608:
level. Interference and misactivation can occur at any of these stages. Production begins with concepts, and continues down from there. One might start with the concept of a cat: a four-legged, furry, domesticated mammal with whiskers, etc. This conceptual set would attempt to find the corresponding word {cat}. This selected word would then select morphological and phonological data /k / at/. The distinction of this model is that, during this process, other elements would also be primed ({rat} might be somewhat primed, for example), as they are physically similar, and so can cause conceptual interference. Errors might also occur at the phoneme level, as many words are phonetically similar, e.g. mat. Substitutions of similar consonant sounds are more likely to occur, e.g. between plosive stop consonants such as d, p and b. Lower primed words are less likely to be chosen, but interference is thought to occur in cases of early selection, where the level of activation of the target and interference words is at the same level.
448:
617:
encoding the meanings of lexical items and the way that grammar forms relationships between them. Next, the positional level representation is built, which functions to encode the phonological forms of words and the order they are found in sentence structures. Lexical access, according to this model, is a process that encompasses two serially ordered and independent stages.
695:, made by Grosjean, uses two assumptions to map bilingual language production in a modular way. These assumptions are that a base language is activated in conversation, and that the speaker's other language is activated to relative degrees depending on context. De Bot describes it as overly simple for the complexity of the process and suggests it has room for expansion.
495:, it describes all of the stages between having a concept to express and translating that concept into linguistic forms. These stages have been described in two types of processing models: the lexical access models and the serial models. Through these models, psycholinguists can look into how speeches are produced in different ways, such as when the speaker is
735:
doesn't work as it should. Language production occurs quickly with speakers saying a little more than 2 words per second; so though errors occur only once out of 1,000 words, they occur relatively often throughout a speaker's day at once every 7 minutes. Some examples of these speech errors that would be collected by psycholinguists are:
585:
construct the functional level representation. These items are retrieved according to their specific semantic and syntactic properties, but phonological forms are not yet made available at this stage. The second stage, retrieval of wordforms, provides information required for building the positional level representation.
949:
Elicited production tasks ask participants to respond to questions or prompts in a particular way. One of the more common types of elicited production tasks is the sentence completion task. These tasks give the participants the beginning of a target sentence, which the participants are then asked to
734:
Speech errors have been found to be common in naturally produced speech. Analysis of speech errors has found that not all are random, but rather systematic and fall into several categories. These speech errors can demonstrate parts of the language processing system, and what happens when that system
667:
Whether or not a speaker is fluent in one or more languages, the process for producing language remains the same. However, bilinguals speaking two languages within a conversation may have access to both languages at the same time. Three of the most commonly discussed models for multilingual language
543:
of each word in the intended message, each word is then assigned the grammatical and thematic role it will have in the sentence. Function morphemes, like the plural /s/ or the past tense /ÉŞd/, are added in this stage as well. After an utterance, or part of one, has been formed, it then goes through
699:
Speakers fluent in multiple languages may inhibit access to one of their languages, but this suppression can only be done once the speaker is at a certain level of proficiency in that language. A speaker can decide to inhibit a language based on non-linguistic cues in their conversation, such as a
607:
Several researchers have proposed a connectionist model, one notable example being Dell. According to his connectionist model, there are four layers of processing and understanding: semantic, syntactic, morphological, and phonological. These work in parallel and in series, with activation at each
511:
Language production consists of several interdependent processes which transform a nonlinguistic message into a spoken, signed, or written linguistic signal. Though the following steps proceed in this approximate order, there are plenty of interaction and communication between them. The process of
715:
There are three main types of research into language production: speech error collection, picture-naming, and elicited production. Speech error collection focuses on using the analysis of speech errors made in naturally produced speech. On the other hand, elicited production focuses on elicited
616:
This model states that the sentence is made by a sequence of processes generating differing levels of representations. For instance, the functional level representation is made on the preverbal representation, which is essentially what the speaker seeks to express. This level is responsible for
584:
According to the lexical access model (see section below), in terms of lexical access, two different stages of cognition are employed; thus, this concept is known as the two-stage theory of lexical access. The first stage, lexical selection provides information about lexical items required to
598:
A serial model of language production divides the process into several stages. For example, there may be one stage for determining pronunciation and a stage for determining lexical content. The serial model does not allow overlap of these stages, so they may only be completed one at a time.
