33:
46:
349:
356:
Adult worms are characterized by a flesh-colored body containing an egg-filled uterus that appears black by reflected light. The worms contain a cuticula with a subterminal oral sucker. They also contain a muscular pharynx, ventral sucker, and ceca. The gonads of the worm are arranged in a triangle,
321:
Snails infected with the sporocyst exhibit distended tentacles, which disrupts the snail’s normal ability to retract into their shell. Broodsacs contain multiple free floating metacercariae. Light intensity affects the rate at which the broodsacs pulsate. Broodsacs normally pulsate between forty and
304:
develop in the hepatopancreas of the snail. The sporocysts grow into a tree-like structure, with some branches growing through the haemocoel to form a swollen broodsac at the end of a long stalk. Cercariae are produced by asexual reproduction at the base of the sporocyst, then migrate into a brood
176:
whose life cycle involves the alternate parasitic infection of certain species of snail and bird. While there is no external evidence of the worm's existence within the bird host, the infection of the snail host is visible when its eye stalks become grotesquely engorged with the parasite's brood
384:
spp. experience phenotypic modification through the pulsating brood sacs. Infected snails were found to have increased mobility, which allows them to migrate to higher and more well lit areas. Healthy snails seek darkness to hide from predators, but the infected amber snail moves itself into
247:
Pojmańska, 1969, described from Europe, should be considered the same species even though gene flow between the populations will be limited by the few birds that cross between continents. In the absence of genetic data, this synonymisation is still questioned. Other
European species already
335:
are hermaphroditic helminths, but can cross fertilize with other worms if in close enough proximity. The gravid adults will release their eggs into the intestines of the bird to be excreted out with the bird’s feces; thus, continuing the
330:
The insectivorous birds are attracted to the pulsating broodsac. This will cause the birds to attack and ingest the broodsacs located in the snail's tentacles. Inside the bird's gut, the metacercariae develop into adults. Adult
177:
sacs. These brood sacks pulsate and move to imitate insect larva, attracting the parasite's next host, insectivore birds. The bird rips off the eye stalk and eats it, thus becoming infected. Later on, the parasite's
357:
containing an ovary with an anterior and posterior testis. The oral sucker is primarily used for the attachment to the avian cloaca. It must withstand the constriction of cloaca, which occurs during defecation.
309:. Brood-sacs insert into the snail’s tentacles, where they mimic the appearance and behavior of insect larvae so as to attract insectivorous birds. Snails can be infected by more than one species of
300:
Avian hosts release fluke eggs along with their excreta, which land on surrounding vegetation where snails may consume them. The miracidia hatch and bore through the snail’s digestive tract. The
365:
also contains a smooth dorsal side, which aids in decreasing friction of passing stool. The rest of the fluke is covered in microvilli that are used to anchor it to the inside of the cloaca.
322:
eighty times per minute. The pulsating movement is described as an alternation of shortening and lengthening of the broodsac. Broodsacs do not pulsate in complete darkness.
602:
Nakao, M.; Sasaki, M.; Waki, T.; Iwaki, T.; Morii, Y.; Yanagida, K.; Watanabe, M.; Tsuchitani, Y.; Saito, T.; Asakawa, M. (2019). "Distribution records of three species of
1381:
380:
Parasites may induce certain behavioral changes in their hosts in order to aid in the transmission and completion of its life cycle. Land snails parasitized by
200:
This process does not necessarily kill the snail. They can regenerate their eye stalks, and snails may become infective multiple times in their lifespan.
1368:
1241:
1394:
340:
lifecycle. Intense infection by the worms can lead emaciation and death in birds. Birds may also freeze to death from the lack of adipose tissue.
1440:
1342:
276:
is characterized by the infection of a definitive avian host through the ingestion of sporocysts contained in the intermediate
1445:
1399:
45:
1450:
1270:
301:
1360:
1286:
781:
193:
564:
Mclntosh (Digenea, Leucochloridiidae) from the
Nearctic as revealed by light and scanning electron microscopy".
803:
Ataev, G. L.; Zhukova, A. A.; Tokmakova, А. S.; Prokhorova, Е. E. (August 2016). "Multiple infection of amber
397:
212:
32:
1297:
385:
dangerous open and well lit spaces, thus making them more susceptible and accessible to avian predation.
1435:
1238:
1156:
Thin-Layer chromatographic and histochemical analyses of neutral lipids in the intramolluscan stages of
140:
500:
Carus, parasitic in birds from
Northern Michigan, with a key and notes on other species of the genus".
284:
adults primarily live in the cloaca and intestine of their bird host, while the sporocysts live in the
1329:
688:
Yamada, Seitaro; Fukumoto, Shin-ichiro (August 2011), "Isolation of sporocyst broodsacs of the genus
442:
There was no finding of difference in length of shells in parasitized and in non-parasitized snails.
1176:
Survey of trematodes from terrestrial gastropods and small mammals in
Southeastern Nebraska, U.S.A.
435:
369:
917:
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contains a smooth oral sucker, which functions by forming a tight seal against the host’s mucosa.
