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280:) succeeded in getting the intended effect on 5 March 1746, holding a small glass medicine bottle with a nail inside in one hand, moving it close to an electrostatic generator, and then moving the other hand close to the nail. Von Kleist didn't understand the significance of his conducting hand holding the bottle â and both he and his correspondents were loath to hold the device when told that the shock could throw them across the room. It took some time before von Kleist's student associates at Leyden worked out that the hand provided an essential element.
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170:(22 September 1710 â 17 September 1761) was a famous electrical experimenter in the early days of the development of electrostatics. He is credited with being the first to develop a way of temporarily storing static charges by using an insulated conductor (called a prime conductor). His demonstrations and experiments raised the interests of the German scientific community and the public in the development of electrical research.
534:
431:. The multiple and rapid developments for connecting Leyden jars during the period 1746â1748 resulted in a variety of divergent accounts in secondary literature about who made the first "battery" by connecting Leyden jars, whether they were in series or parallel, and who first used the term "battery". The term was later used for combinations of multiple electrochemical cells, the modern meaning of the term "battery".
48:
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554:, which was widely used in demonstrations. The jar is constructed out of a glass cup nested between two fairly snugly fitting metal cups. When the jar is charged with a high voltage and carefully dismantled, it is discovered that all the parts may be freely handled without discharging the jar. If the pieces are re-assembled, a large
115:. It was the first means of accumulating and preserving electric charge in large quantities that could be discharged at the experimenter's will, thus overcoming a significant limit to early research into electrical conduction. Leyden jars are still used in education to demonstrate the principles of electrostatics.
545:
performed extensive investigations of both water-filled and foil Leyden jars, which led him to conclude that the charge was stored in the glass, not in the water. A popular experiment, due to
Franklin, which seems to demonstrate this involves taking a jar apart after it has been charged and showing
579:
and forms a partially conductive coating on its surface, which holds the charge. Addenbrooke (1922) found that in a dissectible jar made of paraffin wax, or glass baked to remove moisture, the charge remained on the metal plates. Zeleny (1944) confirmed these results and observed the corona charge
418:
experimented with charging Leyden jars in series, and developed a system involving 11 panes of glass with thin lead plates glued on each side, and then connected together. He used the term "electrical battery" to describe his electrostatic battery in a 1749 letter about his electrical research in
357:
Musschenbroek's outlet in France for the sale of his company's 'cabinet' devices was the Abbé Nollet (who started building and selling duplicate instruments in 1735). Nollet then gave the electrical storage device the name "Leyden jar" and promoted it as a special type of flask to his market of
256:
Von Kleist knew that the glass would provide an obstacle to the escape of the "fluid", and so was convinced that a substantial electric charge could be collected and held within it. He received a significant shock from the device when he accidentally touched the nail through the cork while still
583:
If a charged Leyden jar is discharged by shorting the inner and outer coatings and left to sit for a few minutes, the jar will recover some of its previous charge, and a second spark can be obtained from it. Often this can be repeated, and a series of 4 or 5 sparks, decreasing in length, can be
326:
Like von Kleist, Musschenbroek was also interested in, and attempting to repeat, Bose's experiment. During this time, Andreas
Cunaeus, a lawyer, learned about this experiment from Musschenbroek, and attempted to duplicate the experiment at home with household items. Unaware of the "Rule of
449:, developed an "air condenser", a variation on the Leyden jar, by using air rather than glass as the dielectric. This functioning apparatus, without glass, created a problem for Benjamin Franklin's explanation of the Leyden jar, which maintained that the charge was located in the glass.
269:, written in November 1745. After Gralath's failed first attempt to reproduce the experiment in December 1745, he wrote to von Kleist for more information (and was told that the experiment would work better if the tube half-filled with alcohol was used). Gralath (in collaboration with
84:
on the inside and outside of a glass jar. It typically consists of a glass jar with metal foil cemented to the inside and the outside surfaces, and a metal terminal projecting vertically through the jar lid to make contact with the inner foil. It was the original form of the
374:
Within months after
Musschenbroek's report about how to reliably create a Leyden jar, other electrical researchers were making and experimenting with their own Leyden jars. One of his expressed original interests was to see if the total possible charge could be increased.
