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incidentally when they overhear conversations between other family members in the home. This type of learning occurs in everyday communication including emotional expression, navigating arguments, and managing triggers. Language deprivation syndrome coupled with the lack of these every day incidental learning experiences may impact mental health, physical health, and academic advancements. A lack of incidental learning can also limit an individual's general wealth of knowledge and comprehension skills used to learn about and understand the world around them. Without the wealth of knowledge and language skills hearing children typically demonstrate, deaf and hard of hearing children can arrive at school already behind their peers. This trend can continue as they spend school years working to learn the things their hearing peers picked up effortlessly in the home before starting school. Incidental learning is possible for deaf and hard-of-hearing children when the family uses language that is fully accessible to all family members and includes the child with atypical hearing in family communications directly and indirectly.
923:. This method integrates students requiring special education services into a general education classroom based on their skills. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) mandates the specificities of this integration. IDEA protects students who are typically a part of the special education classroom by granting the right to access the same education setting as their peers. The student also has a right to the school-provided accommodations and services necessary for them to be able to participate in the general education classroom. The student's needs, services, and goals are detailed in their Individualized Education Plan (IEP). All deaf and hard of hearing students have a right to access general education instruction at their local school with their peers, but it depends on the individual if this option will be the best fit.
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and hearing individuals, psychologists found that deaf children born to deaf parents were the most proficient at code-switching. In turn, deaf children born to hearing parents struggled more with the ability to code-switch and communicate in various conditions. Parents' hearing status and age that the child is exposed to language affect deaf children's ability to code-switch. Deaf children may lack proficiency or fluency in either language during early language-learning development, they still engage in code switching activities, in which they go back and forth between signing and
English to communicate. Code switching from oral speech is difficult for Deaf children. Lexical borrowing and code switching do occur between sign and oral languages. Lexicon is similar to borrowing and oral speech to code switching.
899:(ASHA) and American Cochlear Implant Alliance (ACIA). Both groups released statements regarding their concerns about the parental choice of modality for their child. They argued that such legislation could negatively impact the services the child receives under IDEA. ACIA also argued that there was a lack of evidence suggesting that ASL benefits all children with a hearing loss. ASHA expressed its concern that parents might not receive information regarding all possible options and that the policy elevated one modality over all others. LEAD-K responded to these concerns by reiterating their commitment to deaf and hard of hearing children achieving age appropriate language milestones regardless of the language chosen by the parents and that they were not advocating for one modality over another.
410:, and other services have the potential to help maximize the access provided through hearing technology. Even for children using hearing technology, the age they were exposed to language (whether visual or spoken) will have a role in how much they can benefit from the technology. Speaking, though, is not the only option for communication for deaf and hard of hearing children. Language exposure, either signed or spoken, from birth builds and strengthens brain tissue that can be used in a variety of language contexts in the future. For example, if in the future the person undergoes surgery to receive a cochlear implant, their language exposure from birth can be an important factor in regards to acquisition of spoken language aided by the implant.
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parents, thus, they may often experience this phenomenon if their family does not incorporate sign language into their communication. These parents may be unfamiliar with Deaf culture and are often unaware of the best communication methods to assist their children with developing into contributing members of society. A famous Deaf artist, Susan Dupor, painted an art piece called "Family Dog" to represent this experience. Her artwork represents the feeling of isolation being deaf in an all-hearing family. This painting was designed to emphasize deaf family members' perspectives with the blurred faces of the family metaphorically representing the difficulties of
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as their main communication method. Signed languages are natural languages with linguistic features similar to spoken languages, and the developmental milestones are similar to those of spoken languages. Deaf and hard of hearing children with deaf parents who sign with them thus experience language from birth, like typically developing children with normal hearing. To succeed, children must acquire at least one language (spoken or signed). Some researchers and practitioners encourage families to focus exclusively on spoken language. There is also evidence that suggests that natural sign languages are beneficial to deaf and hard of hearing children.
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audiologist, a social worker, the interventionist, and the family. A Deaf mentor can also be included as a key member of the team. Early interventionists can also work with the family in the home through game play, language and communication instruction and activities, providing strategies, helping establish routines and discipline methods, and more. Home visits are one way early intervention can take place, but it is not limited to the home given the broad range of services provided. Geographic location of the family influences available services and resources due to distance, but virtual intervention measures have helped address this challenge.
573:. Signed languages can provide the child with full language access, but they pose challenges to the family as they work to learn a new language. Manually coded language systems as well as philosophies like simultaneous communication or total communication are more closely linked to the spoken language used in the area and therefore are usually easier for acquisition by people whose native language is the spoken language of the area. However, these methods may not have the same linguistic characteristics as natural languages, such as morphology, phonology, syntax, and semantics.
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auditory input, is not a cause of delayed development, language deprivation is. Profoundly deaf children who had early exposure to a visual signed language possess high levels of language organization. If development of spoken language is desired, listening technology (hearing aids or cochlear implants) can help, but the overall process is enhanced when paired with sign language. These devices vary greatly in benefit to different hard of hearing and deaf individuals and do not guarantee better auditory understanding or speaking ability.
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these individuals if elected, or audiologists could test residual hearing and order hearing aids. This method is often used by families who utilize spoken language at home and cannot or will not learn sign language. Modern research reveals that there is a wide range of results from this method as there are many background factors that impact the success of this method, such as family socioeconomic status, location, parental employment, quality of the language model at home, and the child's residual hearing.
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key for developing strong language pathways in the brain. The brain connections developed in response to linguistic input can then be utilized if/when the child is exposed to a second language. Even in cases where the brain receives absolutely no auditory input, the brain is still able to develop typical language skills when exposed to high-quality visual language. Hearing technologies can also be used to grant spoken language access, though the quality of this access varies from person to person.
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understand what their deaf child is capable of and establish high expectations for the child to fulfill their potential. When working with a Deaf mentor, the family typically takes signing classes and engages in Deaf community events in addition to working with the mentor. Everyone, including the child, learns to sign together and use their skills to communicate with one another with the mentor helping to facilitate mastery by being a native-level language model.
