738:
633:
120:
332:
353:(PD), made by placing a drop of ethanol (70–95%) over a few crystals of the chemical; this yields an unstable, light sensitive solution that lasts for about a day. An alternative form of this solution, called Steiner's solution, is much longer lasting although it produces less intense colour reactions. It is typically prepared by dissolving 1 gram of PD, 10 grams of
267:. These solutions are typically replaced daily since they break down within 24–48 hours; they break down even more rapidly when exposed to sunlight (less than an hour) and so are recommended to keep in a dark-coloured bottle. Other factors that accelerate the decomposition of these solutions are heat, humidity, and
692:
is used to try to make the colour reaction more readily observable. The lichen fragment is pressed on the paper, and lichen substances are extracted with 10–20 drops of acetone. After evaporating the acetone, the lichen substances are left on the paper in a ring around the lichen fragment. The filter
728:
can take up to half a minute. In contrast, the reactions with C and KC are usually fleeting and occur within a second of applying the reagent, so a colour change can easily be missed. There are several possible reasons that an anticipated test result does not occur. Causes include old and chemically
411:
Products of this reaction are yellow to red in colour. Most β-orcinol depsidones and some β-orcinol depsides will react positively. The PD test, known for its high specificity towards substances that yield K+ yellow or red reactions, has largely replaced the simpler yet less conclusive K test. PD is
710:
Spot tests may be used individually or in combination. The results of a spot tests are typically represented with a short code that includes, in order, (1) a letter indicating the reagent used, (2) a "+" or "−" sign indicating a colour change or lack of colour change, respectively, and (3) a letter
823:
is generally considered to have been the first to demonstrate the use of chemicals to help with lichen identification. In papers published in 1866, he suggested spot tests using KOH and bleaching powder to get characteristic colour reactions—typically yellow, red, or green. In these studies he
94:
solution (P test). The colour changes occur due to presence of particular secondary metabolites in the lichen. In identification key reference literature, the outcome of chemical spot tests serves as a primary characteristic for determining the species of lichens. There are several other less
849:
because the presence of parietin in the former species results in a strong colour reaction. He also knew that in some cases the lichen chemicals were not evenly distributed throughout the cortex and the medulla due to the differing colour reactions on these areas. In the mid-1930s,
711:
or word indicating the colour observed. In addition, care should be taken to indicate which part of the lichen was tested. For example, "Cortex K+ orange, C−, P−" means the cortex of the test specimen turned orange with application of KOH and did not change under bleach or
509:
There are several spot tests that are infrequently used due to their limited applicability, but may be useful in situations where particular lichen metabolites need to be detected, or to distinguish between certain species when other tests are negative.
767:
such that exposing certain parts of the lichen to a UV light source can reveal the presence or absence of those metabolites similarly to spot tests. Examples of lichen substances that give a bright fluorescence in UV are alectoronic,
729:
inactive reagents, and low concentrations of lichen substances in the sample. If the colour of the thallus is dark, a colour change might be obscured, and other techniques are more appropriate, like the filter paper technique.
836:
could be distinguished as distinct species due to their different colour reactions: C+ red in the latter, contrasted with no reaction in the former. Nylander showed how KOH could be used to distinguish between the lookalikes
165:(NaOH, lye), which provides nearly identical results. A 10% solution of KOH will retain its effectiveness for about 6 months to a year. The test depends on salt formation and requires the presence of at least one acidic
715:-phenylenediamine. Similarly, "Medulla K−, KC+R" would indicate the medulla of the lichen was insensitive to application of KOH, but application of KOH followed immediately by bleach caused the medulla to turn red.
