulligan, William (2005).
3195:"Volksgerichte, 1918-1924"
3034:Cambridge University Press
3009:Cambridge University Press
2239:
1428:
1421:that is still used today.
163:Vice Chancellor of Germany
4892:
4632:
4506:
4378:
4305:
3423:
2619:Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz
2614:Courts Constitution Act (
2391:Befähigung zum Richteramt
2369:Befähigung zum Richteramt
2106:from lower courts or the
1926:unemployment compensation
1757:
1746:
1662:
1627:
1616:
1520:Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz
1377:Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz
404:Collective municipality (
4310:Administrative divisions
3444:Bundesverwaltungsgericht
3408:Bundesverfassungsgericht
3312:History of Trial by Jury
3220:Fulda, Bernhard (2009).
3094:Vogler, Richard (2005).
3073:Malsch, Marijke (2009).
2940:Journal of Legal Studies
2876:Casper & Zeisel 1972
2817:Casper & Zeisel 1972
2798:Casper & Zeisel 1972
2670:Casper & Zeisel 1972
2658:Casper & Zeisel 1972
2508:Casper & Zeisel 1972
2457:Casper & Zeisel 1972
2242:Lay judge § Germany
2040:Bundesverfassungsgericht
1882:Bundesverwaltungsgericht
967:State and local politics
512:East Germany (1949–1960)
3228:Oxford University Press
2596:www.commercial-court.de
1700:3 judges, 2 lay judges
1502:. Rather than allowing
1123:International Relations
113:Frank-Walter Steinmeier
4571:Science and technology
4272:History of Brandenburg
4163:Unification of Germany
4153:Frankfurt Constitution
3591:Bosnia and Herzegovina
3478:Federal Fiscal Court (
3469:Federal Social Court (
3460:Federal Labour Court (
3293:. Jennings & Pye.
3272:. Simon and Schuster.
3079:. Ashgate Publishing.
3054:Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.
2627:
2617:
2423:Analysis and criticism
2390:
2384:
2378:
2368:
2306:
2298:
2294:registers of residents
2275:
2250:
2227:
2189:
2164:
2117:
2108:Federal Supreme Courts
2047:
2039:
1973:
1957:
1943:
1915:
1904:
1892:
1881:
1861:
1768:1 judge, 2 lay judges
1713:
1703:Specially constituted
1696:Wirtschaftsstrafkammer
1528:
1518:
1466:
1450:
1409:
1403:of November 1923, the
1399:February 1924 for the
1382:
1365:
1027:North Rhine-Westphalia
1022:Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
637:Parliamentary election
478:Presidential elections
60:
4208:Flight and expulsions
3543:Judiciaries of Europe
3342:Law – Made in Germany
3287:Case, Nelson (1902).
2498:, footnote 73, p. 18.
2240:Further information:
2144:social responsibility
2003:Constitutional courts
1987:intellectual property
1930:workers' compensation
1300:, as compared to the
1181:Agrarian Conservatism
251:Gemeinsamer Ausschuss
244:Vermittlungsausschuss
137:Chancellor of Germany
59:
18:Landgericht (Germany)
4948:Judiciary of Germany
4880:World Heritage Sites
4558:German states by GDP
4148:German Confederation
3462:Bundesarbeitsgericht
3399:Constitutional Court
3392:Judiciary of Germany
2976:Jehle, Jörg-Martin;
2745:Sections 33, 34 GVG.
2682:Seyfert, Christian.
2405:Sentencing practices
2206:Richterwahlausschuss
2152:separation of powers
2061:Basic Law of Germany
2057:constitutional court
1983:Federal Patent Court
1968:Federal Fiscal Court
1938:Federal Social Court
1905:Bundesarbeitsgericht
1899:Federal Labour Court
1872:nuclear power plants
1306:inquisitorial system
1283:judiciary of Germany
1153:Political ideologies
1032:Rhineland-Palatinate
466:Federal Convention (
105:President of Germany
4516:Automobile industry
4102:Carolingian dynasty
4036:History of the Huns
3829:States with limited
3471:Bundessozialgericht
3165:Michigan Law Review
3026:Bell, John (2006).
2718:, pp. 110–111.
2706:, pp. 109–110.
2459:, pp. 137–139.
2447:, pp. 369–371.
