43:
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31:
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pressure amplitudes vary primarily in the vertical direction instead of the horizontal. Whereas conventional, non-hydrostatic waves are characterized by horizontal undulations of lift and sink, largely independent of altitude, hydrostatic waves are characterized by undulations of lift and sink at different altitudes over the same ground position.
439:
744:
are vertically propagating waves which form over spatially large obstructions. In hydrostatic equilibrium, the pressure of a fluid can depend only on altitude, not on horizontal displacement. Hydrostatic waves get their name from the fact that they approximately obey the laws of hydrostatics, i.e.
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forms which can be several times higher than the mountain. The hydraulic jump is similar to a rotor in that it is very turbulent, yet it is not as spatially localized as a rotor. The hydraulic jump itself acts as an obstruction for the stable layer of air moving above it, thereby triggering wave.
207:
A fluid dynamics lab experiment illustrates flow past a mountain-shaped obstacle. Downstream wave crests radiate upwards with their group velocity pointing about 45° from horizontal. A downslope jet can be seen in the lee of the mountain, an area of lower pressure, enhanced turbulence, and periodic
795:
On 10 March 1933, German glider pilot Hans
Deutschmann (1911–1942) was flying over the Giant Mountains in Silesia when an updraft lifted his plane by a kilometre. The event was observed, and correctly interpreted, by German engineer and glider pilot Wolf Hirth (1900–1959), who wrote about it in:
505:
in its upwelling portion, also known as a "roll cloud". The rotor cloud looks like a line of cumulus. It forms on the lee side and parallel to the ridge line. Its base is near the height of the mountain peak, though the top can extend well above the peak and can merge with the lenticular clouds
728:
are a type of wave that forms when there exists a lower layer of air which is dense, yet thin relative to the size of the mountain. After flowing over the mountain, a type of shock wave forms at the trough of the flow, and a sharp vertical discontinuity called the
800:(Berlin, Germany: Klasing & Co., 1933). The phenomenon was subsequently studied by German glider pilot and atmospheric physicist Joachim P. Küttner (1909 -2011) in: Küttner, J. (1938) "Moazagotl und Föhnwelle" (Lenticular clouds and foehn waves),
190:
Strong winds (with wind gusts over 100 miles per hour (160 km/h)) can be created in the foothills of large mountain ranges by mountain waves. These strong winds can contribute to unexpected wildfire growth and spread (including the
696:
303:
884:
This is the ideal case, for an unstable layer below and above the stable layer create what can be described as a springboard for the stable layer to bounce on once the mountain begins the oscillation.
602:
470:. Waves may also form in dry air without cloud markers. Wave clouds do not move downwind as clouds usually do, but remain fixed in position relative to the obstruction that forms them.
675:
The rising air of the wave, which allows gliders to climb to great heights, can also result in high-altitude upset in jet aircraft trying to maintain level cruising flight in
339:
34:
The wind flows towards a mountain and produces a first oscillation (A) followed by more waves. The following waves will have lower amplitude because of the natural damping.
401:
366:
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can occur when velocity shear is present within a continuous fluid or when there is sufficient velocity difference across the interface between two fluids.
808:, 79–114, and Kuettner, J. (1959) "The rotor flow in the lee of mountains." GRD Research Notes No. 6, AFCRC-TN-58-626, ASTIA Document No. AD-208862.
208:
vertical displacement of fluid parcels. Vertical dye lines indicate effects are also felt upstream of the mountain, an area of higher pressure.
237:
1325:
877:
1105:(Special Symposium on Mesoscale Meteorological Extremes: Understanding, Prediction, and Projection). American Meteorological Society: 5 pp.
229:
192:
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SOUTHTRAC (Transport and
Composition of the Southern Hemisphere Upper Troposphere and Lower Stratosphere) Campaign in Southern Argentina
1476:
An
Examination of the Areal Extent of High Winds due to Mountain Waves along the Western Foothills of the Southern Appalachian Mountains
494:). Multiple lenticular clouds can be stacked on top of each other if there are alternating layers of relatively dry and moist air aloft.