973:. Bi-Bi supporters argue because of the variability in cochlear implant and hearing aid outcomes, sign language access is crucial for preventing deaf and hard-of-hearing children from experiencing inequalities in education. However, since it is a method with a bilingual focus, the written form of the majority spoken language is given equal value. Deaf and hard of hearing students have a right to the same academic content as their peers and to literacy.
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940:(CART), or an FM system can help with some of these issues, but they will always be present. These accommodations work to increase access, but for students using sign language in general education settings, communication will be indirect since it is through the interpreter. There is always a risk of interpreting miscommunication and even with these accommodations, the learning and social interactions will be an obstacle.
862:, Language Equality & Acquisition for Deaf Kids. LEAD-K varies from state to state because each state is responsible for drafting its version of the bill. The main focus of LEAD-K is full language development in English, ASL, or both, for school readiness and the prevention of language deprivation. Twelve states have passed LEAD-K legislation as of August 5, 2019. The model bill for LEAD-K calls for five actions:
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language acquisition. Early intervention can take many forms and usually depends on where the family lives. In the United States, the School for the Deaf in the state the family lives in likely provides programs and resources. Other services can come from the state itself, national programs, and educational centers. These services may be paid for through state and federal funds. Independent organizations like the
826:. Before universal hearing screening was established in hospitals shortly after birth, many deaf children's hearing status was not identified until years after birth, when language milestones were not being met. At the time of identification, the child was already behind. Newborn hearing screening supports early identification and allows professionals to help keep the child's language development on track.
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521:. Only 30–45% of the English language can be understood solely through lip reading. In these situations, deaf children are unable to participate in the conversations without using a commonly accessible language. Similarly, these experiences occur during social engagements where deaf individuals cannot communicate with other individuals through a spoken language.
906:, a historically spoken-language-only group. These two traditionally opposed groups were able to reach an agreement by focusing on the shared desire to provide equal language acquisition opportunities for deaf and hard of hearing children as are received by their hearing peers and promote the spread of accurate and balanced information.
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their child's hearing status is identified can be very influential. The Joint
Commission on Infant Hearing recommends that professionals working with families of deaf infants should provide parents with unbiased, well-rounded information to help guide decisions they will need to make. Systemic bias towards deafness, known as
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In terms of deaf students, deafness is considered a low-incidence disability. This translates to the possibility of one deaf child belonging to a classroom of all "hearing" children and can result in unique barriers. For example, teachers and students within the general education setting may not know
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It is often the audiologist who provides the first information to the family for an identified child following diagnosis. The audiologist has the responsibility for communicating the information to the family in an empathetic, non-biased, open-ended fashion, and in a language (spoken or signed) that
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This approach began to emerge in schools during the late 1980s in the United States, Denmark, and Sweden. In the United States, the ASL/English Bi-Bi is designed to facilitate academic success and provide education to deaf students by teaching sign language as a first language, followed by a written
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Most children naturally learn their native language at a young age. Although spoken language is ubiquitous for children who hear normally, congenitally deaf children do not have access to it from birth. Less than 10% of the children with hearing loss are born into deaf families who use sign language
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during the critical period, the brain does not have the tools it needs to build the typical framework for processing and producing language. In turn, language deprivation can cause abnormalities in other areas of cognitive functioning, particularly the establishment of concepts, processing things in
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Similar linguistic milestones are found in both signed and spoken languages. Reduced access to language may result in behavior problems as the child does not have a way to express his wants or needs. When a developing child experiences reduced access to language it may result in behavior problems as
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allows bilingual individuals to experience all the benefits of each language they know. For deaf and hard of hearing children especially, a strong language foundation in a signed language paired with a spoken language (or written) sets the stage for literacy later on. In a study conducted with Deaf
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reveal that brain tissue used for language accepts both auditory and visual input to develop language pathways. This is because the brain focuses on patterns in language, whether it is a pattern of sounds or a pattern of hand movements. Access to the full range of patterns embedded in a language is
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Other studies address the neurological differences between individuals who have experienced language deprivation and those who did not. The first five years of life are foundational for many skills as the brain develops the neural connections and processes that will be built upon for years to come.
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and typical language development unveiled a critical period for language acquisition. After this critical period of language acquisition, it remains exceedingly laborious and strenuous to master a native language. Language development is not impossible after the five year mark, but will likely bear
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This method aims to provide deaf and hard of hearing students with instruction in both signed and written languages and exposes students to both Deaf culture and other cultural contexts, i.e. the wider culture of the area or country. Bi-Bi emphasizes that deaf children learn visually and education
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Children whose parents opt for spoken language may use hearing technology to receive spoken language input and are encouraged to go to speech therapy to work on expressive language skills, leading them to speak and listen to language. Medical professionals could perform cochlear implant surgery on
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of language acquisition could result in persistent symptoms, known as language deprivation syndrome. Symptoms of language deprivation syndrome include language dysfluency (e.g., lack of fluency in native language), knowledge gaps about the world around them, abnormal thinking, mood and/or behavior
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Timing and quality of language exposure, not language used or how many languages used, are the factors that matter most when determining language and literacy outcomes. When deaf and hard of hearing children are fully exposed to natural language along a timeline equivalent to their hearing peers,
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There has been much conflict and controversy regarding language modality for deaf and hard of hearing children. When it is discovered that a child is deaf or hard of hearing, this assessment is usually made via a hearing test in a medical setting. The first people the parents interact with after
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When hearing individuals share information with each other in a way that is not accessible to deaf individuals, the deaf individuals are not privy to incidental learning experiences. Incidental learning refers to any unprompted, unplanned, or unintended learning. Hearing children typically learn
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or sensitive period. Early intervention, parental involvement, and other resources all work to prevent language deprivation. Children who experience limited access to language—spoken or signed—may not develop the necessary skills to successfully assimilate into the academic learning environment.