2203:individual judges (
2178:Professional judges
1944:Bundessozialgericht
1912:Social law courts (
1889:Labour law courts (
1862:Verwaltungsgerichte
1490:In contrast to the
1393:Weimar Constitution
1233:Politics portal
4586:Telecommunications
4267:History of Prussia
4183:Revolution of 1918
4178:War guilt question
4097:Carolingian Empire
4066:Sack of Rome (410)
3975:History of Germany
3353:2018-07-24 at the
3156:Wolff, Hans Julius
2526:. 11 October 2022.
2307:Vertrauenspersonen
2159:judicial restraint
1851:Specialized courts
1846:Specialized courts
1824:Oberlandesgerichte
1781:Oberlandesgerichte
1764:kleine Strafkammer
1715:Oberlandesgerichte
1675:Staatsschutzkammer
1580:Constitutional law
1556:Administrative law
1492:adversarial system
1451:öffentliches Recht
1314:adversarial system
1219:Germany portal
1052:Schleswig-Holstein
897:European elections
362:State Parliament (
357:Minister president
61:
4935:
4934:
4888:
4887:
4619:
4618:
4533:Chemical Triangle
4493:
4492:
4480:Political parties
4428:Foreign relations
4365:
4364:
4292:
4291:
4203:Allied occupation
4107:Holy Roman Empire
3914:
3913:
3510:
3509:
3453:Bundesgerichtshof
3418:
3279:978-0-671-72868-7
3258:978-1-57181-908-6
3237:978-0-19-954778-4
3125:Modern Law Review
3116:Kahn-Freund, Otto
3107:978-0-7546-2467-7
3086:978-0-7546-7405-4
3043:978-0-521-86072-7
3018:978-0-521-59110-2
2993:978-3-936999-51-8
2891:Delmas-Marty 2002
2256:municipal council
1924:, which includes
1830:
1829:
1804:Bundesgerichtshof
1739:
1738:
1671:große Strafkammer
1600:commercial courts
1504:cross-examination
1279:
1278:
1159:Political culture
1072:Foreign relations
982:Baden-Württemberg
468:Bundesversammlung
451:Political parties
46:
16:(Redirected from
4955:
4915:
4908:
4901:
4865:Prussian virtues
4630:
4538:Economic history
4504:
4398:
4376:
4327:Cities and towns
4303:
4283:Baden Revolution
4087:Treaty of Verdun
4056:Marcomannic Wars
4011:Migration Period
4006:Germanic peoples
3990:Military history
3965:
3941:
3934:
3927:
3918:
3867:Dependencies and
3808:Northern Ireland
3549:Sovereign states
3537:
3530:
3523:
3514:
3429:
3415:list of justices
3412:
3385:
3378:
3371:
3362:
3324:
3315:. J. W. Parker.
3307:Forsyth, William
3302:
3283:
3262:
3241:
3216:
3204:
3189:
3172:(6): 1067–1088.
3151:
3141:
3118:(January 1974).
3111:
3090:
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2540:
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2528:
2527:
2520:
2511:
2505:
2499:
2496:Kahn-Freund 1974
2493:
2487:
2481:
2475:
2469:
2460:
2454:
2448:
2442:
2399:bar associations
2393:
2387:
2381:
2371:
2326:
2325:
2324:
2318:
2313:
2309:
2303:
2287:
2285:
2267:political crimes
2253:
2230:
2192:
2167:
2120:
2092:unconstitutional
2050:
2042:
2012:Each one of the
1976:
1960:
1946:
1922:social insurance
1918:
1907:
1895:
1884:
1864:
1747:Appellate Court
1744:
1733:political crimes
1718:
1614:
1531:
1523:
1477:Justinian's Code
1469:
1453:
1412:
1401:Beer Hall Putsch
1385:
1370:
1271:
1264:
1257:
1235:
1231:
1230:
1221:
1217:
1216:
1215:
1197:Social Democracy
1073:
446:Electoral system
439:
382:Regierungsbezirk
337:
267:
196:Federal agencies
74:
73:
49:
44:
36:
30:
21:
4963:
4962:
4958:
4957:
4956:
4954:
4953:
4952:
4938:
4937:
4936:
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4918:
4911:
4904:
4897:
4884:
4748:
4699:Life expectancy
4615:
4489:
4460:Law enforcement
4396:
4361:
4288:
4255:
4234:
4218:Divided Germany
4188:Weimar Republic
4116:
4082:Frankish Empire
4070:
3994:
3960:
3954:
3945:
3915:
3910:
3868:
3862:
3848:Northern Cyprus
3830:
3824:
3723:North Macedonia
3544:
3541:
3511:
3506:
3486:
3480:Bundesfinanzhof
3430:
3421:
3394:
3389:
3355:Wayback Machine
3332:
3327:
3305:
3286:
3280:
3265:
3259:
3244:
3238:
3219:
3207:
3192:
3178:10.2307/1283584
3154:
3114:
3108:
3093:
3087:
3072:
3050:
3044:
3025:
3019:
3000:
2994:
2975:
2931:Casper, Gerhard
2929:
2925:
2920:
2919:
2908:
2897:
2889:
2882:
2874:
2870:
2865:
2861:
2853:
2846:
2838:
2823:
2815:
2804:
2796:
2789:
2781:
2772:
2762:
2758:
2754:Section 35 GVG.