1466:
Chronological collection of meteorological data, satellite pics and cloud images of mountain waves in
Bariloche, Argentina (in Spanish)
761:(or planetary waves) are large-scale motions in the atmosphere whose restoring force is the variation in Coriolis effect with latitude.
939:"On High Winds and Foehn Warming Associated with Mountain-Wave Events in the Western Foothills of the Southern Appalachian Mountains"
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separates two layers with a marked difference in wind direction. If the wind encounters distortions in the inversion layer caused by
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1150:
1471:
On High Winds and Foehn
Warming associated with Mountain-Wave Events in the Western Foothills of the Southern Appalachian Mountains
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662:
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that triggers them. Sometimes, mountain waves can help to enhance precipitation amounts downwind of mountain ranges. Usually a
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wall cloud may exist at the lee side of the mountains, however this is not a reliable indication of the presence of lee waves.
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field (i.e., lines of lowest and highest pressure), while the areas between wave fronts represent extrema in the perturbed
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1495:
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formations if there is sufficient moisture in the atmosphere, and sufficient vertical displacement to cool the air to the
1282:
Lindemann, C; Heise, R.; Herold, W-D. (July 2008). "Leewaves in the Andes Region, Mountain Wave
Project (MWP) of OSTIV".
1505:
1354:"A gravity waves study close to the Andes mountains in Patagonia and Antarctica with GPS radio occultation observations"
720:
coming up from below, it will create significant shear waves in the lee of the distortions that can be used for soaring.
1465:
578:
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Energy is transmitted along the wave fronts (parallel to air parcel oscillations), which is the direction of the wave
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is under the left edge of the window, the rising air is at the right edge, and the distance between them is 3–4 km.
217:
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or cap cloud, similar to a lenticular cloud, may form above the mountain or cumulus cloud generating the wave.
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when sparks from a wildfire in the Smoky
Mountains were blown into the Gatlinburg and Pigeon Forge areas).
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562:. World record wave flight performances for speed, distance or altitude have been made in the lee of the
1110:
713:
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342:
59:
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1103:"A mesoscale simulation of a mountain wave wind event associated with the Chimney Tops 2 fire (2016)"
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991:
950:
909:
818:
Tokgozlu, A; Rasulov, M.; Aslan, Z. (January 2005). "Modeling and
Classification of Mountain Waves".
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There are a variety of distinctive types of waves which form under different atmospheric conditions.
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91:
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Hydraulic jumps can be distinguished by their towering roll clouds, and have been observed on the
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403:. These air parcel oscillations occur in concert, parallel to the wave fronts (lines of constant
153:
99:
1393:
1321:
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1166:
Durran, Dale R. (1990-01-01). "Mountain Waves and
Downslope Winds". In Blumen, William (ed.).
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641:. It can even be a hazard for large aircraft; the phenomenon is believed responsible for many
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flow is forced over an obstacle. This disturbance elevates air parcels above their level of
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898:"An Unexpectedly Heavy and Complex Snowfall Event across the Southern Appalachian Region"
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1062:"A Severe Downslope Windstorm and Aircraft Turbulence Event Induced by a Mountain Wave"
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shows a stable layer above the obstruction, with an unstable layer above and below.
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stuck on top of the flow (A) and (B) will appear immobile despite the strong wind.
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1170:. Meteorological Monographs. American Meteorological Society. pp. 59–81.
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679:. Rising, descending or turbulent air, in or above the lee waves, can cause
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focusses on analysis and classification of lee waves and associated rotors.
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above. Rotor clouds have ragged leeward edges and are dangerously turbulent.
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Observations of
Mountain-Induced Rotors and Related Hypotheses: a Review
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298:{\displaystyle N={\sqrt {{g \over \theta _{0}}{d\theta _{0} \over dz}}}}
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standing waves. They did this for the first time on August 30, 2006 in
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of the air within this air current. They always occur in groups on the
138:
135:
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168:
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Alexander, P.; Luna, D.; Llamedo, P.; de la Torre, A. (2010-02-19).