858:-phenylendiamine, which gives yellow to red reactions with secondary metabolites that have a free aldehyde group. This spot test was later shown to be particularly useful in the taxonomy of the family
681:
blade may be used to remove the cortex and access the medulla. Alternatively, the solution can be applied to lichen features that lack a cortex or that leave the medulla exposed, such as soralia,
588:-extracted, dried sample from a lichen thallus, followed by heating over a flame for 30 seconds or until colour develops. A persistent violet to bright pink colour indicates the presence of
68:. As such, spot tests reveal the presence or absence of chemicals in various parts of a lichen. They were first proposed as a method to help identify species by the Finnish lichenologist
469:
is present. The CK test is a less commonly used variation that reverses the order of the application of chemicals. It is used in special cases when testing for orange colour produced by
103:, accommodate different lichen types and pigmentations, with results typically summarised by a short code indicating the substance and reaction observed. Other diagnostic methods like
95:
frequently used spot tests of more limited use that are employed in specific situations, such as to distinguish between certain species. Variations of the technique, including using
693:
paper can then be spot tested in the usual way. In cases where the results of a spot test on the thallus are uncertain, it is possible to squash a thin section of the tissue on a
361:
in 100 millilitres of water; initially pink in colour, the solution becomes purple with age. Steiner's solution will last for months. The phenylenediamine reacts with
52:
on different parts of the lichen and noting the colour change (or lack thereof) associated with application of the chemical. The tests are routinely encountered in
804:
286:, while those resulting in orange-red include gyrophoric acid. Rarely, an emerald-green colour is produced, caused by reaction with dihydroxy
1646:
1594:
1166:
1106:
1008:
133:
showing thallus (top) and medulla (bottom). The pinkish-red colour change of the medulla in the C and KC tests indicate the presence of
1237:
653:
Spot tests are performed by placing a small amount of the desired reagent on the portion of the lichen to be tested. Often, both the
1620:
959:
1529:
Asahina, Y. (1936). "Mikrochemischer
Nachweis der Flechtenstoffe (I)" [Microchemical detection of lichen substances (I)].
1089:
Le Pogam, Pierre; Herbette, Gaëtan; Boustie, Joël (19 December 2014). "Analysis of Lichen
Metabolites, a Variety of Approaches".
701:, or when the slide placed against a white background. This technique is useful when testing lichens with dark pigments, such as
759:
It may sometimes be useful to perform other diagnostic measures in addition to spot tests. For example, some lichen metabolites
669:
and touch it to the lichen thallus; a small paint brush is also used for this purpose. Reactions are best visualised with a
893:
Nylander, William (November 1866). "Hypochlorite of lime and hydrate of potash, two new criteria in the study of lichens".
811:
may also be useful in initially characterising the chemical composition of lichens or when spot tests are unrevealing.
1461:
820:
412:
poisonous both as a powder and a solution, and surfaces that come in contact with it (including skin) will discolour.
69:
697:
in a minimal amount of water and reagent under a cover slip. A colour change is visible under a low-power microscope
1510:
Asahina, Y. (1934). "Über die
Reaktion vom Flechten-Thallus" [About the response from the lichen thallus].
604:
800:
1439:
725:
274:
Colours typically observed with the C test are red and orange-rose. Chemicals causing a red reaction include
107:(UV) light exposure can help identify lichen metabolites and distinguish between species, as some substances
1665:
780:. In some cases, the UV light test can be used to help distinguish between closely related species, such as
415:
Some common and widely distributed lichens that have lichen products with a positive reaction to P include
303:
Some common and widely distributed lichens that have lichen products with a positive reaction to C include
223:
Some common and widely distributed lichens that have lichen products with a positive reaction to K include
523:
320:
315:
646:
479:
826:
764:
658:
466:
347:
305:
773:
737:
458:
244:
1670:
871:
839:
751:
598:
589:
544:
310:
256:
84:
61:
793:
558:) in ethanol produces several possible colours when tested with compounds that have phenolic groups.
1634:
845:
832:
788:
497:
491:
462:
423:
417:
296:
260:
225:
173:
as part of their structure will produce a dark red to violet colour. Example compounds include the
158:
76:
769:
1557:
1443:
698:
174:
88:
688:
In a variation of this technique, suggested by the
Swedish chemist Johan Santesson, a piece of
1642:
1616:
1590:
1233:
1162:
1102:
1014:
1004:
955:
808:
782:
674:
641:
484:
452:
279:
235:
186:
129:
718:
Occasionally, it takes some time for the colour reaction to develop. For example, in certain
1578:
1435:
1371:
1326:
1277:
1225:
1094:
902:
851:
694:
666:
632:
515:
474:
264:
166:
162:
154:
80:
53:
1419:
1311:
682:
654:
637:
551:
536:
134:
119:
1268:
Alphandary, Elisa; McCune, Bruce (2013). "A new chemical spot test for miriquidic acid".
137:, a chemical feature that helps to distinguish it from similar species in the same genus.
1069:"A revised guide to microchemical techniques for the identification of lichen products"
906:
612:
581:
573:
354:
283:
268:
198:
182:
124:
57:
1659:
921:
777:
661:
of the lichen are tested, and at times it is useful to test other structures such as
528:
470:
213:
178:
41:
1389:
1331:
1068:
259:(bleaching powder), or alternatively a dilute solution (5.25% is typically used) of
947:
859:
760:
689:
287:
275:
96:
331:
1548:
Torrey, Raymond H. (1935). "Paraphenylenediamine, a new color test for lichens".