655:
to treat a variety of diseases by electric shock. By the middle of the 19th century, the Leyden jar had become common enough for writers to assume their readers knew of and understood its basic operation. Around the turn of the century it began to be widely used in
565:
store their charge inside their dielectric. This theory was taught throughout the 1800s. However, this phenomenon is a special effect caused by the high voltage on the Leyden jar. In the dissectible Leyden jar, charge is transferred to the surface of the glass cup by
186:
was conducted by the chain through the suspended bar to the water in the glass held by
Andreas Cunaeus. A large charge accumulated in the water and an opposite charge in Cunaeus' hand on the glass. When he touched the wire dipping in the water, he received a powerful
257:
cradling the bottle in his other hand. He communicated his results to at least five different electrical experimenters, in several letters from
November 1745 to March 1746, but did not receive any confirmation that they had repeated his results, until April 1746.
245:
and demonstrated this to Bose by drawing sparks from water with his finger. He discovered the immense storage capability of the Leyden jar while attempting to demonstrate that a glass jar filled with alcohol would "capture" this fluid.
498:
found (in 1747) that it was possible to coat the exterior of the jar with metal foil, and he also found that he could achieve the same effect by using a plate of glass with metal foil on both sides. These developments inspired
1454:
Muller-Hillebrand, D. "Torbern
Bergman as a Lightening Scientist." A Bicentenary Memorial of Swedish Lightning Research in the Context of 18th-century Electrical Discoveries. Uppsala University. 42 pages, Pg. 6. Published
1277:
Godoy, Luis & Elishakoff, Isaac. (2020). The
Experimental Contribution of Petrus Van Musschenbroek to the Discovery of a Buckling Formula in the Early 18th Century. International Journal of Structural Stability and
493:
The original form of the device is just a glass bottle partially filled with water, with a metal wire passing through a cork closing it. The role of the outer plate is provided by the hand of the experimenter. Soon
147:
is thought to have accidentally commented on the phenomenon of electrostatic charging, due to his belief that even lifeless things have a soul in them, hence the popular analogy of the spark. Around 1650,
570:
when the jar is disassembled; this is the source of the residual charge after the jar is reassembled. Handling the cup while disassembled does not provide enough contact to remove all the surface charge.
481:
projects through the nonconductive stopper at the mouth of the jar, electrically connected by some means (usually a hanging chain) to the inner foil, to allow it to be charged. The jar is charged by an
898:
Iverson, Paul. 2012. A life of its own: The tenuous connection between Thales of
Miletus and the study of electrostatic charging. Journal of Electrostatics. Volume 70, Issue 3, June 2012, Pages 309-311
1259:(3rd ed.). London: London : Printed for C. Bathurst, and T. Lowndes ... J. Rivington, and J. Johnson ... S. Crowder, G. Robinson, and R. Baldwin ... T. Becket, and T. Cadell ... p. 108
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where electricity had been sent through water to set alcoholic spirits alight. He attempted to charge the bottle from a large prime conductor (invented by Bose) suspended above his friction machine.
331:", that the experimental apparatus should be insulated, Cunaeus held his jar in his hand while charging it, and was thus the first to discover that such an experimental setup could deliver a severe
249:
In
October 1745, von Kleist tried to accumulate electricity in a small medicine bottle filled with alcohol with a nail inserted in the cork. He was following up on an experiment developed by
477:
jar with conducting tin foil coating the inner and outer surfaces. The foil coatings stop short of the mouth of the jar, to prevent the charge from arcing between the foils. A metal rod
342:, Musschenbroek's colleague. Allamand and Musschenbroek also received severe shocks. Musschenbroek communicated the experiment in a letter from 20 January 1746 to French entomologist
1575:"III. A collection of the electrical experiments communicated to the Royal Society by Wm. Watson, F. R. S. read at several meetings between October 29.1747. and Jan. 21. following"
1950:
366:
and his acquaintance
Andreas Cunaeus. Musschenbroek, however, never claimed that he had invented it, and some think that Cunaeus was mentioned only to diminish credit to him.
354:
read this report, confirmed the experiment, and then read Musschenbroek's letter in a public meeting of the Paris Academy in April 1746 (translating from Latin to French).
423:
was inspired by the humorous wordplay at the conclusion of his letter, where he wrote, among other things, about a salute to electrical researchers from a battery of
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1881:
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1027:
Silva, C.S.; Heering, P. (2018). "Re-examining the early history of the Leiden jar: Stabilization and variation in transforming a phenomenon into a fact".