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Wind direction within 30° of perpendicular to the mountain ridgeline
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looking north. The wind flow is from upper left to lower right. The
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The conditions favoring strong lee waves suitable for soaring are:
589:
in an unpowered glider using lee waves, making the transition into
1198:
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202:
149:
41:
29:
597:, climbing to an altitude of 15,460 metres (50,720 ft). The
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115:
426:) of the waves points perpendicular to energy transmission (or
224:. Buoyancy restoring forces therefore act to excite a vertical
585:
is working to demonstrate the viability of climbing above the
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parallel to the mountain range, is generated around the first
126:. They can also be caused by the surface wind blowing over an
107:
896:
David M. Gaffin; Stephen S. Parker; Paul D. Kirkwood (2003).
415:
field (i.e., areas most rapidly gaining or losing buoyancy).
1087:
10.1175/1520-0469(1978)035<0059:ASDWAA>2.0.CO;2
1046:
10.1175/1520-0434(1998)013<0702:TSWOSB>2.0.CO;2
1005:
10.1175/1087-3562(2003)007<0001:TSAWOC>2.0.CO;2
923:
10.1175/1520-0434(2003)018<0224:AUHACS>2.0.CO;2
462:
Both lee waves and the rotor may be indicated by specific
661:
in 1966, and the in-flight separation of an engine on an
348:
Oscillations tilted off the vertical axis at an angle of
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range as well as mountain ranges in southern California.
407:). These wave fronts represent extrema in the perturbed
603:
Organisation Scientifique et Technique du Vol Ă Voile
378:
354:
311:
240:
1101:
Ryan Shadbolt; Joseph Charney; Hannah Fromm (2019).
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The rotor turbulence may be harmful for other small
1138:
1021:"The Sundowner Winds of Santa Barbara, California"
395:
360:
333:
297:
872:. City: Sport Aviation Pubns. pp. 169–175.
618:Strong low-altitude winds in a stable atmosphere
526:in the trough of each wave oscillation may also
183:. The strongest lee waves are produced when the
148:The vertical motion forces periodic changes in
70:. These were discovered in 1933 by two German
1145:(1 ed.). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
612:A gradual increase in windspeed with altitude
110:caused by vertical displacement, for example
8:
1443:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
1427:An Introduction to Atmospheric Gravity Waves
1422:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
1343:by Joachim Kuettner and Rolf F. Hertenstein
712:can also create waves. This occurs when an
1168:Atmospheric Processes over Complex Terrain
541:, creating a "wave window" or "Foehn gap".
134:, or even by upper winds deflected over a
62:stationary waves. The most common form is
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422:. In contrast, the phase propagation (or
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1286:. Vol. 32, no. 3. p. 93.
822:. Vol. 29, no. 1. p. 22.
863:
861:
859:
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1461:Mountain Wave Project official website
1450:. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
1119:
1108:
1415:. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
645:, including the in-flight breakup of
7:
1420:Fundamentals of Atmospheric Modeling
699:Hydrostatic wave (schematic drawing)
691:Other varieties of atmospheric waves
550:Lee waves provide a possibility for
228:of the perturbed air parcels at the
193:2016 Great Smoky Mountains wildfires
1066:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences
980:"The Santa Ana winds of California"
621:Ridgetop winds of at least 20 knots
27:Atmospheric stationary oscillations
1320:. Eqip Verbung & Verlag GmbH.