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Children whose parents select the signed language route can benefit from signed language models, such as a Deaf mentor. Deaf mentors provide a role model for the child that they may not see anywhere else, as well as providing a language model for the whole family. Deaf mentors can help parents
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Early intervention is one of the main methods of preventing language deprivation. A main focus of early intervention programs and services for deaf and hard of hearing children is language development. Early interventionists are able to work with the family during the early, critical years for
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The importance of early accessible communication with family and peers can be seen in "dinner table syndrome"—the experience of observing spoken conversations between other family members and not understanding these conversations. As statistics show, 90–95% of deaf children are born to hearing
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One misconception is that deaf children will be at a disadvantage since they lack access to auditory input and, therefore, deafness results in delayed development. Because of this, a focus on auditory language exposure for deaf children is usually recommended. However, deafness, or the lack of
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Deaf children without early access to signed language remain at risk for starting school unprepared for the rigors of academic learning. These different challenges of the deaf children for educational progress are not limited to those with their language exposure. That is where an educational
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A team must be cooperative for the success of early intervention. Members of the early intervention team can include education and medical professionals, therapists (speech, occupational, physical, psychological), specialists (vision, hearing/deafness, family dynamics, and kinesthetic), the
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By prioritizing the child's visual and auditory language equally from birth, children are given every opportunity and tool to develop language. As children grow and become adults, they may naturally prefer one modality over the other, but will have developed useful skills in both.
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Students who use hearing technology and spoken language can be supported by reducing classroom background noise, seating close to the instructor, and speakers who face the class while talking one at a time. Learning can be difficult when these conditions are not provided.
772:, can impact what information and guidance parents receive. If a deaf child does not meet appropriate early benchmarks for the first chosen communication method or modality, it is important to consider additional or different methods, in order to prevent
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the child does not have a way to express their wants or needs. Language deprivation may also affect their neurological development. The timing and quality of language exposure are more important than hearing status for developing age-appropriate skills.
490:. Similar results were seen in deaf individuals. Language deprivation influenced altered neural activation patterns in deaf individuals that were exposed to sign language later, as compared to deaf individuals who received typical language development.
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deems the first few years of life as the period during which the brain is most primed for language development. The critical period is also referred to as the sensitive period for language development, or the language acquisition window. Studies on
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There are various educational approaches for teaching deaf and hard of hearing individuals. Decisions about language instruction is dependent upon a number of factors including extent of hearing loss, availability of programs, and family dynamics.
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can potentially help provide access to spoken language. This access can vary greatly from person to person due to factors such as cause and severity of deafness, the age of when hearing technology is introduced, and time of language exposure.
838:. Globally, there are a number of laws and policies that relate to the topic of language deprivation. Other related laws in the United States focusing on special education including deaf education include national legislation such as the
965:—a unique facet not provided by general education. Through the Bi-Bi approach, deaf students may develop multiple cultural identities: one based on their hearing status and others based on that of their family or local majority culture.
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disorders, academic, and literacy delays. It was found that deaf individuals who acquired sign language after five years of age were not nearly as proficient as deaf individuals who were exposed to sign language from birth.
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When it comes to language deprivation prevention, modality, which in this case means using either spoken or signed language, does not matter to the brain as long as it is fully accessible. Studies from
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Create a resource for informal parental use to chart their deaf or hard of hearing children's language growth—this resource-based on milestones for specific language and
English literacy development.
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they will acquire language along equivalent milestones. This timeline includes babbling around 10 months and first sign around one year. The full timeline of children who use sign was published by
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timeline. When a child is deprived of language from the beginning, they can be dramatically behind their peers in terms of hitting milestones. This can impact learning for the rest of their lives.
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Mayberry, Rachel I.; Chen, Jen-Kai; Witcher, Pamela; Klein, Denise (October 2011). "Age of acquisition effects on the functional organization of language in the adult brain".
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and is a resource that parents of deaf children can use to track their child's language development which includes milestones like following eye gaze, pointing, and imitating
451:. This resource is unique because it is normed for deaf and hard-of-hearing children, and can be used to establish parent expectations for their child's language progress.
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1350:"The influence of language deprivation in early childhood on L2 processing: An ERP comparison of deaf native signers and deaf signers with a delayed language acquisition"
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Establish an advisory committee outline the model bills and the requirements for the composition to ensure the creation of a balanced, knowledgeable, and diverse team.
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Mitchell, Ross E; Karchmer, Michael A (2004). "Chasing the
Mythical Ten Percent: Parental Hearing Status of Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students in the United States".
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1105:"Auditory Deprivation Does Not Impair Executive Function, But Language Deprivation Might: Evidence From a Parent-Report Measure in Deaf Native Signing Children"
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With currently available technology and interventions, children are likely to successfully achieve age-expected spoken language skills. Technology such as
1867:"Effects of Early Language Deprivation on Brain Connectivity: Language Pathways in Deaf Native and Late First-Language Learners of American Sign Language"
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Humphries, Tom; Kushalnagar, Poorna; Mathur, Gaurav; Napoli, Donna Jo; Padden, Carol; Pollard, Robert; Rathmann, Christian; Smith, Scott (2014-12-01).
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Hoffmeister, Robert J.; Caldwell-Harris, Catherine L. (August 2014). "Acquiring
English as a second language via print: The task for deaf children".
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Simms, Laurene; Baker, Sharon; Clark, M. Diane (2013). "The
Standardized Visual Communication and Sign Language Checklist for Signing Children".
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sign language, causing significant communication and cultural barriers to social interaction, friendship, and learning. Accommodations such as
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3179:"Language contact in the American deaf community. Ceil Lucas and Clayton Valli. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1992. Pp. xviii + 161. $ 32.50"
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Davies, Shawn Neal (1991). "The
Transition toward Bilingual Education of Deaf Children in Sweden & Denmark: Perspectives on Language".
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at a young age fail to achieve full language proficiency as they develop. Inconsistencies in exposure to a natural language during this
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or spoken language (such as
English) as their second language. Furthermore, state schools specifically for the deaf offer exposure to
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Hauser, Peter C.; O'Hearn, Amanda; McKee, Michael; Steider, Anne; Thew, Denise (2010). "Deaf
Epistemology: Deafhood and Deafness".
1206:"Emotional and behavioural difficulties in children and adolescents with hearing impairment: a systematic review and meta-analysis"
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2560:"The Stanford Achievement Test, 9th Edition: National Norming and Performance Standards for Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Students"
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Distribute the parent and educator resources to relevant individuals and organizations and equip these recipients for its use.