1488:
1465:
1098:
17:
1630:
1608:
1312:"Chemical studies on lichens. 4. Thin layer chromatography of lichen substances"
1221:
616:
593:
562:
439:
with K followed immediately by C. The initial application of K breaks down (via
366:
104:
37:
1604:
1582:
1281:
620:
495:
is a lichen that is KC+ (orange-pink) because of the depsidone physodic acid;
457:
to another hydroxyl, then a red to orange colour is produced as C is applied.
444:
440:
294:. Another rare colour produced by this test is yellow, which is observed with
291:
217:
100:
1018:
954:(2nd ed.). Corvallis: Oregon State University Press. pp. 347–349.
746:
670:
567:
358:
343:
240:
205:
194:
108:
141:
Four spot tests are used most commonly to help with lichen identification.
720:
362:
230:
209:
1561:
1447:
1423:
742:
703:
665:. One method is to draw up a small amount of the chemical into a glass
662:
592:
and can be used to distinguish between the two morphologically similar
585:
436:
202:
190:
170:
150:
49:
755:; the yellowish colour results from the fluorescence of lichexanthone.
487:
is another reagent that may be useful in identifying certain species.
1491:[New criteria to be added to the chemical study of lichens].
796:). Only long-wavelength UV is useful for observing lichens directly.
448:
161:(KOH) (10–25%), or, in the absence of KOH, a 10% aqueous solution of
45:
1375:
111:
under UV, aiding in the differentiation of closely related species.
1137:
1135:
615:
involves heating a small sample of the substance to be tested on a
547:, will turn a yellow colour that becomes green after a few minutes.
736:
678:
631:
427:, which is PD+ (orange) because of the depsidone physodalic acid.
330:
118:
1122:
1120:
1118:
56:
for lichen species, and they take advantage of the wide array of
421:, which is PD+ (yellow) because of the didepside atranorin, and
65:
1263:
1261:
1232:. New Haven, Conn. : Yale University Press. pp. 103–108.
973:
971:
189:. Yellow to red colours are produced with the K test and some
1489:"Quaedam addenda ad nova criteria chemica in studio lichenum"
608:
without having to resort to more laborious chemical analysis.
1468:[A new chemical criterion in the study of lichen].
1440:
10.1639/0007-2745(2001)104[0263:WNALC]2.0.CO;2
1293:
1291:
1180:
1178:
1161:(2nd ed.). London: Edward Arnold. pp. 119–121.
1062:
1060:
1058:
1056:
1054:
1052:
501:
is KC+ (pink-red) due to the depsidone alectoronic acid.
465:
produce this colour, while a violet colour results when
99:
to enhance visibility of reactions or examining under a
1639:
Microchemical
Methods for the Identification of Lichens
1424:"William Nylander (1822–1899) and lichen chemotaxonomy"
1390:"Arizona State University Lichen Herbarium: Lichen TLC"
1084:
1082:
1003:. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 369–371.
1358:
Brodo, Irwin M. (1991). "Studies in the lichen genus
623:
compounds cause a temporary deep green flame colour.
1613:
Macrolichens of
Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden
1466:"Circa novum in studio lichenum criterium chemicum"
824:showed, for example, that the lichens now known as
1414:
1412:
1410:
48:. It is performed by placing a drop of a chemical
342:This is also known as the P test. It uses a 1–5%
169:in the molecule. Lichen compounds that contain a
79:solution (K test), saturated aqueous solution of
64:) produced by lichens and their uniqueness among
1252:
1196:
1126:
1031:
895:Journal of the Linnean Society of London, Botany
888:
886:
1093:. New Delhi: Springer India. pp. 229–261.
994:
992:
990:
988:
986:
435:This spot test may be performed by wetting the
309:, which is C+ (orange) because of the xanthone
75:Three common spot tests use either 10% aqueous
926:group (lichenized ascomycetes) in Switzerland"
565:, which can be used to distinguish species of
1345:
1208:
1141:
1043:
977:
799:More advanced analytical techniques, such as
319:, which is C+ (red) because of the didepside
29:A chemical test used to help identify lichens
8:
1362:. 2. Corticolous species of North America".
1152:
1150:
300:as a result of the dibenzofuran usnic acid.
1330:
920:Truong, Camille; Clerc, Philippe (2003).