1126:
1023:
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236:
40:
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751:
670:
623:
517:
1412:
1179:
1110:
1062:
1007:
958:
874:
816:
743:
705:
662:
615:
606:(Trematoda: Leucochloridiidae) in Japan, with comments on their microtaxonomy and ecology".
573:
509:
348:
1245:
187:
117:
107:
1097:
Lewis, Paul D. (1974). "Helminths of terrestrial molluscs in
Nebraska. II. Life cycle of
1355:
577:
454:
285:
1429:
635:
178:
1027:
980:
844:
717:
585:
402:
and has been collected from lakes in the
Michigan area. Other known locations that
306:
97:
1083:
619:
1175:
469:
461:
1320:
1282:
1276:
1218:
963:
946:
820:
1347:
1199:
Comparison of carbon and nitrogen content of infected and uninfected snails,
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1019:
972:
886:
828:
755:
709:
521:
289:
173:
87:
57:
902:
836:
627:
1138:
496:
McIntosh, Allen (1932). "Some new species of trematode worms of the genus
1314:
674:
411:
224:
220:
77:
1373:
1130:
1011:
894:
763:
529:
1067:
1042:
994:
Bakke, T.A. (1976). "Functional morphology and surface topography of
67:
1291:
1262:
1198:
1155:
1114:
878:
747:
666:
513:
1183:
347:
182:
1263:
Helminths of terrestrial molluscs in
Nebraska. II. Life cycle of
185:. Similar life-histories are found in other species of the genus
415:
407:
1334:
1295:
704:, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University,
807:
1047:
sporocysts manipulate the behaviour of their snail hosts?:
692:(Leucochloridiidae: Trematoda) from the intermediate host,
998:
sp. (Digenea), revealed by scanning electron microscopy".
947:"Parasitic helminthes — probable cause of death of birds"
861:
Robinson, Edwin J. (1947). "Notes on the life history of
653:
sp. (Digenea) from natural and experimental infections".
1154:
Bernard Fried, Paul D. Lewis, Jr. and Kelly Beers 1995.
730:
Woodhead, Arthur E. (1935). "The mother sporocysts of
649:
Bakke, T.A. (1978). "Intraspecific variation of adult
296:
Transmission and infection of intermediate snail hosts
376:
Behavioral differences in infected intermediate hosts
292:
552:
Bakke, T.A. (1982). "The morphology and taxonomy of
326:
Transmission and infection of avian definitive hosts
211:
was described on the basis of adult flukes found in
1304:
1217:Fried B., Beers K., Lewis PD Jr. 1993 (February).
1165:. Journal of Parasitology, volume 81(1): 112-114.
1160:(Digenea, Leucochloridiidae) and the Snail Host,
1223:(Digenea, Leucochloridiidae) and its snail host
1273:, Vol. 60, No. 2 (Apr., 1974), pp. 251–255
1101:McIntosh, 1932 (Digenea: Leucochloridiidae)".
856:
854:
491:
489:
487:
1174:Michael A. Barger & John A. Hnida. 2008.
1150:
1148:
1041:Wesołowska, W.; Wesołowski, T. (March 2014).
865:n. sp. provis. (Trematoda: Brachylaemidae)".
8:
1267:McIntosh, 1932 (Digenea: Leucochloridiidae)
597:
595:
547:
545:
543:
541:
539:
1292:
31:
20:
1066:
962:
305:sac; here they mature and encyst forming
264:Yamaguti, 1935 is also likely a synonym.
1208:. Journal of Parasitology 65(3): 371-374
1193:
1191:
1178:Comparative Parasitology 75(2):308-314.
235:McIntosh, 1932 are now considered to be
219:) collected at Douglas Lake in northern
1197:A Burky & Daniel J. Hornbach. 1979
945:Okulewicz, A.; Sitko, J. (2012-12-01).
698:Japanese Journal of Veterinary Research
483:
775:
773:
7:
1051:sporocysts and snail host behaviour"
243:. It has further been proposed that
786:sporocysts from the Okoboji region"
578:10.1111/j.1463-6409.1982.tb00521.x
352:Stages of the trematode life-cycle
14:
1229:Int. J. Parasitol. 23(1):129-131.
1084:"ZOMBIE SNAILS SPREAD INFECTION"
44:
1000:Zeitschrift für Parasitenkunde
1:
863:Leucochloridium fuscostriatum
372:is considered finely spined.
229:Leucochloridium fuscostriatum
1248:. Accessed 12 February 2009.
620:10.1016/j.parint.2019.101936
181:are dropped with the bird's
1441:Suicide-inducing parasitism
1271:The Journal of Parasitology
736:The Journal of Parasitology
655:Canadian Journal of Zoology
1467:
1219:Lipids in the broodsac of
608:Parasitology International
1082:Staff, ZRS (2013-05-14).
964:10.2478/s11687-012-0045-7
920:Leucochloridium paradoxum
821:10.1007/s00436-016-5082-6
406:are known to inhabit are
194:Leucochloridium paradoxum
146:
139:
41:Scientific classification
39:
30:
23:
1279:from National Geographic
710:10.14943/jjvr.59.2-3.101
389:Distribution and history
344:Gravid adult description
213:black-and-white warblers
1239:Parasites of the Robin
1103:Journal of Parasitology
867:Journal of Parasitology
780:McIntosh, Lois (1948).