940:
Picture-naming tasks ask participants to look at pictures and name them in a certain way. By looking at the time course for the responses in these tasks, psycholinguists can learn more about the planning involved in specific phrases. These types of tasks can be helpful for investigating
644:
contour, and by a number of other elements: control of speech rate, relative timing of stressed and unstressed syllables, changes in amplitude, changes in fundamental frequency. In other words, fluency can be described as whether someone speaks smoothly and easily. This term is used in
516:. But, there is also evidence that suggests the verbs that give case may be planned earlier than objects, even when the object is said first. After identifying a message, or part of a message, to be linguistically encoded, a speaker must select the individual words—also known as
716:
speech and is conducted in a lab. Also conducted in a lab, picture-naming focuses on reaction-time data from picture-naming latencies. Although originally disparate, these three methodologies are generally looking at the same underlying processes of
512:
message planning is an active area of psycholinguistic research, but researchers have found that it is an ongoing process throughout language production. Research suggests that messages are planned in roughly the same order that they are in an
700:
speaker of both
English and French inhibiting their French when conversing with people who only speak English. When especially proficient multilingual speakers communicate, they can participate in
683:
to facilitate bilingual language access. This model suggests that the lexicon for bilingual speakers combines the languages, and access occurs across both languages at the same time.
531:
This grammatical information is then used in the next step of language production, grammatical encoding. Critical grammatical information includes characteristics such as the word's
1716:
Kroll, Judith F.; Stewark, Erika (1994). "Category interference in translation and picture naming: Evidence for asymmetric connections between bilingual memory representations".
1325:
Schiller, Niels; Bles, Mart; Jansma, Bernadette (2003). "Tracking the time course of phonological encoding in speech production: an event-related brain potential study".
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Brown-Schmidt, Sarah; Tanenhaus, Michael (2006). "Watching the eyes when talking about size: an investigation of message formulation and utterance planning".
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704:. Code-switching has been shown to indicate bilingual proficiency in a speaker, though it had previously been seen as a sign of poor language ability.
689:, developed by Kroll and Stewart, is a model suggesting that bilingual brains store meanings in a common place, word-forms are separated by language.
520:—to represent that message. This process is called lexical selection. The words are selected based on their meaning, which in linguistics is called
499:. Psycholinguists learn more about these models and different kinds of speech by using language production research methods that include collecting
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complete. Analyzing these completions can allow psycholinguistics to investigate errors that might be difficult to elicit otherwise.
1928:"Little houses and casas pequeñas: Message formulation and syntactic form in unscripted speech with speakers of English and Spanish"
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Momma, Shota; Slevc, Robert; Phillips, Colin (2016). "The Timing of Verb
Selection in Japanese Sentence Production".
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794:: More than one word is being considered in the lexicon and the two intended items "blend" into a single item.
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Levelt, Willem J. M.; Roelofs, A.; Meyer, AS. (Feb 1999). "A theory of lexical access in speech production".
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if it is present in the language. Using some of these characteristics as well as information about the
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1666:"The architecture of the bilingual word recognition system: From identification to decision"
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Dell, Gary S. (1986). "A spreading-activation theory of retrieval in sentence production".
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Dell, Gary; O'Seaghdha, Padraig (1992). "Stages of lexical access in language production".
1951:
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to be pronounced. The speech sounds are assembled in the order they are to be produced.
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The basic loop occurring in the creation of language consists of the following stages:
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1468:; Levelt, Willem (1994). "29". In Gernsbacher, Morton Ann; Traxler, Matthew (eds.).