522:) gives a violet colour when tested with
1297:
1184:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
383:
379:
375:
882:
584:solution (0.5% to 10%) brushed over an
255:This test uses a saturated solution of
1073:Bulletin of the British Lichen Society
1067:Walker, F.J.; James, P.W. (May 1980).
805:high-performance liquid chromatography
229:, which is K+ (red-purple) due to the
952:Macrolichens of the Pacific Northwest
550:A 1% (weight per volume) solution of
369:according to the following reaction:
7:
1001:A Field Guide to California Lichens
451:hydroxyl group is released that is
239:, which is K+ (yellow), due to the
907:10.1111/j.1095-8339.1866.tb01301.x
561:The N test uses a 35% solution of
25:
685:, or the underside of squamules.
447:in depsides and depsidones. If a
1332:10.3891/acta.chem.scand.21-1162
1531:The Journal of Japanese Botany
1253:Orange, James & White 2001
1197:Orange, James & White 2001
1127:Orange, James & White 2001
1091:Recent Advances in Lichenology
1032:Orange, James & White 2001
724:species, the PD reaction with
1:
1589:. New York: Academic Press.
1099:10.1007/978-81-322-2181-4_11
636:Chemical spot tests on the
526:, a chemical found in some
1687:
1641:. British Lichen Society.
1364:Canadian Journal of Botany
1310:Santesson, Johann (1967).
1224:; Sharnoff, Sylvia Duran;
999:Sharnoff, Stephen (2014).
220:do not have any reaction.
87:(C test), or 5% alcoholic
1346:Ahmadjian & Hale 1973
1319:Acta Chemica Scandinavica
1282:10.1017/s0024282913000418
1209:Ahmadjian & Hale 1973
1142:Ahmadjian & Hale 1973
1075:. 46 (Supplement): 13–29.
1044:Ahmadjian & Hale 1973
978:Ahmadjian & Hale 1973
801:thin-layer chromatography
792:(UV+, due to presence of
357:, and 0.5 millilitres of
1615:. Universitetsforlaget.
1230:Lichens of North America
950:; Geiser, Linda (1997).
535:A saturated solution of
477:, such as is present in
233:(an anthraquinone), and
749:of the crustose lichen
726:fumarprotocetraric acid
290:, such as the chemical
1637:; White, F.J. (2001).
1159:The Biology of Lichens
854:created the test with
819:Finnish lichenologist
756:
650:
571:from brown species of
339:
316:Diploschistes muscorum
138:
44:used to help identify
1487:Nylander, W. (1866).
827:Cetrelia cetrarioides
765:ultraviolet radiation
740:
635:
628:Performing spot tests
605:S. groenlandicum
334:
153:for the K test is an
122:
62:secondary metabolites
1298:Dahl & Krog 1973
1185:Dahl & Krog 1973
1157:Hale, Mason (1974).
872:Microcrystallization
840:Xanthoria candelaria
752:Ochrolechia africana
599:Stereocaulon alpinum
543:), when tested with
524:diploschistesic acid
321:diploschistesic acid
257:calcium hypochlorite
85:calcium hypochlorite
1144:, pp. 636–637.
846:Candelaria concolor
789:Cladonia sulphurina
647:Aspicilia epiglypta
498:Cetrelia olivetorum
492:Hypogymnia tubulosa
480:Cladonia floerkeana
424:Hypogymnia physodes
418:Parmelia subrudecta
297:Cladonia portentosa
261:sodium hypochlorite
226:Xanthoria parietina
159:potassium hydroxide
930:Botanica Helvetica
833:C. olivetorum
757:
651:
580:The S test uses a
514:A 10% solution of
467:picrolichenic acid
340:
306:Lecanora expallens
139:
123:Spot tests on the
1648:978-0-9540418-0-9
1596:978-0-12-044950-7
1579:Ahmadjian, Vernon
1512:Acta Phytochimica
1270:The Lichenologist
1226:Sharnoff, Stephen
1168:978-0-7131-2456-9
1108:978-81-322-2180-7
1010:978-0-300-19500-2
809:mass spectrometry
783:Cladonia deformis
774:divaricatic acids
675:stereo microscope
505:Less common tests
351:-phenylenediamine
338:-phenylenediamine
236:Dibaeis baeomyces
216:derivatives, and
187:terphenylquinones
130:Punctelia borreri
92:-phenylenediamine