802:Beiträge zur Physik der Atmosphäre
25:
1434:Mesoscale Meteorological Modeling
66:, which are atmospheric internal
663:Evergreen International Airlines
643:aviation accidents and incidents
798:Die hohe Schule des Segelfluges
232:, which for the atmosphere is:
1413:Environmental Stratified Flows
1305:NTSB Accident Report AAR-93-06
334:{\displaystyle \theta _{0}(z)}
328:
322:
1:
524:Adiabatic compression heating
396:{\displaystyle N\cos {\phi }}
750:Kelvin–Helmholtz instability
726:Hydraulic jump induced waves
1253:OSTIV-Mountain Wave Project
1176:10.1007/978-1-935704-25-6_4
558:or fly long distances when
480:adiabatic expansion cooling
341:is the vertical profile of
1542:
1441:Buoyancy Effects in Fluids
1318:Advanced Soaring Made Easy
1436:. Boston: Academic Press.
1429:. Boston: Academic Press.
1379:10.5194/angeo-28-587-2010
1141:Atmosphere-ocean dynamics
842:"Article about wave lift"
1137:Gill, Adrian E. (1982).
964:10.1175/2008WAF2007096.1
937:David M. Gaffin (2009).
497:The rotor may generate
216:produced when a stable,
212:Lee waves are a form of
1316:Eckey, Bernard (2007).
1025:Weather and Forecasting
943:Weather and Forecasting
902:Weather and Forecasting
442:A wave window over the
230:Brunt-Väisäla frequency
1446:Whiteman, C., (2000).
1418:Jacobson, M., (1999).
1411:Grimshaw, R., (2002).
1118:Cite journal requires
978:M. N. Raphael (2003).
868:Pagen, Dennis (1992).
700:
459:
397:
368:will occur at a lower
362:
335:
299:
214:internal gravity waves
209:
47:
39:
1516:Mesoscale meteorology
1272:– accessed 2009-11-03
1019:Warren Blier (1998).
870:Understanding the Sky
714:atmospheric inversion
698:
599:Mountain Wave Project
581:mountain ranges. The
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398:
363:
361:{\displaystyle \phi }
343:potential temperature
336:
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45:
33:
1521:Mountain meteorology
1496:Atmospheric dynamics
1448:Mountain Meteorology
1439:Turner, B., (1979).
1432:Pielke, R., (2002).
1060:D. K. Lilly (1978).
687:or loss of control.
482:can form a cloud in
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352:
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238:
92:atmospheric pressure
1506:Gliding meteorology
1425:Nappo, C., (2002).
1370:2010AnGeo..28..587A
1358:Annales Geophysicae
1199:FAI gliding records
1078:1978JAtS...35...59L
1037:1978JAtS...35...59L
996:2003EaInt...7h...1R
955:2009WtFor..24...53G
914:2003WtFor..18..224G
179:; this is called a
1268:2016-03-03 at the
1204:2006-12-05 at the
984:Earth Interactions
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331:
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100:orthometric height
48:
40:
1327:978-3-9808838-2-5
1284:Technical Soaring
1218:"Fai Record File"
879:978-0-936310-10-7
820:Technical Soaring
742:Hydrostatic waves
670:Anchorage, Alaska
444:Bald Eagle Valley
293:
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46:Lenticular clouds
36:Lenticular clouds
16:(Redirected from
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1111:cite journal
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758:Rossby waves
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143:cloud street
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446:of central
424:phase speed
226:oscillation
171:, with its
96:temperature
90:changes of
86:. They are
60:atmospheric
52:meteorology
1490:Categories
1228:2015-01-27
847:2006-09-28
783:References
709:Wind shear
666:Boeing 747
655:Mount Fuji
651:Boeing 707
587:tropopause
464:wave cloud
218:stratified
185:lapse rate
128:escarpment
80:Wolf Hirth
1398:0992-7689
1292:0744-8996
828:0744-8996
681:overspeed
677:lee waves
672:in 1993.
595:Argentina
572:Patagonic
528:evaporate
468:dew point
390:ϕ
386:
370:frequency
356:ϕ
314:θ
274:θ
256:θ
166:turbulent
154:direction
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1266:Archived
1202:Archived
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766:See also
718:thermals
631:balloons
629:such as
627:aircraft
556:altitude
554:to gain
546:Aviation
413:buoyancy
409:pressure
305:, where
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560:soaring
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539:airmass
537:in the
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