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Mitchell, Ross E; Karchmer, Michael A (2005). "Parental
Hearing Status and Signing among Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students".
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1298:"What You Don't Know Can Hurt You: The Risk of Language Deprivation by Impairing Sign Language Development in Deaf Children"
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Communication methods used with deaf children may include spoken language, signed language, systems or philosophies such as
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17:
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Geers, Ann E. (2006). "Factors Influencing Spoken Language Outcomes in Children following Early Cochlear Implantation".
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Humphries, Tom; Kushalnagar, Poorna; Mathur, Gaurav; Napoli, Donna Jo; Rathmann, Christian; Smith, Scott (March 2019).
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Provide a similar resource for educators that, instead of being created through LEAD-K, is chosen from current methods.
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Stacey, Lim (4 May 2017). "Children with hearing loss: developing listening and talking, birth to six, 3rd edition".
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Another way language deprivation can be prevented is through legislation providing standards for language access in
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The critical stage in language development is important in deaf individuals. Deaf individuals who lack exposure to
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3283:"Year 2019 Position Statement: Principles and Guidelines for Early Hearing Detection and Intervention Programs"
1598:"Setting Language in Motion: Family Supports and Early Intervention for Babies Who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing"
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3124:"Codeswitching Techniques: Evidence-Based Instructional Practices for the ASL/English Bilingual Classroom"
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Skotara, Nils; Salden, Uta; Kügow, Monique; Hänel-Faulhaber, Barbara; Röder, Brigitte (December 2012).
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One education placement for students who are deaf or hard of hearing is general education, also called
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Fellinger, Johannes; Holzinger, Daniel; Pollard, Robert (March 2012). "Mental health of deaf people".
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362:, is not provided in the first few years of a deaf or hard of hearing child's life, often called the
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1459:"New Discoveries From the Bilingual Brain and Mind Across the Life Span: Implications for Education"
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Neumann, Katrin; Mathmann, Philipp; Chadha, Shelly; Euler, Harald A.; White, Karl R. (2022-01-05).
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1712:"Language deprivation syndrome: a possible neurodevelopmental disorder with sociocultural origins"
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2872:"Language is more than speaking: How the brain processes sign language | Max Planck Neuroscience"
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3833:"The Impact of Pragmatic Delays for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students in Mainstream Classrooms"
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Stevenson, Jim; Kreppner, Jana; Pimperton, Hannah; Worsfold, Sarah; Kennedy, Colin (May 2015).
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3903:"Level of Educational Attainment Among Deaf Adults Who Attended Bilingual–Bicultural Programs"
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2275:"The MacArthur Communicative Development Inventory: Normative Data for American Sign Language"
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2063:"The initial stages of first-language acquisition begun in adolescence: when late looks early"
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2228:"The acquisition of conditionals in American Sign Language: Grammaticized facial expressions"
1815:"Support for parents of deaf children: Common questions and informed, evidence-based answers"
1508:"Age of first bilingual language exposure as a new window into bilingual reading development"
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Hall, Matthew L.; Eigsti, Inge-Marie; Bortfeld, Heather; Lillo-Martin, Diane (January 2017).
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Kral, Andrej; Kronenberger, William G; Pisoni, David B; O'Donoghue, Gerard M (May 2016).
3658:"Position Paper: Supporting Parent Choice for Children who are Deaf and Hard of Hearing"
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3408:"Deaf Mentor Program – Outreach Services for the Deaf, Hard of Hearing, and Deafblind"
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Sign language structure : the first linguistic analysis of American sign language
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1157:"What Medical Education can do to Ensure Robust Language Development in Deaf Children"
1077:"Age-Appropriate Speech and Language Milestones - Stanford Medicine Children's Health"
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3789:"Considerations in educating deaf and hard-of-hearing students in inclusive settings"
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2014:"Neurocognitive factors in sensory restoration of early deafness: a connectome model"
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All too often, though, deaf and hard of hearing children do not follow the typical
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Cheng, Qi; Roth, Austin; Halgren, Eric; Mayberry, Rachel I. (19 September 2019).
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3524:"Newborn Hearing Screening Benefits Children, but Global Disparities Persist"
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3928:
3858:
3814:
3746:"[USC02] 20 USC Ch. 33: EDUCATION OF INDIVIDUALS WITH DISABILITIES"
3567:
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RAMÍREZ, NAJA FERJAN; LIEBERMAN, AMY M.; MAYBERRY, RACHEL I. (2012-01-20).
2047:
1990:
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by adding information on neglected viewpoints, or discuss the issue on the
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3139:
3100:
3084:
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2655:
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1631:
3303:
is accessible to the parents, using interpreters/translators as necessary
2226:
Reilly, Judy Snitzer; Mcintire, Marina; Bellugi, Ursula (December 1990).
3769:
3671:
3540:
2178:
2143:
822:
Early intervention has also helped prevent language deprivation through
2833:
1506:
Kovelman, Ioulia; Baker, Stephanie A.; Petitto, Laura-Ann (July 2008).
883:(IFSP) teams accountable for the child's language development progress.
695: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
3035:
2857:
2714:
1710:
Hall, Wyatte C.; Levin, Leonard L.; Anderson, Melissa L. (June 2017).
1647:
439:
the cognitive and linguistic characteristics of language deprivation.
2671:
902:
One notable revision came via a collaboration between LEAD-K and the
859:
769:
3696:"OPEN LETTER to American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA)"
2959:
Glennon, Erin; Svirsky, Mario A; Froemke, Robert C (February 2020).
3030:. Advances in Oto-Rhino-Laryngology. Vol. 64. pp. 50–65.
3009:"6 Pre-Implant Factors That Can Influence Success With Your Device"
2476:
Hall, Matthew L.; Hall, Wyatte C.; Caselli, Naomi K. (2019-03-13).
376:
Typical language development for deaf and hard of hearing children
4020:
Marschark, Marc; Albertini, John Anthony; Lang, Harry G. (2002).
3451:
1399:
Lenneberg, Eric H.; Chomsky, Noam; Marx, Otto (15 January 1967).