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Process by which people translate thoughts into spoken, written or signed words
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de Bot, K (2004). "The multilingual lexicon: Modeling selection and control".
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768:: The word retains characteristics of a word said previously in an utterance.
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Stuttering and cluttering : frameworks for understanding and treatment
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528:, which contains both semantic and grammatical information about the word.
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Levelt, Willem (1999). "A theory of lexical access in speech production".
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999:"Language Production and Serial Order: A Functional Analysis and A Model"
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742:: The word adds a sound from a word planned for later in the utterance.
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1810:
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679:, updated from a model made by Dijkstra and Van Heuven, uses solely
1179:
Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
1120:
1505:"Complexity, Accuracy, and Fluency in Second Language Acquisition"
964:
1783:"Sometimes I'll start a sentence in Spanish y termino en español"
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phonological encoding. In this stage of language production, the
913:: The switching of the letters from two words in the utterance.
672:, the Revised Hierarchical Model, and the Language Mode model:
1926:
Brown-Schmidt, Sarah; Konopka, Agnieszka E. (November 2008).
941:
cross-linguistic language production and planning processes.
1300:
Bock, Kathryn; Levelt, Willem (2002). Atlmann, Gerry (ed.).
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of the words to be spoken is transformed into a sequence of
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Psycholinguistics : critical concepts in psychology
846:: A whole word of related meaning is replacing another.
820:: Additional of linguistics material added to the word.
1632:
One Mind, Two
Languages: Bilingual Language Processing
1304:. Vol. 5. New York: Routledge. pp. 405–407.
1041:"Spoken word production: A theory of lexical access"
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information. Lexical selection activates the word's
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is the production of spoken or written language. In
884:, referring to the incorrect substitution of words.
1302:Psycholinguistics: Critical Concepts in Psychology
1105:"The Non-Anomalous Nature of Anomalous Utterances"
1983:Humphreys, Karin R.; Bock, Kathryn (2005-08-01).
902:I have interceded another letter from the fellow.
1376:. Altmann, Gerry T. M. London: Routledge. 2002.
997:Dell, Gary; Burger, Lisa; Svec, William (1997).
571:Sound goes from speaker's mouth to hearer's ear
1595:Fernández, Eva M.; Cairns, Helen Smith (2011).
1045:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
872:: A lay term, in reference to a character Mrs.
535:(noun, verb, etc.), what objects it takes, and
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8:
1748:The International Journal of Multilingualism
1576:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
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670:Bilingual Interactive Activation Plus model
1664:Dijkstra, Ton; Van Heuven, Walter (2002).
1580:) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
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1470:Language Production: Grammatical Encoding
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640:, which is shown graphically by a smooth
1879:"Slips of the Tongue | Psychology Today"
1472:. Academic Press, Inc. pp. 945–983.
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580:Linguistic form is decoded into meaning
30:
1985:"Notional number agreement in English"
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1542:Ward, David, 1956 December 9- (2006).
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577:Speech is decoded into linguistic form
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1599:. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 138–140.
1503:Housen, A.; Kuiken, F. (2009-12-01).
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677:Bilingual Interactive Activation Plus
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1673:Bilingualism: Language and Cognition
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366:Conservative and innovative language
1039:Levelt, Willem J. M. (2001-11-06).
565:Encode linguistic form into speech
562:Encode message into linguistic form
636:Fluency can be defined in part by
14:
1989:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
1597:Fundamentals of Psycholinguistics
2048:. Australia ; Belmont, CA:
1625:"The bilingual's language modes"
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1944:10.1016/j.cognition.2008.07.011
892:Makes no delusions to the past.
649:when describing disorders with
503:and elicited production tasks.
1952:11858/00-001M-0000-0012-C6EC-5
1718:Journal of Memory and Language
1348:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-17B1-A
1278:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-3E7A-A
1152:Journal of Memory and Language
960:Developmental verbal dyspraxia
1:
1841:(1): 1–38, discussion 38–75.