2753:
2749:
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2740:
2735:
2731:
2726:
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2714:
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2560:
2556:, pp. 110.
2552:
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2535:
2531:
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2521:
2514:
2506:
2502:
2494:
2490:
2486:, p. 1074.
2482:
2478:
2470:
2463:
2455:
2451:
2443:
2439:
2434:
2425:
2407:
2374:master's degree
2364:
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2321:
2320:
2319:
2311:
2279:
2244:
2238:
2223:
2200:
2180:
2175:
2124:eternity clause
2104:appellate court
2088:judicial review
2030:
2010:
2005:
1974:Bundesfinanzhof
1962:), also called
1934:social security
1893:Arbeitsgerichte
1848:
1834:ordinary courts
1651:Schöffengericht
1609:
1607:Ordinary courts
1544:, dealing with
1542:Ordinary courts
1513:
1481:Napoleonic Code
1475:, specifically
1437:civilian system
1433:
1427:
1405:Emminger Reform
1357:
1330:defense counsel
1275:
1246:
1242:Other countries
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4796:Cultural icons
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4576:Stock exchange
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3993:
3992:
3987:
3985:Historiography
3982:
3977:
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3946:
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3872:
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3869:other entities
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3798:United Kingdom
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3611:Czech Republic
3608:
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3598:
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3457:
3448:
3438:
3436:
3435:Supreme Courts
3432:
3431:
3424:
3422:
3420:
3419:
3402:
3400:
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3387:
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3330:External links
3328:
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3284:
3278:
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3217:
3205:
3190:
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3091:
3085:
3070:
3060:(4): 495–515.
3048:
3042:
3023:
3017:
2998:
2992:
2986:. Forum-Verl.
2973:
2953:10.1086/467481
2947:(1): 135–191.
2926:
2924:
2921:
2918:
2917:
2895:
2893:, p. 299.
2880:
2878:, p. 183.
2868:
2859:
2857:, p. 245.
2844:
2842:, p. 153.
2821:
2819:, p. 182.
2802:
2800:, p. 141.
2787:
2785:, p. 137.
2770:
2756:
2747:
2738:
2729:
2720:
2708:
2696:
2674:
2672:, p. 143.
2662:
2660:, p. 142.
2650:
2607:
2583:
2558:
2541:
2529:
2512:
2510:, p. 135.