984:
Silva, C.S.; Heering, P. (2018). "Re-examining the early history of the Leiden jar: Stabilization and variation in transforming a phenomenon into a fact".
1945:
1429:
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635:' of a given size, or through the total coated area, assuming reasonably standard thickness and composition of the glass. A typical Leyden jar of one
401:; all of whom sprang into the air more or less simultaneously. The opinions of neither the king nor the experimental subjects have been recorded.
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built up. This experiment inspired the development of several forms of "friction machines", which greatly helped in the study of electricity.
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The Leyden jar was used to conduct many early experiments in electricity, and its discovery was of fundamental importance in the study of
1873:
258:
1412:
739:
550:. The first documented instance of this demonstration is in a 1749 letter by Franklin. Franklin designed a "dissectible" Leyden jar
541:
It was initially believed that the charge was stored in the water in early Leyden jars. In the 1700s American statesman and scientist
517:
Further developments in electrostatics revealed that the dielectric material was not essential, but increased the storage capability (
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800:
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translated much of Benjamin Franklin's writings on electricity into German and continued to study electrostatic properties.
1156:
Van Rogan A. An overview of dielectric measurements. March 1990. IEEE Transactions on Electrical Insulation 25(1):95 - 106.
41:
Early water-filled Leyden jar, consisting of a bottle with a metal spike through its stopper to make contact with the water
1657:
729:
408:
521:) and prevented arcing between the plates. Two plates separated by a small distance also act as a capacitor, even in a
210:
1955:
385:
on 29 May 1746, had connected three Leyden jars together in a kind of electrostatic battery on 28 July 1746. In 1746,
1399:. Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics. Vol. III. Electricity, magnetism and light. Springer. pp. 43â60.
679:. These improvements along with improved dielectrics caused the Leyden jar to evolve into the modern compact form of
182:
Discovery of the Leyden jar in van Musschenbroek's lab. The static electricity produced by the rotating glass sphere
1889:
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in the early 20th century encouraged the reduction in the size of Leyden jars as well as the reduction of undesired
1965:
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ball that rotated on a shaft. When Guericke held his hand against the ball and turned the shaft quickly, a static
1930:
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in the same year to have a jar made with a metal foil lining both inside and outside, dropping the use of water.
1295:
Allerhand, A. (2018). "Who invented the earliest capacitor bank ("battery" of Leyden jars)? It's complicated".
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reported in 1747 that in 1746 he had conducted experiments with connecting two or three jars, probably in
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226:
195:
97:
1574:
1173:, Paris, 1751, pp. 1â3. The account from the Academy of Sciences only refers to the "Leyden experiment" (
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material. The Greek word for amber is ጀλΔÎșÏÏÎżÎœ ("Älektron") and is the origin of the word "electricity".
676:
657:
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585:
312:
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1612:. Springer Series on Atomic, Optical, and Plasma Physics. Vol. 50. New York: Springer. p. 9.
270:
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device; it is estimated that at a maximum the early Leyden jars could be charged to 20,000 to 60,000
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for the new university courses in physics and for scientific gentlemen keen to establish their own
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1723:
Zeleny, John (December 1944). "Observations and Experiments on Condensers with Removable Coats".
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336:
927:
Sela, Andrea. 28 March 2017. Von Kleist's jar. Chemistry World, Royal Society of Chemistry 2021.
304:
234:
486:, or other source of electric charge, connected to the inner electrode while the outer foil is
241:, a region now divided between Germany and Poland. Von Kleist is credited with first using the
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could attract lightweight particles after being rubbed. The amber becomes electrified by the
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1705:
1641:
1640:
Letter IV: Benjamin Franklin to Peter Collinson, April 29, 1749 (Bigelow vol II p. 237-253)
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1818:"Tracking down the origin of arc plasma science I. Early pulsed and oscillating discharges"
1817:
1383:
435:
161:
77:
875:'produced from amber by friction, electric', from Medieval Latin, 'of amber', from Latin
358:
wealthy men with scientific curiosity. The "Kleistian jar" was therefore promoted as the
275:
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that little charge can be found on the metal plates, and therefore it must be in the
442:
390:
382:
1849:
47:
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381:, whose first experience with a single Leyden jar was reported in a letter to the
1617:
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1310:
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and the greater the surface, the greater the charge that could be accumulated.