1339:10.1016/s0926-6410(03)00204-0
1257:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
1103:Fromkin, Victoria A. (1971).
862:: at low speed it's too light
856:: at low speed it's too heavy
1802:10.1515/ling.1980.18.7-8.581
1226:10.1016/0010-0277(92)90046-k
897:The pineapple of perfection.
306:Functional discourse grammar
172:Ethnography of communication
1903:"Definition of MALAPROPISM"
1548:. Hove : Psychology Press.
1018:10.1037/0033-295X.104.1.123
426:Second-language acquisition
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2044:Carroll, David W. (2008).
1436:10.1037/0033-295x.93.3.283
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687:Revised Hierarchical Model
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104:Syntax–semantics interface
1857:10.1017/s0140525x99001776
1760:10.1080/14790710408668176
1685:10.1017/S1366728902003012
1269:10.1017/s0140525x99001776
1164:10.1016/j.jml.2005.12.008
975:Speech-language pathology
647:speech-language pathology
416:Philosophy of linguistics
316:Interactional linguistics
1327:Cognitive Brain Research
1201:– via APA PsycNet.
1907:www.merriam-webster.com
1883:www.psychologytoday.com
1781:Poplack, Shana (1980).
653:or other disfluencies.
2046:Psychology of language
1730:10.1006/jmla.1994.1008
1404:: CS1 maint: others (
1058:10.1073/pnas.231459498
253:Theoretical frameworks
207:Philosophy of language
187:History of linguistics
1521:10.1093/applin/amp048
923:: slips of the tongue
546:mental representation
147:Conversation analysis
1623:Grosjean, F (1999).
1424:Psychological Review
1006:Psychological Review
681:bottom-up processing
612:Lexical access model
391:Internet linguistics
301:Construction grammar
1509:Applied Linguistics
1051:(23): 13464–13471.
945:Elicited Production
929:: tips of the slung
693:Language Mode Model
603:Connectionist model
489:Language production
326:Systemic functional
121:Applied linguistics
63:General linguistics
2002:10.3758/BF03196759
1191:10.1037/xlm0000195
621:Additional aspects
537:grammatical gender
533:syntactic category
431:Theory of language
401:Origin of language
356:Autonomy of syntax
311:Grammaticalization
157:Discourse analysis
152:Corpus linguistics
2085:Psycholinguistics
2059:978-0-495-09969-7
2050:Thomson/Wadsworth
1311:978-0-415-26701-4
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62:
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49:
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38:
35:
34:
28:
27:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2097:
2086:
2083:
2082:
2080:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2042:
2041:
2037:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1979:
1976:
1971:
1967:
1962:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1922:
1919:
1908:
1904:
1898:
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1884:
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1606:9781405191470
1602:
1598:
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1579:
1573:
1565:
1561:
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1555:1-84169-334-0
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1538:
1535:
1530:
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1506:
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1479:
1471:
1467:
1466:Bock, Kathryn
1461:
1458:
1453:
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1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1418:
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1407:
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1393:
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1379:
1375:
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1358:
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1227:
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1205:
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1173:
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1007:
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928:
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903:
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895:
893:
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883:
879:
875:
871:
868:
867:
861:
858:
855:
852:
851:
850:
849:
845:
842:
841:
836:: implossible
835:
832:
829:
826:
825:
824:
823:
819:
816:
815:
809:
806:
803:
800:
799:
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764:
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757:
754:
751:
748:
747:
746:
745:
741:
738:
737:
736:
731:
724:Speech errors
723:
721:
719:
710:
708:
705:
703:
694:
691:
688:
685:
682:
678:
675:
674:
673:
671:
664:
656:
654:
652:
648:
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633:
625:
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611:
609:
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593:
588:
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579:
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568:
564:
561:
558:
557:
556:
553:
551:
550:speech sounds
547:
542:
538:
534:
529:
527:
523:
519:
518:lexical items
515:
506:
504:
502:
501:speech errors
498:
494:
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479:
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445:
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407:
404:
402:
399:
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394:
392:
389:
387:
384:
382:
379:
377:
374:
372:
371:Descriptivism
369:
367:
364:
362:
359:
357:
354:
353:
347:
346:
339:
338:Structuralism
336:
332:
329:
327:
324:
322:
321:Prague circle
319:
317:
314:
312:
309:
307:
304:
302:
299:
297:
294:
293:
292:
289:
285:
282:
280:
277:
275:
272:
270:
267:
265:
262:
261:
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257:
256:
250:
249:
242:
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237:
233:
230:
228:
225:
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220:
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200:
198:
195:
193:
190:
188:
185:
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180:
178:
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167:Documentation
165:
163:
160:
158:
155:
153:
150:
148:
145:
143:
142:Computational
140:
138:
135:
133:
130:
128:
125:
124:
118:
117:
110:
107:
105:
102:
100:
97:
95:
92:
90:
87:
85:
82:
80:
77:
75:
72:
70:
67:
66:
60:
59:
53:
50:
48:
45:
43:
40:
39:
37:
36:
33:
29:
25:
21:
20:
2045:
1992:
1988:
1978:
1935:
1931:
1921:
1910:. Retrieved
1906:
1897:
1886:. Retrieved
1882:
1873:
1838:
1834:
1828:
1793:
1789:
1776:
1751:
1747:
1721:
1717:
1711:
1676:
1672:
1659:
1648:the original
1638:(11): 1–22.
1635:
1631:
1596:
1590:
1544:
1537:
1512:
1508:
1498:
1469:
1460:
1427:
1423:
1373:
1330:
1326:
1320:
1301:
1295:
1260:
1256:
1250:
1217:
1213:
1207:
1182:
1178:
1172:
1155:
1151:
1145:
1115:(1): 27–52.
1112:
1108:
1048:
1044:
1034:
1009:
1005:
948:
939:
926:
920:
910:
901:
896:
891:
869:
859:
853:
844:Substitution
843:
833:
830:: impossible
827:
817:
807:
804:: shout/yell
801:
791:
781:
775:
766:Preservation
765:
755:
749:
740:Anticipation
739:
733:
730:Speech error
714:
706:
698:
692:
686:
676:
666:
635:
615:
606:
597:
594:Serial model
583:
567:motor system
554:
530:
510:
488:
487:
284:Glossematics
264:Constituency
236:interpreting
74:Lexicography
1790:Linguistics
1486:|work=
870:Malapropism
784:: red ragon
778:: red wagon
436:Terminology
411:Orthography
331:Usage-based
232:Translating
127:Acquisition
32:Linguistics
1912:2020-10-21
1888:2020-10-21
1811:10315/2506
1694:2066/62675
1263:(1): 3–6.
981:References
911:Spoonerism
882:The Rivals
651:stuttering
642:intonation
406:Orismology
291:Functional
279:Generative
269:Dependency
89:Pragmatics
79:Morphology
69:Diachronic
2068:759885789
2011:1531-5320
1932:Cognition
1843:CiteSeerX
1820:201699959
1768:218496462
1754:: 17–32.