2500:
2488:
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2436:
2435:
2433:
2430:
2424:
2421:
2412:life in prison
2406:
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2352:
2349:
2345:private sector
2237:
2234:
2222:
2219:
2199:
2196:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2130:, unalienable
2100:supreme courts
2029:
2026:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
2000:
1999:
1985:hears certain
1979:
1958:Finanzgerichte
1949:
1916:Sozialgerichte
1910:
1887:
1847:
1844:
1828:
1827:
1816:
1813:
1808:
1799:
1798:
1791:
1788:
1783:
1777:
1776:
1769:
1766:
1761:
1755:
1754:
1751:
1748:
1737:
1736:
1729:
1728:3 or 5 judges
1726:
1719:
1709:
1708:
1701:
1698:
1688:
1687:
1680:
1677:
1668:
1660:
1659:
1656:
1653:
1647:
1646:
1643:
1640:
1633:
1625:
1624:
1621:
1618:
1608:
1605:
1584:
1583:
1577:
1571:
1565:
1559:
1553:
1512:
1509:
1431:Law of Germany
1429:Main article:
1426:
1423:
1356:
1353:
1277:
1276:
1274:
1273:
1266:
1259:
1251:
1248:
1247:
1245:
1244:
1238:
1237:
1236:
1222:
1205:
1204:
1200:
1199:
1194:
1189:
1184:
1174:
1168:
1166:
1165:
1155:
1152:
1151:
1148:
1147:
1144:
1143:
1138:
1133:
1126:
1125:
1118:
1117:
1112:
1107:
1102:
1097:
1092:
1085:
1084:
1076:
1069:
1068:
1065:
1064:
1060:
1059:
1054:
1049:
1044:
1039:
1034:
1029:
1024:
1019:
1014:
1009:
1004:
999:
994:
989:
984:
978:
976:
975:
973:State Politics
969:
966:
965:
962:
961:
956:
955:
948:
943:
938:
933:
928:
923:
918:
913:
908:
902:
900:
899:
891:
890:
883:
878:
873:
868:
863:
858:
853:
848:
843:
838:
833:
828:
823:
818:
813:
808:
803:
798:
793:
788:
783:
778:
773:
768:
763:
758:
753:
748:
743:
738:
733:
728:
723:
718:
713:
708:
703:
698:
693:
688:
683:
678:
673:
668:
663:
658:
653:
648:
642:
640:
639:
631:
630:
623:
618:
613:
608:
603:
598:
593:
588:
583:
578:
573:
568:
563:
558:
553:
548:
542:
541:
540:
533:
532:
527:
522:
516:
515:
514:
507:
506:
501:
496:
490:
489:
488:
481:
480:
473:
472:
463:
458:
453:
448:
442:
435:
434:
431:
430:
427:
426:
425:
424:
413:Municipality (
410:
401:
400:
399:
385:
376:
375:
374:
373:
359:
353:
352:
340:
333:
332:
329:
328:
325:
324:
317:
316:
310:
309:
304:
299:
294:
292:Administrative
289:
283:
282:
281:Federal courts
277:
276:
270:
263:
262:
259:
258:
255:
254:
247:
238:
237:
230:
229:
228:
223:
221:constituencies
210:
207:
206:
203:
202:
199:
198:
193:
192:
191:
179:
178:
167:
166:
158:
157:
146:
145:
132:
129:
128:
125:
124:
121:
120:
109:
108:
100:
97:
96:
93:
92:
89:
88:
83:
77:
67:
66:
63:
62:
52:
51:
39:
38:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4960:
4949:
4946:
4945:
4943:
4928:
4925:
4923:
4920:
4919:
4914:
4910:
4907:
4903:
4900:
4896:
4895:
4891:
4881:
4878:
4876:
4873:
4871:
4868:
4866:
4863:
4861:
4858:
4856:
4853:
4851:
4848:
4846:
4843:
4841:
4838:
4836:
4833:
4831:
4828:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4818:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4806:
4803:
4801:
4798:
4795:
4793:
4790:
4788:
4785:
4783:
4780:
4778:
4775:
4773:
4770:
4768:
4765:
4763:
4760:
4759:
4757:
4755:
4751:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4739:Social issues
4737:
4735:
4732:
4730:
4727:
4725:
4722:
4720:
4717:
4715:
4712:
4710:
4707:
4705:
4702:
4700:
4697:
4695:
4692:
4690:
4687:
4685:
4682:
4680:
4677:
4673:
4670:
4668:
4667:Ethnic groups
4665:
4664:
4663:
4660:
4658:
4655:
4653:
4650:
4648:
4645:
4643:
4640:
4638:
4635:
4634:
4631:
4628:
4626:
4622:
4612:
4609:
4607:
4604:
4602:
4599:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4574:
4572:
4569:
4567:
4565:
4561:
4559:
4556:
4554:
4551:
4549:
4546:
4544:
4541:
4539:
4536:
4534:
4531:
4527:
4524:
4523:
4522:
4519:
4517:
4514:
4512:
4509:
4508:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4496:
4486:
4483:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4471:
4468:
4466:
4463:
4461:
4458:
4456:
4453:
4449:
4446:
4444:
4441:
4439:
4436:
4435:
4434:
4431:
4429:
4426:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4395:
4391:
4389:
4386:
4384:
4381:
4380:
4377:
4374:
4372:
4368:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4343:
4340:
4338:
4335:
4333:
4330:
4328:
4325:
4321:
4318:
4316:
4313:
4312:
4311:
4308:
4307:
4304:
4301:
4299:
4295:
4284:
4281:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4268:
4265:
4264:
4262:
4258:
4252:
4249:
4247:
4246:Reunification
4244:
4243:
4241:
4237:
4229:
4226:
4224:
4221:
4220:
4219:
4216:
4214:
4211:
4209:
4206:
4204:
4201:
4199:
4196:
4194:
4191:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4179:
4176:
4174:
4171:
4169:
4168:German Empire
4166:
4164:
4161:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4146:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4125:
4123:
4119:
4113:
4110:
4108:
4105:
4103:
4100:
4098:
4095:
4093:
4090:
4088:
4085:
4083:
4080:
4079:
4077:
4073:
4067:
4064:
4062:
4059:
4057:
4054:
4052:
4049:
4047:
4044:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4014:
4012:
4009:
4007:
4004:
4003:
4001:
3997:
3991:
3988:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3972:
3970:
3966:
3963:
3957:
3953:
3949:
3942:
3937:
3935:
3930:
3928:
3923:
3922:
3919:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3881:Faroe Islands
3879:
3877:
3874:
3873:
3871:
3865:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3853:South Ossetia
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3841:
3839:
3836:
3835:
3833:
3827:
3819:
3816:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3800:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3683:Liechtenstein
3681:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3662:
3659:
3657:
3654:
3652:
3649:
3647:
3644:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3632:
3629:
3627:
3624:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3554:
3553:
3551:
3547:
3538:
3533:
3531:
3526:
3524:
3519:
3518:
3515:
3503:
3501:
3496:
3495:
3493:
3489:
3483:
3481:
3476:
3474:
3472:
3467:
3465:
3463:
3458:
3456:
3454:
3449:
3447:
3445:
3440:
3439:
3437:
3433:
3428:
3416:
3411:
3409:
3404:
3403:
3401:
3397:
3393:
3386:
3381:
3379:
3374:
3372:
3367:
3366:
3363:
3356:
3352:
3349:
3346:
3343:
3340:
3337:
3334:
3333:
3329:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3313:
3308:
3304:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3291:
3285:
3281:
3275:
3271:
3270:
3264:
3260:
3254:
3250:
3249:
3243:
3239:
3233:
3229:
3225:
3224:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3201:
3196:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3166:
3161:
3158:(June 1944).
3157:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3126:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3103:
3099:
3098:
3092:
3088:
3082:
3078:
3077:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3056:
3055:
3049:
3045:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3030:
3024:
3020:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3005:
2999:
2995:
2989:
2985:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2942:
2941:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2927:
2922:
2914:
2913:
2906:
2904:
2902:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2887:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2872:
2869:
2863:
2860:
2856:
2851:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2836:
2834:
2832:
2830:
2828:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2813:
2811:
2809:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2794:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2779:
2777:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2760:
2757:
2751:
2748:
2742:
2739:
2733:
2730:
2724:
2721:
2717:
2712:
2709:
2705:
2700:
2697:
2685:
2678:
2675:
2671:
2666:
2663:
2659:
2654:
2651:
2640:
2636:
2631:
2629:
2623:
2621:
2620:
2611:
2608:
2597:
2593:
2587:
2584:
2572:
2568:
2562:
2559:
2555:
2550:
2548:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2533:
2530:
2525:
2519:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2504:
2501:
2497:
2492:
2489:
2485:
2480:
2477:
2473:
2468:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2453:
2450:
2446:
2441:
2438:
2431:
2429:
2422:
2420:
2416:
2413:
2404:
2402:
2400:
2395:
2392:
2386:
2385:Referendariat
2380:
2375:
2370:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2350:
2348:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2333:civil service
2328:
2323:
2317:
2308:
2302:
2301:
2295:
2291:
2286:
2283:
2278:
2271:
2268:
2264:
2263:trier of fact
2259:
2257:
2252:
2248:
2243:
2235:
2233:
2229:
2220:
2218:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2207:
2197:
2195:
2193:
2191:
2184:
2177:
2172:
2170:
2168:
2166:
2160:
2155:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2140:republicanism
2137:
2133:
2129:
2128:human dignity
2125:
2121:
2119:
2111:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2084:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2055:
2051:
2049:
2043:
2041:
2035:
2027:
2025:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1993:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1959:
1953:
1952:Fiscal Courts
1950:
1947:
1945:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1917:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1900:
1896:
1894:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1863:
1857:
1856:
1855:
1852:
1845:
1843:
1841:
1840:
1835:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1814:
1812:
1809:
1806:
1805:
1801:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1789:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1767:
1765:
1762:
1760:
1756:
1753:Jurisdiction
1752:
1749:
1745:
1742:
1734:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1724:
1720:
1717:
1716:
1711:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1699:
1697:
1693:
1692:Schwurgericht
1690:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1678:
1676:
1672:
1669:
1667:
1666:
1661:
1657:
1654:
1652:
1649:
1648:
1644:
1641:
1639:
1638:
1634:
1632:
1631:
1626:
1623:Jurisdiction
1622:
1619:
1615:
1612:
1606:
1604:
1601:
1596:
1594:
1588:
1581:
1578:
1575:
1572:
1569:
1566:
1563:
1560:
1557:
1554:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1540:
1539:
1538:
1536:
1532:
1530:
1524:
1522:
1521:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1501:
1500:inquisitorial
1497:
1493:
1488:
1484:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1473:Byzantine law
1470:
1468:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1452:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1432:
1424:
1422:
1420:
1416:
1411:
1410:Notverordnung
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1384:
1383:Schwurgericht
1378:
1374:
1373:German Empire
1369:
1368:
1362:
1359:Germany used
1354:
1352:
1350:
1346:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1290:
1288:
1284:
1272:
1267:
1265:
1260:
1258:
1253:
1252:
1250:
1249:
1243:
1240:
1239:
1234:
1229:
1223:
1220:
1209:
1208:
1207:
1206:
1198:
1195:
1193:
1190:
1188:
1185:
1182:
1178:
1175:
1173:
1170:
1169:
1164:
1160:
1157:
1156:
1150:
1149:
1142:
1139:
1137:
1134:
1132:
1129:
1128:
1124:
1121:
1120:
1116:
1113:
1111:
1108:
1106:
1103:
1101:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1091:
1088:
1087:
1083:
1080:
1079:
1074:
1067:
1066:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1047:Saxony-Anhalt
1045:
1043:
1040:
1038:
1035:
1033:
1030:
1028:
1025:
1023:
1020:
1018:
1015:
1013:
1010:
1008:
1005:
1003:
1000:
998:
995:
993:
990:
988:
985:
983:
980:
979:
974:
971:
970:
964:
963:
954:
953:
949:
947:
944:
942:
939:
937:
934:
932:
929:
927:
924:
922:
919:
917:
914:
912:
909:
907:
904:
903:
898:
895:
894:
889:
888:
884:
882:
879:
877:
874:
872:
869:
867:
864:
862:
859:
857:
854:
852:
849:
847:
844:
842:
839:
837:
834:
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176:
172:
171:Robert Habeck
169:
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98:Head of State
95:
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87:
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70:Constitution
65:
64:
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53:
50:
40:
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32:
31:
19:
4913:Bibliography
4787:Coat of arms
4767:Architecture
4744:Trade unions
4724:Prostitution
4684:Homelessness
4647:Demographics
4596:Trade unions
4563:
4553:German model
4526:Central bank
4470:Conservatism
4433:Human rights
4418:Court system
4417:
4413:Constitution
4393:
4239:Contemporary
4228:West Germany
4223:East Germany
4198:World War II
4193:Nazi Germany
4133:18th-century
4092:East Francia
4046:Cimbrian War
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2938:
2935:Zeisel, Hans
2911:
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2677:
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2445:Forsyth 1852
2440:
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2379:Staatsexamen
2365:
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2354:
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2245:
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2162:
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2132:human rights
2115:
2112:
2085:
2071:(earlier in
2045:
2037:
2031:
2011:
1971:
1955:
1941:
1913:
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1820:Landgerichte
1819:
1810:
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1795:Amtsgerichte
1794:
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1773:Amtsgerichte
1772:
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1759:Landgerichte
1758:
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1740:
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1695:
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1684:Amtsgerichte
1683:
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1670:
1665:Landgerichte
1663:
1650:
1637:Strafrichter
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1630:Amtsgerichte
1628:
1620:Composition
1617:Trial Court
1610:
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1516:
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1464:
1457:criminal law
1448:
1434:
1397:Adolf Hitler
1380:
1367:Landgerichte
1358:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1291:
1282:
1280:
1177:Conservatism
1122:
1081:
1017:Lower Saxony
972:
951:
896:
886:
636:
626:
477:
467:
414:
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389:
381:
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343:
336:Subdivisions
322:Other courts
314:Joint Senate
264:
250:
243:
232:
213:
161:
135:
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86:Human rights
45:Politics of
33:
4714:Pornography
4689:Immigration
4652:Drug policy
4564:Mittelstand
4511:Agriculture
4475:Nationalism
4448:Transgender
4332:Earthquakes
4279:, 1583-1588
4277:Cologne War
4173:World War I
4075:Middle Ages
4061:Gothic Wars
3896:Isle of Man
3831:recognition
3783:Switzerland
3718:Netherlands
3348:Legislation
3132:(1): 1–27.
2855:Vogler 2005
2783:Malsch 2009
2689:10 November
2573:(in German)
2351:Prosecutors
2337:blue-collar
2300:Amtsgericht
2280: [
2277:Gemeinderat
2165:Grundgesetz
2118:Grundgesetz
1839:Amtsgericht
1705:Strafkammer
1467:Privatrecht
1461:private law
1361:jury trials
997:Brandenburg
756:1932 (July)
456:Referendums
371:composition
208:Legislature
150:Olaf Scholz
72:(Basic Law)
4875:Television
4860:Philosophy
4835:Literature
4694:Irreligion
4679:Healthcare
4642:Corruption
4408:Chancellor
4397:(military)
4394:Bundeswehr
3753:San Marino
3713:Montenegro
3693:Luxembourg
3673:Kazakhstan
3576:Azerbaijan
2923:References
2644:2012-10-29
2639:juris GmbH
2601:2024-05-02
2577:2024-05-02
2484:Wolff 1944
2472:Wolff 1944
2341:housewives
2251:(Schöffen)
2247:Lay judges
2236:Lay judges
2148:federalism
2122:(per the "
1811:Strafsenat
1786:Strafsenat
1723:Strafsenat
1574:Social law
1568:Labour law
1496:common law
1459:, and (2)
1445:public law
1419:lay judges
1389:Article 48
1318:prosecutor
1308:where the
1302:common law
1192:Liberalism
1163:Federalism
771:1933 (Nov)
766:1933 (Mar)
761:1932 (Nov)
741:1924 (Dec)
736:1924 (May)
651:1867 (Aug)
646:1867 (Feb)
461:Coalitions
388:District (
4830:Libraries
4810:Festivals
4657:Education
4601:Transport
4566:companies
4485:President
4423:Elections
4388:Bundesrat
4383:Bundestag
4352:Mountains
4320:Districts
4298:Geography
4031:Visigoths
3968:Overviews
3886:Gibraltar
3688:Lithuania
3299:608806061
2969:144941508
2840:Bell 2006
2716:Bell 2006
2704:Bell 2006
2554:Bell 2006
2362:Attorneys
2228:in camera
2213:, Italy:
2173:Personnel
2136:democracy
2081:Frankfurt
2065:Karlsruhe
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1815:5 judges
1790:3 judges
1548:and most
1326:defendant
1322:plaintiff
1294:civil law
1187:Far-right
1172:Communism
1057:Thuringia
438:Elections
266:Judiciary
234:Bundesrat
215:Bundestag
130:Executive
4942:Category
4922:Category
4840:Internet
4825:Language
4815:Folklore
4734:Religion
4709:Pensions
4704:Naturism
4581:Taxation
4465:Lobbying
4438:Intersex
4371:Politics
3980:Timeline
3959:General
3952:articles
3906:Svalbard
3891:Guernsey
3838:Abkhazia
3813:Scotland
3768:Slovenia
3763:Slovakia
3738:Portugal
3596:Bulgaria
3351:Archived
3321:29739821
3309:(1852).