202:
and Andreas Cunaeus, who figured out why it only worked when held in the hand.
191:
The Leyden jar was effectively discovered independently by two parties: German
35:
1709:
1668:
690:
672:
632:
572:
547:
511:
495:
465:
136:
1874:âThe Art of Making Leyden Jars and Batteries according to Benjamin Franklin.â
1040:
997:
608:
has a metal ball on the end to prevent leakage of the charge into the air by
1841:
680:
605:
562:
490:. The inner and outer surfaces of the jar store equal but opposite charges.
478:
238:
86:
1500:
Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Study of Early Modern Physics
1129:
Electricity in the 17th and 18th centuries: a study of early Modern physics
1073:(1966). "G. M. Bose: The prime mover in the invention of the Leyden jar?".
1048:
1005:
956:
Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Study of Early Modern Physics
780:
Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Study of Early Modern Physics
1694:"A study of Franklin's Experiment on the Leyden jar with movable coatings"
805:
Compilation of biographies about Musschenbroek available from the Internet
445:, in a complicated combination of independent work and collaboration with
17:
265:
learned about von Kleist's experiment from seeing von Kleist's letter to
1365:. Vol. 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 528.
393:
of France, in the first of which he discharged a Leyden jar through 180
1774:. Vol. 9 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 246.
1256:
The History and Present State of Electricity, with original experiments
651:
Beginning in the late 18th century it was used in the medical field of
297:
1744:
1094:
1792:
1759:
522:
424:
157:
105:
1693:
910:
27:
Antique electrical device that stores a high-voltage electric charge
1559:
A history of science, technology and philosophy in the 18th century
1086:
668:
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532:
474:
464:
456:
301:
209:
177:
128:
96:
Its invention was a discovery made independently by German cleric
636:
601:
1562:(2nd ed.). London: George Allen & Unwin. p. 224.
1229:
A History of Electricity: the intellectual rise in electricity
940:(Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1996) p. 17.
1202:(2nd ed.). Charles Scribner's Sons. 2000. p. 652.
1551:
1549:
1183:
Histoire de l' Académie Royale des Sciences De l'Année 1746
1171:
Mémoires de l' Académie Royale des Sciences De l'Année 1746
1167:
Observations sur quelques nouveaux phĂ©nomĂšnes d'ĂlectricitĂ©
763:(4th ed.). Philadelphia: Blakiston's Son. p. 361.
1467:
Aepinus's Essay on the Theory of Electricity and Magnetism
335:. He reported his procedure and experience to Swiss-Dutch
616:
experiments, and later in high-voltage equipment such as
346:, who was Musschenbroek's appointed correspondent at the
419:
1748. It is possible that Franklin's choice of the word
198:, who made the first discovery, and Dutch scientists
1395:
Kuehn, K (2016). "MĂŒschenbroek's Wonderful Bottle".
914:, 3rd, Klostermann. Retrieved on 2017-05-12 at
824:
Electricity and Magnetism: A Historical Perspective
1239:Histoire générale et particuliere de l'électricité
434:The Swedish physicist, chemist, and meteorologist
1465:Home, R.W. (2015) . "The Electrical Background".
1397:A Student's Guide Through the Great Physics Texts
389:performed two experiments for the edification of
584:obtained at intervals. This effect is caused by
288:The Leyden jar's invention was long credited to
1118:
1116:
1114:
1112:
397:, and in the second through a larger number of
734:. Institute of Physics Publishing. p. 1.
53:Later, more common type using metal foil, 1919
1882:"Where There Is Charge, There Can Be Sparks!"
1665:Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society
1658:"Part 6: The Leyden jar and other capacitors"
731:Electronic Inventions and Discoveries, 4th Ed
427:. This is the first recorded use of the term
8:
1951:Science and technology in the Dutch Republic
1330:The History and Present State of Electricity
1290:
1288:
1286:
1284:
1165:Here is Nollet's own account of the event.
561:This demonstration appears to suggest that
1200:Concise dictionary of scientific biography
100:on 11 October 1745 and by Dutch scientist
1606:"A Brief History of Cathodic Arc Coating"
667:The development of the new technology of
321:'cabinets' of curiosities and instruments
1880:Michelle Maranowski (19 February 2015).