1572:cite book
1529:0142-6001
1488:ignored (
1478:cite book
1444:1939-1471
1400:cite book
1214:Cognition
1129:0097-8507
1067:0027-8424
514:utterance
497:bilingual
381:Iconicity
376:Etymology
296:Cognitive
259:Formalist
212:Phonetics
202:Philology
94:Semantics
84:Phonology
2079:Category
2027:30400728
2019:16447383
1970:18842259
1865:11301520
1703:11306773
1564:65617513
1392:48014482
1357:14561465
1287:11301520
1242:37962027
1199:26569434
1109:Language
1085:11698690
954:See also
927:produced
878:Sheridan
874:Malaprop
860:produced
834:produced
818:Addition
808:produced
792:Blending
782:produced
756:produced
522:semantic
182:Forensic
162:Distance
109:Typology
24:a series
22:Part of
1961:2665878
1644:9325654
1452:3749399
1234:1582160
1026:9009882
810:: shell
638:prosody
632:Fluency
626:Fluency
137:Applied
47:History
42:Outline
2066:
2056:
2025:
2017:
2009:
1968:
1958:
1863:
1845:
1818:
1766:
1701:
1642:
1603:
1562:
1552:
1527:
1450:
1442:
1390:
1380:
1355:
1308:
1285:
1240:
1232:
1197:
1137:412187
1135:
1127:
1083:
1073:
1065:
1024:
921:target
854:target
828:target
802:target
776:target
750:target
589:Models
452:Portal
350:Topics
99:Syntax
2023:S2CID
1816:S2CID
1786:(PDF)
1764:S2CID
1699:S2CID
1669:(PDF)
1651:(PDF)
1640:S2CID
1628:(PDF)
1238:S2CID
1133:JSTOR
1076:60894
1002:(PDF)
965:FOXP2
876:from
526:lemma
52:Index
2064:OCLC
2054:ISBN
2015:PMID
2007:ISSN
1966:PMID
1861:PMID
1601:ISBN
1582:link
1578:link
1560:OCLC
1550:ISBN
1525:ISSN
1490:help
1448:PMID
1440:ISSN
1406:link
1388:OCLC
1378:ISBN
1353:PMID
1306:ISBN
1283:PMID
1230:PMID
1195:PMID
1125:ISSN
1081:PMID
1063:ISSN
1022:PMID
234:and
227:Text
1997:doi
1956:PMC
1948:hdl
1940:doi
1936:109
1853:doi
1806:hdl
1798:doi
1756:doi
1726:doi
1689:hdl
1681:doi
1517:doi
1432:doi
1343:hdl
1335:doi
1273:hdl
1265:doi
1222:doi
1187:doi
1160:doi
1117:doi
1071:PMC
1053:doi
1014:doi
1010:104
880:'s
2081::
2062:.
2052:.
2021:.
2013:.
2005:.
1993:12
1991:.
1987:.
1964:.
1954:.
1946:.
1934:.
1930:.
1905:.
1881:.
1859:.
1851:.
1839:22
1837:.
1814:.
1804:.
1794:18
1792:.
1788:.
1762:.
1750:.
1738:^
1722:33
1720:.
1697:.
1687:.
1675:.
1671:.
1634:.
1630:.
1615:^
1574:}}
1570:{{
1558:.
1523:.
1513:30
1511:.
1507:.
1482::
1480:}}
1476:{{
1446:.
1438:.
1428:93
1426:.
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1398:{{
1386:.
1365:^
1351:.
1341:.
1331:17
1329:.
1281:.
1271:.
1261:22
1259:.
1236:.
1228:.
1218:42
1216:.
1193:.
1183:42
1181:.
1156:54
1154:.
1131:.
1123:.
1113:47
1111:.
1107:.
1093:^
1079:.
1069:.
1061:.
1049:98
1047:.
1043:.
1020:.
1008:.
1004:.
989:^
720:.
26:on
2070:.
2029:.
1999::
1972:.
1950::
1942::
1915:.
1891:.
1867:.
1855::
1822:.
1808::
1800::
1770:.
1758::
1752:1
1732:.
1728::
1705:.
1691::
1683::
1677:5
1636:7
1609:.
1584:)
1566:.
1531:.
1519::
1492:)
1454:.
1434::
1408:)
1394:.
1359:.
1345::
1337::
1314:.
1289:.
1275::
1267::
1244:.
1224::
1189::
1166:.
1162::
1139:.
1119::
1087:.
1055::
1028:.
1016::
477:e
470:t
463:v
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