502:Journal of Parasitology
248:considered synonyms of
1306:Leucochloridium variae
1265:Leucochloridium variae
1221:Leucochloridium variae
1205:Leucochloridium variae
1158:Leucochloridium variae
1099:Leucochloridium variae
447:Leucochloridium variae
428:Leucochloridium variae
394:Leucochloridium variae
367:Leucochloridium variae
353:
333:Leucochloridium variae
282:Leucochloridium variae
233:Leucochloridium pricei
209:Leucochloridium variae
165:Leucochloridium variae
150:Leucochloridium variae
25:Leucochloridium variae
1446:Parasites of molluscs
1261:Paul D. Lewis, Jr. -
1244:July 4, 2010, at the
809:Parasitology Research
426:Intermediate host of
396:commonly parasitizes
351:
170:brown-banded broodsac
1203:, and the trematode
926:Animal Diversity Web
317:Broodsac description
262:Leucochloridium sime
256:Pojmańska, 1969 and
473:- experimental host
465:- experimental host
436:Novisuccinea ovalis
231:Robinson, 1947 and
1451:Parasites of birds
1055:Journal of Zoology
1012:10.1007/BF00380533
354:
172:, is a species of
1423:
1422:
1408:Open Tree of Life
1298:Taxon identifiers
1068:10.1111/jzo.12094
916:DeLaCruz, David.
566:Zoologica Scripta
272:The lifecycle of
260:Rietschel, 1970.
161:
160:
108:Leucochloridiidae
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815:(8): 3203–3208.
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16:Species of fluke
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1246:Wayback Machine
1237:
1233:
1225:Succinea ovalis
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1201:Succinea ovalis
1196:
1189:
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1169:
1162:Succinea ovalis
1153:
1146:
1115:10.2307/3278459
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1049:Leucochloridium
1045:Leucochloridium
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996:Leucochloridium
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944:
943:
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879:10.2307/3273326
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805:Succinea putris
802:
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784:Leucochloridium
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748:10.2307/3271943
732:Leucochloridium
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690:Leucochloridium
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667:10.1139/z78-013
651:Leucochloridium
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604:Leucochloridium
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554:Leucochloridium
551:
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514:10.2307/3271429
498:Leucochloridium
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399:Mniotilta varia
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382:Leucochloridium
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363:Leucochloridium
359:Leucochloridium
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338:Leucochloridium
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311:Leucochloridium
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270:
217:Mniotilta varia
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188:Leucochloridium
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119:Leucochloridium
78:Platyhelminthes
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17:
12:
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1184:10.1654/4357.1
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1144:
1109:(2): 251–255.
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1061:(3): 151–155.
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1006:(1): 115–128.
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957:(4): 241–246.
951:Helminthologia
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873:(6): 467–475.
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742:(5): 337–346.
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694:Succunea lauta
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1436:Diplostomida
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929:. Retrieved
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508:(1): 32–53.
505:
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418:and others.
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98:Diplostomida
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18:
470:Zebra finch
462:Common gull
254:L. subtilis
223:, USA. Two
1430:Categories
931:2020-02-27
614:: 101936.
478:References
268:Life-cycle
1123:0022-3395
1020:0044-3255
973:1336-9083
887:0022-3395
829:0932-0113
756:0022-3395
636:173994806
522:0022-3395
449:include:
445:Hosts of
430:include:
404:L. variae
302:sporocyst
290:haemocoel
274:L. variae
258:L. fuscum
241:L. variae
227:species,
174:trematode
126:Species:
88:Trematoda
64:Kingdom:
58:Eukaryota
1387:10975849
1321:Q3385400
1315:Wikidata
1242:Archived
1028:34328256
981:25123584
903:18903602
845:14985813
837:27112757
718:10937079
628:31153919
586:84501594
412:Nebraska
370:tegument
278:Succinea
237:synonyms
225:Nearctic
221:Michigan
204:Taxonomy
104:Family:
74:Phylum:
68:Animalia
54:Domain:
1413:3665680
1374:2503369
1287:YouTube
1139:4821109
1131:3278459
895:3273326
764:3271943
530:3271429
114:Genus:
94:Order:
84:Class:
1361:390485
1348:242424
1335:849160
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562:variae
528:
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280:host.
168:, the
1400:55547
1382:IRMNG
1343:EUNIS
1283:Video
1127:JSTOR
1024:S2CID
977:S2CID
891:JSTOR
841:S2CID
760:JSTOR
714:S2CID
632:S2CID
582:S2CID
526:JSTOR
422:Hosts
183:feces
1395:ITIS
1369:GBIF
1269:. -
1135:PMID
1119:ISSN
1043:"Do
1016:ISSN
969:ISSN
899:PMID
883:ISSN
833:PMID
825:ISSN
752:ISSN
671:PMID
624:PMID
518:ISSN
416:Ohio
408:Iowa
252:are
179:eggs
1330:EoL
1285:on
1180:doi
1111:doi
1063:doi
1059:292
1008:doi
959:doi
875:doi
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