1788:Modern dictionary of electronics, 7th Ed
1651:
1649:
1869:National High Magnetic Field Laboratory
938:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
720:
510:in 1746) reported that the thinner the
135:, mechanical separation of charge in a
1867:Leyden Jar â Interactive Java Tutorial
7:
1430:"To Peter Collinson, April 29, 1749"
887:'beaming sun'. First Known Use: 1722
108:(Leyden), Netherlands in 1745â1746.
1822:IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science
801:"Pieter (Petrus) van Musschenbroek"
362:, and as having been discovered by
1377:To Peter Collinson, April 29, 1749
639:size has a capacitance of about 1
218:of four water-filled Leyden jars,
80:(from an external source) between
25:
1946:Historical scientific instruments
1692:Addenbrooke, G. L. (March 1922).
344:René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur
311:â "The Eastern Lamp") which made
1344:
693:
46:
34:
558:may still be obtained from it.
473:A typical design consists of a
340:Jean-Nicolas-Sebastian Allamand
1758:Fleming, John Ambrose (1911).
1656:Mills, Allan (December 2008).
1505:University of California Press
1134:University of California Press
961:University of California Press
879:'amber, electrum', from Greek
785:University of California Press
537:"Dissectible" Leyden jar, 1876
1:
807:. 22 May 2004. Archived from
506:Early experimenters (such as
243:fluid analogy for electricity
1531:. 2007-09-17. Archived from
618:spark-gap radio transmitters
127:already knew that pieces of
1667:(99): 20â22. Archived from
1618:10.1007/978-0-387-79108-1_2
1556:Wolf, A; McKie, D. (1962).
1405:10.1007/978-3-319-21816-8_4
757:"Electricity and magnetism"
631:was measured in number of '
292:, the physics professor at
76:that stores a high-voltage
1982:
1902:Science fair project idea.
1579:Philosophical Transactions
1471:Princeton University Press
1382:December 17, 2017, at the
1375:Benjamin Franklin (1961).
1311:10.1109/JPROC.2018.2795846
1253:Priestley, Joseph (1775).
1242:. Chez Rollin. p. 30.
627:Originally, the amount of
1710:10.1080/14786442208633901
1642:(PDF containing extracts)
908:Lehrs, Ernst (1953).
728:Dummer, G. W. A. (1997).
284:Musschenbroek and Cunaeus
1824:(Submitted manuscript).
1785:Graf, Rudolf F. (1999).
1185:, Paris, 1751, pp. 1â17.
1041:10.1177/0073275318768418
998:10.1177/0073275318768418
867:Origin and Etymology of
612:. It was first used in
379:Johann Heinrich Winckler
364:Pieter van Musschenbroek
352:Abbé Jean-Antoine Nollet
307:, and a small business (
296:, who also ran a family
290:Pieter van Musschenbroek
200:Pieter van Musschenbroek
145:pre-Socratic philosopher
102:Pieter van Musschenbroek
1961:18th-century inventions
1876:eRittenhouse 26 (2015).
1842:10.1109/tps.2003.815476
1771:EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica
1362:EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica
1298:Proceedings of the IEEE
1236:Abbé de Mangin (1752).
759:. In Duff, A.W. (ed.).
484:electrostatic generator
461:Leyden jar construction
441:Starting in late 1756,
184:electrostatic generator
154:electrostatic generator
1916:Electrical instruments
1761:"Electrostatics"
1698:Philosophical Magazine
1604:Anders, André (2008).
1196:"Nollet, Jean-Antoine"
761:A Text-Book of Physics
658:spark-gap transmitters
538:
470:
462:
227:Ewald Georg von Kleist
223:
196:Ewald Georg von Kleist
188:
98:Ewald Georg von Kleist
1529:"How Capacitors Work"
1232:. Wiley. p. 521.
1175:l'expérience de Leyde
755:Carman, A.P. (1916).
586:dielectric absorption
536:
529:Storage of the charge
468:
460:
213:
181:
82:electrical conductors
1436:on December 17, 2017
1136:. pp. 313â314.
822:Baigrie, B. (2007).
596:The Leyden jar is a
469:Measuring Leyden jar
370:Further developments
233:at the cathedral of
133:triboelectric effect
74:electrical component
1834:2003ITPS...31.1052A
1816:Anders, A. (2003).
1737:1944AmJPh..12..329Z
1573:Watson, W. (1748).
1428:Benjamin Franklin.