858:
One current example of state legislation in the United States is
3896:
3894:
3892:
3873:"Tips for Working with Students who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing"
2316:"Word order variation and acquisition in American Sign Language"
2439:"Auditory-verbal therapy for children with hearing impairment"
664:
584:
425:
The first five years of a child's life is a critical time for
230:
167:
119:
67:
26:
358:
that occurs when sufficient exposure to language, spoken or
3721:"OPEN LETTER TO American Cochlear Implant Alliance (ACIA)"
3672:"Language Equality and Acquisition for Deaf Kids (LEAD-K)"
3826:
3824:
3428:"Hands & Voices :: Communication Considerations"
2730:
Educating the Deaf: Psychology, Principles, and Practices
352:
Language deprivation in deaf and hard-of-hearing children
18:
Language deprivation in deaf and hard of hearing children
3610:"What is "Early Intervention" and is my child eligible?"
3360:"What is "Early Intervention" and is my child eligible?"
2961:"Auditory cortical plasticity in cochlear implant users"
2148:(Newly rev ed.). Silver Spring, MD: Linstok Press.
1916:
Leybaert, Jacqueline; D'hondt, Murielle (January 2003).
1557:"Early childhood bilingualism: Perils and possibilities"
801:
in London can provide additional resources and support.
192:
144:
1964:
1962:
1819:
International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology
1264:
Language_Deprivation_in_Deaf_Children_EHDI_Poster_2019
3226:"Hearing-impaired young people – a physician's guide"
2732:(5th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.
1343:
1341:
429:
and the establishment of their native language. This
704:"Language deprivation in children with hearing loss"
270:"Language deprivation in children with hearing loss"
3287:
Journal of Early Hearing Detection and Intervention
261:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
4022:Educating Deaf Students: From Research to Practice
3901:Dammeyer, Jesper; Marschark, Marc (October 2016).
1860:
1858:
1763:. Routledge/Taylor & Francis. pp. 24–53.
1705:
1703:
2478:"Deaf children need language, not (just) speech"
1457:Petitto, Laura-Ann; Dunbar, KN (December 2009).
3725:Language Equality and Acquisition for Deaf Kids
3700:Language Equality and Acquisition for Deaf Kids
3067:Hoffmeister, Robert; Moores, Donald F. (1987).
2893:"Patterns in language and language in patterns"
2525:Kelly, Steve W. (2012). "Incidental Learning".
1668:"Maturational Constraints on Language Learning"
1017:Marschark, Marc; Hauser, Peter C (2008-07-10).
3831:Paatsch, Louise; Toe, Dianne (November 2020).
3281:The Joint Committee on Infant Hearing (2019).
3224:Easson, Anne; Walter, Simone (December 2017).
1716:Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology
1661:
1659:
1657:
565:, as well as philosophies and techniques like
181:The examples and perspective in this article
8:
3676:American Speech-Language-Hearing Association
2924:American Speech-Language-Hearing Association
2443:Annals of the Academy of Medicine, Singapore
1098:
1096:
897:American Speech-Language-Hearing Association
3774:Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
3318:Language Deprivation and Deaf Mental Health
1761:Language Deprivation and Deaf Mental Health
844:Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
619:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
503:Incidental learning and access to knowledge
61:Learn how and when to remove these messages
3907:Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education
3793:Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education
3614:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
3364:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
3122:Andrews, Jean F.; Rusher, Melissa (2010).
2564:Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education
2401:Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics
2359:Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics
2279:Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education
2211:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1210:European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry
1109:Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education
957:(Bi-Bi) method can benefit deaf students.
938:communication access real-time translation
3918:
3848:
3804:
3787:Stinson, M; Antia, S (1 September 1999).
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1580:Sign Language - An international handbook
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1277:BL2: What the Eyes Reveal About the Brain
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1172:
1128:
1029:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195368673.003.0012
755:Learn how and when to remove this message
639:Learn how and when to remove this message
339:Learn how and when to remove this message
321:Learn how and when to remove this message
219:Learn how and when to remove this message
3634:"National Association of the Deaf - NAD"
3476:"National Association of the Deaf - NAD"
3384:"National Association of the Deaf - NAD"
2527:Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning
1790:"National Association of the Deaf - NAD"
87:: vague phrasing that often accompanies
2914:
2912:
1564:Journal of Applied Research on Learning
1009:
3579:
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3183:Studies in Second Language Acquisition
2935:
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2437:Lim, S. Y. C.; Simser, J. (May 2005).
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1592:
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1150:
1148:
3585:"Universal Newborn Hearing Screening"
1784:
1782:
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1259:
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993:Language acquisition by deaf children
895:LEAD-K has faced opposition from the
494:Language acquisition in deaf children
7:
2395:Mayberry, R.I.; Squires, B. (2006),
2353:Mayberry, R.I.; Squires, B. (2006),
2314:Pichler, Deborah Chen (2002-01-01).
1512:Bilingualism: Language and Cognition
693:adding citations to reliable sources
617:adding citations to reliable sources
481:Without full access and exposure to
421:Age and quality of language exposure
259:adding citations to reliable sources
3177:Berent, Gerald P. (December 1993).
2558:Traxler, C. B. (1 September 2000).
2183:. Ursula Bellugi. Cambridge, Mass.
1759:Gulati, Sanjay (3 September 2018).
1666:Newport, Elissa L. (January 1990).
2745:International Journal of Audiology
1925:International Journal of Audiology
1401:Biological Foundations of Language
795:American Society for Deaf Children
25:
1302:Maternal and Child Health Journal
1053:"ASL Stages of Development (CSD)"
904:Alexander Graham Bell Association
472:Misconceptions of critical period
42:This article has multiple issues.
3315:Glickman, Neil S. (2018-09-03).
2119:"Quick Statistics About Hearing"
1475:10.1111/j.1751-228X.2009.01069.x
998:Language deprivation experiments
877:Individualized Education Program
799:National Deaf Children's Society
791:National Association of the Deaf
669:
589:
235:
172:
124:
72:
31:
3991:10.1016/j.cognition.2014.03.014
3069:"Code Switching in Deaf Adults"
3028:Cochlear and Brainstem Implants
2965:Current Opinion in Neurobiology
2797:"Lip Reading Is No Simple Task"
2320:Sign Language & Linguistics
1871:Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
840:Americans with Disabilities Act
680:needs additional citations for
246:needs additional citations for
50:or discuss these issues on the
2891:Vries, Ellen de (2017-07-17).