18:Lichen spot tests
16:(Redirected from
1678:
1652:
1626:
1600:
1572:Cited literature
1566:
1565:
1545:
1539:
1538:
1526:
1520:
1519:
1507:
1501:
1500:
1484:
1478:
1477:
1458:
1452:
1451:
1420:Vitikainen, Orvo
1416:
1405:
1404:
1402:
1400:
1386:
1380:
1379:
1355:
1349:
1343:
1337:
1336:
1334:
1316:
1307:
1301:
1295:
1286:
1285:
1265:
1256:
1250:
1244:
1243:
1218:
1212:
1206:
1200:
1194:
1188:
1182:
1173:
1172:
1154:
1145:
1139:
1130:
1124:
1113:
1112:
1086:
1077:
1076:
1064:
1047:
1041:
1035:
1029:
1023:
1022:
996:
981:
975:
966:
965:
944:
938:
937:
924:Parmelia borreri
917:
911:
910:
890:
852:Yasuhiko Asahina
821:William Nylander
695:microscope slide
516:barium hydroxide
475:diffractaic acid
459:Alectoronic acid
407:
265:household bleach
245:baeomycesic acid
167:functional group
163:sodium hydroxide
155:aqueous solution
81:bleaching powder
70:William Nylander
54:dichotomous keys
21:
1686:
1685:
1681:
1680:
1679:
1677:
1676:
1675:
1656:
1655:
1649:
1629:
1623:
1603:
1597:
1577:
1574:
1569:
1547:
1546:
1542:
1528:
1527:
1523:
1509:
1508:
1504:
1486:
1485:
1481:
1460:
1459:
1455:
1418:
1417:
1408:
1398:
1396:
1388:
1387:
1383:
1376:10.1139/b91-099
1357:
1356:
1352:
1344:
1340:
1314:
1309:
1308:
1304:
1296:
1289:
1267:
1266:
1259:
1251:
1247:
1240:
1222:Brodo, Irwin M.
1220:
1219:
1215:
1207:
1203:
1195:
1191:
1183:
1176:
1169:
1156:
1155:
1148:
1140:
1133:
1125:
1116:
1109:
1088:
1087:
1080:
1066:
1065:
1050:
1042:
1038:
1030:
1026:
1011:
998:
997:
984:
976:
969:
962:
946:
945:
941:
919:
918:
914:
901:(38): 358–365.
892:
891:
884:
880:
868:
817:
741:UV-illuminated
735:
683:pseudocyphellae
630:
590:miriquidic acid
557:
552:ferric chloride
545:olivetoric acid
542:
537:barium peroxide
521:
507:
433:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
329:
311:thiophanic acid
263:, or undiluted
253:
208:. In contrast,
183:naphthoquinones
147:
135:gyrophoric acid
117:
58:lichen products
30:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1684:
1682:
1674:
1673:
1668:
1666:Chemical tests
1658:
1657:
1654:
1653:
1647:
1627:
1621:
1601:
1595:
1583:Hale, Mason E.
1573:
1570:
1568:
1567:
1556:(4): 110–112.
1540:
1521:
1502:
1479:
1453:
1434:(2): 263–267.
1428:The Bryologist
1406:
1381:
1370:(4): 733–772.
1350:
1348:, p. 634.
1338:
1302:
1287:
1276:(5): 697–699.
1257:
1245:
1239:978-0300082494
1238:
1213:
1211:, p. 637.
1201:
1189:
1174:
1167:
1146:
1131:
1114:
1107:
1078:
1048:
1046:, p. 635.
1036:
1024:
1009:
982:
980:, p. 636.
967:
960:
939:
912:
881:
879:
876:
875:
874:
867:
864:
816:
813:
794:squamatic acid
734:
731:
629:
626:
625:
624:
613:Beilstein test
609:
582:sulphuric acid
578:
574:Xanthoparmelia
559:
555:
548:
540:
533:
519:
506:
503:
485:Lugol's iodine
432:
429:
409:
408:
355:sodium sulfite
328:
325:
284:lecanoric acid
269:carbon dioxide
252:
249:
201:), and many β-
199:thamnolic acid
179:anthraquinones
146:
143:
116:
113:
28:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1683:
1672:
1669:
1667:
1664:
1663:
1661:
1650:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1622:9788200022626
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1575:
1571:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1544:
1541:
1536:
1533:(in German).
1532:
1525:
1522:
1517:
1514:(in German).
1513:
1506:
1503:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1483:
1480:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1457:
1454:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1415:
1413:
1411:
1407:
1395:
1391:
1385:
1382:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1354:
1351:
1347:
1342:
1339:
1333:
1328:
1325:: 1162–1172.