337:natural philosopher
317:medical instruments
251:Georg Matthias Bose
168:Georg Matthias Bose
68:, or archaically,
1956:1746 introductions
1872:Schechner, Sara J.
1473:. pp. 89â92.
1029:History of Science
986:History of Science
539:
471:
463:
429:electrical battery
224:
189:
1966:German inventions
1802:978-0-7506-9866-5
1745:10.1119/1.1990632
1627:978-0-387-79108-1
1514:978-0-520-03478-5
1480:978-1-4008-6952-7
1325:Priestley, Joseph
1179:Sur l'ĂlectricitĂ©
1143:978-0-520-03478-5
1071:Heilbron, John L.
970:978-0-520-03478-5
916:Project Gutenberg
837:978-0-313-33358-3
794:978-0-520-03478-5
604:. The center rod
543:Benjamin Franklin
416:Benjamin Franklin
294:Leiden University
259:Polish-Lithuanian
150:Otto von Guericke
141:Thales of Miletus
16:(Redirected from
1973:
1931:Dutch inventions
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1888:. Archived from
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1704:(255): 489â493.
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610:corona discharge
568:corona discharge
399:Carthusian monks
309:De Oosterse Lamp
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271:Gottfried Reyger
220:Museum Boerhaave
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1892:on 19 June 2017
1886:Science Buddies
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1507:. p. 388.
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436:Torbern Bergman
395:royal guardsmen
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162:electric charge
121:
89:(also called a
78:electric charge
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1861:External links
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1766:Chisholm, Hugh
1750:
1731:(6): 329â339.
1715:
1700:. 6th Series.
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1495:Heilbron, J.L.
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1414:978-3319218168
1413:
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1353:Chisholm, Hugh
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1124:Heilbron, J.L.
1108:
1087:10.1086/350120
1081:(2): 264â267.
1062:
1035:(3): 314â342.
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992:(3): 314â342.
976:
969:
951:Heilbron, J.L.
942:
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830:. p. 29.
814:
811:on 2009-03-26.
793:
775:Heilbron, J.L.
766:
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709:Franklin bells
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653:electrotherapy
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614:electrostatics
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414:In 1746â1748,
405:Daniel Gralath
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152:built a crude
125:Ancient Greeks
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71:
70:Kleistian jar
67:
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1894:. Retrieved
1890:the original
1885:
1825:
1821:
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1787:
1780:
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1669:the original
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1582:
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1537:. Retrieved
1533:the original
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1438:. Retrieved
1434:the original
1423:
1396:
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1339:
1328:
1319:
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1273:
1261:. Retrieved
1255:
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1224:Benjamin, P.
1218:
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855:
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1926:Dielectrics
1896:8 September
1828:(5): 1056.
1725:Am. J. Phys
664:equipment.
629:capacitance
577:hygroscopic
519:capacitance
387:Abbé Nollet
305:cannonettes
300:which cast
274: [
1941:Glass jars
1921:Capacitors
1910:Categories
1678:2010-06-13
1539:2014-02-15
1357:Leyden Jar
873:electricus
852:"electric"
715:References
677:resistance
673:inductance
624:machines.
580:transfer.
573:Soda glass
563:capacitors
548:dielectric
512:dielectric
496:John Bevis
360:Leyden jar
313:scientific
261:physicist
206:Von Kleist
137:dielectric
66:Leiden jar
62:Leyden jar
18:Leyden Jar
1278:Dynamics.
1103:144694754
681:capacitor
606:electrode
479:electrode
239:Pomerania
174:Discovery
91:condenser
87:capacitor
1850:46204216
1589:30 April
1497:(1979).
1440:July 19,
1380:Archived
1327:(1769).
1263:25 April
1226:(1898).
1126:(1979).
1049:29683000
1006:29683000
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881:Älektron
877:electrum
869:electric
777:(1979).
687:See also
592:Capacity
488:grounded
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222:, Leiden
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1830:Bibcode
1768:(ed.).
1733:Bibcode
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1057:5112189
1014:5112189
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421:battery
298:foundry
216:battery
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409:series
235:Cammin
106:Leiden
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1672:(PDF)
1661:(PDF)
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1099:S2CID
1091:JSTOR
1053:S2CID
1010:S2CID
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556:spark
475:glass
333:shock
329:Dufay
302:brass
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129:amber
1898:2016
1797:ISBN
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