2409:10.1016/b0-08-044854-2/00854-3
2403:, Elsevier, pp. 291–296,
2367:10.1016/b0-08-044854-2/00854-3
2361:, Elsevier, pp. 291–296,
948:Bilingual–bicultural education
881:Individual Family Service Plan
512:Early accessible communication
1:
4074:Speech and language pathology
3242:10.7861/clinmedicine.17-6-521
2946:Critical Studies in Education
2757:10.1080/14992027.2016.1270470
2613:10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61143-4
2535:10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_366
2030:10.1016/s1474-4422(16)00034-x
969:should be provided through a
814:Success of early intervention
797:in the United States and the
3528:Journal of Clinical Medicine
3452:"Ski Hi Deaf Mentor Program"
2795:Callis, Lydia (2016-03-23).
2770:Culture, Deaf (2015-07-14).
2397:"Sign Language: Acquisition"
2355:"Sign Language: Acquisition"
1832:10.1016/j.ijporl.2018.12.036
1555:Genesee, Fred (April 2009).
1296:Hall, Wyatte C. (May 2017).
385:Technology and interventions
4024:. Oxford University Press.
3843:(Supplement 3): S292–S297.
3589:www.nationwidechildrens.org
3128:American Annals of the Deaf
3073:American Annals of the Deaf
2942:"ASL as a Foreign Language"
2822:American Annals of the Deaf
2273:Anderson, D. (2002-06-01).
2142:Stokoe, William C. (1978).
1983:10.1016/j.bandl.2011.05.007
1023:. Oxford University Press.
195:, discuss the issue on the
4090:
2977:10.1016/j.conb.2019.11.003
2772:"Deaf Culture: Family Dog"
1685:10.1207/s15516709cog1401_2
1463:Mind, Brain, and Education
1424:Siegler, Robert S (2006).
934:sign language interpreters
910:Educational considerations
848:Rehabilitation Act of 1973
661:Conflict and controversies
567:simultaneous communication
445:Gallaudet University Press
399:bone-anchored hearing aids
99:Such statements should be
3195:10.1017/s0272263100012493
2940:CMPASL (April 21, 2016).
2244:10.1017/S0142716400009632
2232:Applied Psycholinguistics
2177:Klima, Edward S. (1979).
2079:10.1017/s0305000911000535
2067:Journal of Child Language
1937:10.3109/14992020309074622
1728:10.1007/s00127-017-1351-7
1577:Pichler, Deborah (2012).
1524:10.1017/S1366728908003386
1314:10.1007/s10995-017-2287-y
1222:10.1007/s00787-015-0697-1
1174:10.1007/s40670-014-0073-7
1081:www.stanfordchildrens.org
824:newborn hearing screening
139:toward certain viewpoints
2495:10.1177/0142723719834102
1884:10.3389/fnhum.2019.00320
1161:Medical Science Educator
953:philosophy known as the
927:Classroom accommodations
3850:10.1542/peds.2020-0242I
1367:10.1186/1471-2202-13-44
776:, or in extreme cases,
563:manually coded language
3806:10.1093/deafed/4.3.163
3432:www.handsandvoices.org
2577:10.1093/deafed/5.4.337
2529:. pp. 1517–1518.
3956:10.1353/sls.1991.0023
3944:Sign Language Studies
3920:10.1093/deafed/enw036
3456:deaf-mentor.skihi.org
3327:10.4324/9781315166728
3140:10.1353/aad.2010.0036
3085:10.1353/aad.2012.0770
2699:10.1353/sls.2005.0004
2687:Sign Language Studies
2656:10.1353/sls.2004.0005
2644:Sign Language Studies
2332:10.1075/sll.5.1.10pic
2292:10.1093/deafed/7.2.83
2180:The signs of language
1632:10.1353/sls.2013.0029
1620:Sign Language Studies
1121:10.1093/deafed/enw054
561:, and other forms of
559:Signing Exact English
542:Dr. Laura-Ann Petitto
427:cognitive development
4069:Language acquisition
3877:diversity.utexas.edu
2018:The Lancet Neurology
1605:Gallaudet University
1426:How children develop
955:Bilingual-bicultural
778:language deprivation
689:improve this article
613:improve this section
415:language development
356:language development
255:improve this article
201:create a new article
193:improve this article
183:may not represent a
101:clarified or removed
3541:10.3390/jcm11010271
2920:"Language In Brief"
2607:(9820): 1037–1044.
1583:. pp. 647–686.
571:total communication
145:improve the article
3608:CDC (2018-04-11).
3358:CDC (2018-04-11).
2834:10.1353/aad.0.0120
2728:Moores, D (2001).
1971:Brain and Language
784:Early intervention
488:executive function
371:Access to language
4031:978-0-19-531070-2
3230:Clinical Medicine
3045:978-3-8055-8157-8
3036:10.1159/000094644
2854:Project MUSE
2711:Project MUSE
2668:Project MUSE
2544:978-1-4419-1427-9
2376:978-0-08-044854-1
1770:978-1-315-16672-8
1672:Cognitive Science
1644:Project MUSE
1435:978-0-7167-6113-6
1410:978-0-471-52626-1
1038:978-0-19-536867-3
915:General education
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2136:
2127:
2125:
2117:
2116:
2112:
2060:
2059:
2055:
2011:
2010:
2006:
1968:
1967:
1960:
1931:(sup1): 34–40.