2980:(2009).
1731:Serious
1642:1 judge
1546:criminal
1494:used by
1391:(of the
1324:and the
1298:statutes
1141:Passport
1037:Saarland
415:Gemeinde
287:Ordinary
4899:Outline
4805:Fashion
4792:Cuisine
4754:Culture
4719:Poverty
4662:Germans
4625:Society
4606:Welfare
4591:Tourism
4548:Exports
4521:Banking
4499:Economy
4403:Cabinet
4342:Islands
4337:Geology
4260:Regions
4026:Teutons
3999:Ancient
3961:History
3948:Germany
3803:England
3793:Ukraine
3743:Romania
3703:Moldova
3661:Ireland
3656:Iceland
3651:Hungary
3641:Germany
3636:Georgia
3626:Finland
3621:Estonia
3616:Denmark
3601:Croatia
3586:Belgium
3581:Belarus
3571:Austria
3566:Armenia
3561:Andorra
3556:Albania
3186:1283584
3148:1094713
2763:See eg
2312:German:
2221:Federal
2054:supreme
2028:Federal
2020:or the
1964:tax law
1562:Tax law
1375:by the
1355:History
1287:Germany
1007:Hamburg
987:Bavaria
364:Landtag
345:State (
226:members
184:Cabinet
48:Germany
4927:Portal
4782:Cinema
4762:Anthem
4729:Racism
4543:Energy
4357:Rivers
4315:States
4285:, 1848
4121:Modern
3950:
3901:Jersey
3843:Kosovo
3788:Turkey
3778:Sweden
3758:Serbia
3748:Russia
3733:Poland
3728:Norway
3708:Monaco
3678:Latvia
3646:Greece
3631:France
3606:Cyprus
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3066:986849
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2190:Länder
2079:, and
2077:Munich
2069:Berlin
2048:BVerfG
2014:Länder
1932:, and
1576:courts
1570:courts
1564:courts
1558:courts
1511:Courts
1415:judges
1349:Länder
1310:judges
1115:Russia
1090:France
1042:Saxony
1002:Bremen
992:Berlin
307:Social
302:Labour
297:Fiscal
189:Scholz
4906:Index
4870:Sport
4855:Names
4850:Music
4845:Media
4800:Dance
4672:Women
4637:Crime
4611:Women
4347:Lakes
4021:Goths
3876:Åland
3818:Wales
3773:Spain
3698:Malta
3668:Italy
3336:Chart
3211:[
3182:JSTOR
3144:JSTOR
3062:JSTOR
2965:S2CID
2957:JSTOR
2624:, or
2432:Notes
2284:]
2198:State
2044:, or
2008:State
1552:cases
1550:civil
1525:, or
1110:China
1095:Italy
1012:Hesse
390:Kreis
175:Grüne
4820:Flag
4777:Arts
4443:LGBT
3317:OCLC
3295:OCLC
3274:ISBN
3253:ISBN
3232:ISBN
3102:ISBN
3081:ISBN
3038:ISBN
3013:ISBN
2988:ISBN
2766:672)
2691:2013
2150:and
2114:the
2073:Bonn
2032:The
1981:The
1822:and
1417:and
1281:The
1136:Visa
952:2024
946:2019
941:2014
936:2009
931:2004
926:1999
921:1994
916:1989
911:1984
906:1979
887:Next
881:2021
876:2017
871:2013
866:2009
861:2005
856:2002
851:1998
846:1994
841:1990
836:1987
831:1983
826:1980
821:1976
816:1972
811:1969
806:1965
801:1961
796:1957
791:1953
786:1949
781:1938
776:1936
751:1930
746:1928
731:1920
726:1919
721:1912
716:1907
711:1903
706:1898
701:1893
696:1890
691:1887
686:1884
681:1881
676:1878
671:1877
666:1874
661:1871
656:1868
627:2022
621:2017
616:2012
611:2010
606:2009
601:2004
596:1999
591:1994
586:1989
581:1984
576:1979
571:1974
566:1969
561:1964
556:1959
551:1954
546:1949
530:1957
525:1953
520:1949
504:1932
499:1925
494:1919
422:list
397:list
347:Land
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4772:Art
4455:Law
3174:doi
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1673:or
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1425:Law
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