1920:
1915:
1914:
1910:
1864:
1863:
1856:
1812:
1811:
1807:
1798:
1796:
1788:
1787:
1778:
1771:
1758:
1757:
1753:
1709:
1708:
1701:
1665:
1664:
1655:
1617:
1616:
1612:
1600:
1596:
1595:
1588:
1576:
1575:
1571:
1559:
1554:
1553:
1549:
1505:
1504:
1500:
1456:
1455:
1451:
1436:
1423:
1422:
1418:
1411:
1398:
1397:
1393:
1347:
1346:
1339:
1295:
1294:
1290:
1282:
1280:
1274:
1273:
1269:
1262:
1255:
1203:
1202:
1198:
1154:
1153:
1146:
1102:
1101:
1094:
1085:
1083:
1075:
1074:
1070:
1061:
1059:
1051:
1050:
1046:
1039:
1016:
1015:
1011:
1006:
983:Critical period
979:
971:visual language
950:
929:
917:
912:
893:
856:
832:
816:
807:
786:
761:
750:
744:
741:
698:
696:
686:
674:
663:
645:
634:
628:
625:
610:
594:
583:
551:
537:
532:
527:
514:
505:
496:
474:
465:critical period
457:
455:Critical period
431:critical period
423:
387:
378:
373:
345:
334:
333:
332:
327:
316:
310:
307:
264:
262:
252:
240:
225:
214:
208:
205:
190:
177:
173:
162:
156:
153:
142:
129:
125:
114:
108:
105:
98:
77:
73:
36:
32:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4087:
4085:
4077:
4076:
4071:
4066:
4056:
4055:
4052:
4051:
4044:
4043:External links
4041:
4038:
4037:
4030:
4012:
3985:(2): 229–242.
3969:
3950:(1): 169–195.
3934:
3913:(4): 394–402.
3888:
3864:
3820:
3799:(3): 163–175.
3779:
3761:
3737:
3712:
3687:
3663:
3649:
3625:
3600:
3573:
3514:
3491:
3467:
3443:
3419:
3399:
3375:
3350:
3335:
3307:
3273:
3236:(6): 521–524.
3216:
3189:(4): 531–532.
3169:
3134:(4): 407–424.
3114:
3059:
3044:
3018:
3000:
2951:
2929:
2908:
2883:
2863:
2828:(5): 486–492.
2812:
2787:
2762:
2751:(5): 358–359.
2735:
2720:
2693:(2): 231–244.
2677:
2650:(2): 138–163.
2634:
2591:
2570:(4): 337–348.
2550:
2543:
2517:
2488:(4): 367–395.
2482:First Language
2468:
2449:(4): 307–312.
2429:
2417:
2387:
2375:
2345:
2306:
2265:
2238:(4): 369–392.
2218:
2189:
2169:
2154:
2134:
2110:
2073:(2): 391–414.
2053:
2024:(6): 610–621.
2004:
1958:
1908:
1854:
1805:
1776:
1769:
1751:
1722:(6): 761–776.
1699:
1653:
1626:(1): 101–124.
1610:
1586:
1569:
1547:
1518:(2): 203–223.
1498:
1469:(4): 185–197.
1449:
1434:
1416:
1409:
1391:
1337:
1308:(5): 961–965.
1288:
1267:
1253:
1216:(5): 477–496.
1196:
1167:(4): 409–419.
1144:
1092:
1068:
1044:
1037:
1020:Deaf Cognition
1008:
1007:
1005:
1002:
1001:
1000:
995:
990:
988:Deaf education
985:
978:
975:
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913:
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867:
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836:deaf education
831:
828:
815:
812:
806:
803:
785:
782:
774:language delay
763:
762:
677:
675:
668:
662:
659:
654:Code-switching
647:
646:
597:
595:
588:
582:
581:Code switching
579:
550:
547:
536:
533:
531:
528:
526:
523:
513:
510:
504:
501:
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492:
473:
470:
456:
453:
422:
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404:Speech therapy
386:
383:
377:
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354:is a delay in
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187:of the subject
185:worldwide view
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116:
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80:
78:
71:
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40:
39:
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24:
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10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4086:
4075:
4072:
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4067:
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4062:
4061:
4059:
4050:
4049:Video: LEAD-K
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4016:
4013:
4008:
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3996:
3992:
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3965:
3961:
3957:
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3916:
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3897:
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3889:
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3856:
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3846:
3842:
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3807:
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3798:
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3780:
3775:
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3726:
3722:
3716:
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3697:
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3688:
3677:
3673:
3667:
3664:
3659:
3653:
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3639:
3635:
3629:
3626:
3615:
3611:
3604:
3601:
3590:
3586:
3580:
3578:
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3555:
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3547:
3542:
3537:
3533:
3529:
3525:
3518:
3515:
3504:
3498:
3496:
3492:
3481:
3477:
3471:
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3457:
3453:
3447:
3444:
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3423:
3420:
3409:
3403:
3400:
3389:
3385:
3379:
3376:
3365:
3361:
3354:
3351:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3336:9781315166728
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3319:
3311:
3308:
3304:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3277:
3274:
3269:
3265:
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3255:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3220:
3217:
3212:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3180:
3173:
3170:
3165:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3118:
3115:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3063:
3060:
3055:
3051:
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3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3022:
3019:
3015:. 2017-11-02.
3014:
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2859:
2855:
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2816:
2813:
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2798:
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2788:
2777:
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2766:
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2731:
2724:
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2712:
2708:
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2696:
2692:
2688:
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2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2638:
2635:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2595:
2592:
2587:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2554:
2551:
2546:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2521:
2518:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2496:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2472:
2469:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2433:
2430:
2420:
2418:9780080448541
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2391:
2388:
2378:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2349:
2346:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2310:
2307:
2302:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2285:(2): 83–106.
2284:
2280:
2276:
2269:
2266:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2222:
2219:
2214:
2208:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2190:0-674-80795-2
2186:
2182:
2181:
2173:
2170:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2155:0-932130-03-8
2151:
2147:
2146:
2138:
2135:
2124:
2120:
2114:
2111:
2106:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2057:
2054:
2049:
2045:
2040:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2008:
2005:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1965:
1963:
1959:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1919:
1912:
1909:
1904:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1861:
1859:
1855:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1833:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1809:
1806:
1795:
1791:
1785:
1783:
1781:
1777:
1772:
1766:
1762:
1755:
1752:
1747:
1743:
1738:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1706:
1704:
1700:
1695:
1691:
1686:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1662:
1660:
1658:
1654:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1614:
1611:
1606:
1599:
1593:
1591:
1587:
1582:
1581:
1573:
1570:
1565:
1558:
1551:
1548:
1543:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1502:
1499:
1494:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1453:
1450:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1431:
1428:. Worth Pub.
1427:
1420:
1417:
1412:
1406:
1402:
1395:
1392:
1387:
1383:
1378:
1373:
1368:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1344:
1342:
1338:
1333:
1329:
1324:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1292:
1289:
1279:
1278:
1271:
1268:
1265:
1260:
1258:
1254:
1249:
1245:
1240:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1200:
1197:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1175:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1151:
1149:
1145:
1140:
1136:
1131:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1099:
1097:
1093:
1082:
1078:
1072:
1069:
1058:
1054:
1048:
1045:
1040:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1021:
1013:
1010:
1003:
999:
996:
994:
991:
989:
986:
984:
981:
980:
976:
974:
972:
966:
964:
958:
956:
947:
945:
941:
939:
935:
926:
924:
922:
921:mainstreaming
914:
909:
907:
905:
900:
898:
891:Controversies
890:
885:
882:
878:
874:
871:
868:
865:
864:
863:
861:
853:
851:
849:
845:
841:
837:
829:
827:
825:
820:
813:
811:
804:
802:
800:
796:
792:
783:
781:
779:
775:
771:
759:
756:
748:
737:
734:
730:
727:
723:
720:
716:
713:
709:
706: –
705:
701:
700:Find sources:
694:
690:
684:
683:
678:This section
676:
672:
667:
666:
660:
658:
655:
643:
640:
632:
622:
618:
614:
608:
607:
603:
598:This section
596:
592:
587:
586:
580:
578:
574:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
548:
546:
543:
534:
529:
524:
522:
520:
511:
509:
502:
500:
493:
491:
489:
484:
478:
471:
469:
466:
462:
461:sign language
454:
452:
450:
446:
440:
437:
432:
428:
420:
418:
416:
411:
409:
405:
400:
396:
392:
384:
382:
375:
370:
368:
365:
361:
357:
353:
343:
340:
325:
322:
314:
311:February 2018
303:
300:
296:
293:
289:
286:
282:
279:
275:
272: –
271:
267:
266:Find sources:
260:
256:
250:
249:
244:This article
242:
238:
233:
232:
223:
220:
212:
209:February 2018
202:
198:
194:
188:
186:
179:
170:
169:
160:
157:February 2018
150:
146:
140:
138:
133:This article
131:
122:
121:
112:
109:February 2018
102:
96:
94:
90:
86:
81:This article
79:
70:
69:
64:
62:
55:
54:
49:
48:
43:
38:
29:
28:
19:
4021:
4015:
3982:
3978:
3972:
3947:
3943:
3937:
3910:
3906:
3880:. Retrieved
3876:
3867:
3840:
3836:
3796:
3792:
3782:
3773:
3770:"About IDEA"
3764:
3753:. Retrieved
3749:
3740:
3729:. Retrieved
3727:. 2019-02-21
3724:
3715:
3704:. Retrieved
3702:. 2019-02-28
3699:
3690:
3679:. Retrieved
3675:
3666:
3652:
3641:. Retrieved
3637:
3628:
3617:. Retrieved
3613:
3603:
3592:. Retrieved
3588:
3531:
3527:
3517:
3506:. Retrieved
3483:. Retrieved
3479:
3470:
3459:. Retrieved
3455:
3446:
3435:. Retrieved
3431:
3422:
3411:. Retrieved
3402:
3391:. Retrieved
3387:
3378:
3367:. Retrieved
3363:
3353:
3317:
3310:
3301:
3295:. Retrieved
3290:
3286:
3276:
3233:
3229:
3219:
3186:
3182:
3172:
3131:
3127:
3117:
3079:(1): 31–34.
3076:
3072:
3062:
3027:
3021:
3012:
3003:
2968:
2964:
2954:
2945:
2923:
2900:. Retrieved
2896:
2886:
2875:. Retrieved
2866:
2825:
2821:
2815:
2804:. Retrieved
2800:
2790:
2779:. Retrieved
2776:Deaf Culture
2775:
2765:
2748:
2744:
2738:
2729:
2723:
2690:
2686:
2680:
2647:
2643:
2637:
2604:
2600:
2594:
2567:
2563:
2553:
2526:
2520:
2485:
2481:
2471:
2446:
2442:
2432:
2422:, retrieved
2400:
2390:
2380:, retrieved
2358:
2348:
2326:(1): 89–97.
2323:
2319:
2309:
2282:
2278:
2268:
2235:
2231:
2221:
2179:
2172:
2144:
2137:
2126:. Retrieved
2122:
2113:
2070:
2066:
2056:
2021:
2017:
2007:
1977:(1): 16–29.
1974:
1970:
1928:
1924:
1911:
1874:
1870:
1822:
1818:
1808:
1797:. Retrieved
1793:
1760:
1754:
1719:
1715:
1678:(1): 11–28.
1675:
1671:
1623:
1619:
1613:
1604:
1579:
1572:
1563:
1550:
1515:
1511:
1501:
1466:
1462:
1452:
1425:
1419:
1400:
1394:
1357:
1353:
1305:
1301:
1291:
1281:, retrieved
1276:
1270:
1213:
1209:
1199:
1164:
1160:
1112:
1108:
1084:. Retrieved
1080:
1071:
1060:. Retrieved
1056:
1047:
1019:
1012:
967:
963:Deaf culture
959:
951:
942:
930:
918:
901:
894:
857:
833:
821:
817:
808:
787:
766:
751:
742:
732:
725:
718:
711:
699:
687:Please help
682:verification
679:
650:
635:
626:
611:Please help
599:
575:
552:
538:
515:
506:
497:
479:
475:
458:
441:
424:
412:
395:hearing aids
388:
379:
351:
350:
335:
317:
308:
298:
291:
284:
277:
265:
253:Please help
248:verification
245:
215:
206:
182:
154:
134:
106:
93:unverifiable
85:weasel words
82:
58:
51:
45:
44:Please help
41:
3638:www.nad.org
3480:www.nad.org
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