1324:
1320:
1313:
1306:
1303:
1300:, p. 24.
1299:
1294:
1292:
1288:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1264:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1249:
1246:
1241:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1217:
1214:
1210:
1205:
1202:
1199:, p. 17.
1198:
1193:
1190:
1187:, p. 23.
1186:
1181:
1179:
1175:
1170:
1164:
1160:
1153:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1138:
1136:
1132:
1129:, p. 16.
1128:
1123:
1121:
1119:
1115:
1110:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1085:
1083:
1079:
1074:
1070:
1063:
1061:
1059:
1057:
1055:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1040:
1037:
1034:, p. 15.
1033:
1028:
1025:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1006:
1002:
995:
993:
991:
989:
987:
983:
979:
974:
972:
968:
963:
961:0-87071-394-9
957:
953:
949:
948:McCune, Bruce
943:
940:
935:
931:
927:
925:
916:
913:
908:
904:
900:
896:
889:
887:
883:
877:
873:
870:
869:
865:
863:
861:
857:
853:
848:
847:
842:
841:
835:
834:
829:
828:
822:
814:
812:
810:
806:
802:
797:
795:
791:
790:
785:
784:
779:
778:lichexanthone
775:
771:
766:
762:
754:
753:
748:
744:
739:
732:
730:
727:
723:
722:
716:
714:
708:
706:
705:
700:
696:
691:
686:
684:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
649:
648:
643:
639:
634:
627:
622:
618:
614:
610:
607:
606:
601:
600:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
576:
575:
570:
569:
564:
560:
553:
549:
546:
538:
534:
531:
530:
529:Diploschistes
525:
517:
513:
512:
511:
504:
502:
500:
499:
494:
493:
488:
486:
482:
481:
476:
472:
471:barbatic acid
468:
464:
463:physodic acid
460:
456:
455:
450:
446:
442:
438:
430:
428:
426:
425:
420:
419:
413:
372:
371:
370:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
350:
345:
337:
333:
326:
324:
322:
318:
317:
312:
308:
307:
301:
299:
298:
293:
289:
288:dibenzofurans
285:
281:
277:
272:
270:
266:
262:
258:
250:
248:
246:
242:
238:
237:
232:
228:
227:
221:
219:
215:
214:pulvinic acid
211:
207:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
144:
142:
136:
132:
131:
126:
121:
114:
112:
110:
106:
102:
98:
93:
91:
86:
82:
78:
73:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
42:spot analysis
39:
35:
27:
19:
1638:
1612:
1609:Krog, Hildur
1586:
1553:
1549:
1543:
1534:
1530:
1524:
1515:
1511:
1505:
1496:
1495:(in Latin).
1492:
1482:
1473:
1472:(in Latin).
1469:
1462:Nylander, W.
1456:
1431:
1427:
1399:18 September
1397:. Retrieved
1393:
1384:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1353:
1341:
1322:
1318:
1305:
1273:
1269:
1255:, p. 9.
1248:
1229:
1216:
1204:
1192:
1158:
1090:
1072:
1039:
1027:
1000:
951:
942:
933:
929:
923:
915:
898:
894:
860:Cladoniaceae
855:
844:
838:
831:
825:
818:
798:
787:
781:
758:
750:
719:
717:
712:
709:
702:
690:filter paper
687:
652:
645:
603:
597:
594:snow lichens
572:
566:
527:
508:
496:
490:
489:
478:
453:
434:
422:
416:
414:
410:
367:Schiff bases
348:
346:solution of
341:
335:
314:
304:
302:
295:
276:anziaic acid
273:
254:
234:
224:
222:
148:
140:
128:
97:filter paper
89:
74:
33:
31:
26:
1671:Lichenology
1635:James, P.W.
1605:Dahl, Eilif
1587:The Lichens
1394:nhc.asu.edu
1360:Ochrolechia
936:(1): 49–61.
733:Other tests
621:halogenated
617:copper wire
563:nitric acid
445:ester bonds
390:→ R−CH=N−C
193:(including
105:ultraviolet
38:lichenology
1660:Categories
1631:Orange, A.
1537:: 516–525.
1499:: 233–234.
1476:: 198–201.
878:References
786:(UV−) and
642:saxicolous
441:hydrolysis
292:strepsilin
218:usnic acid
206:depsidones
101:microscope
1019:862053107
761:fluoresce
747:apothecia
699:objective
671:hand lens
667:capillary
568:Melanelia
374:R−CHO + H
365:to yield
363:aldehydes
359:detergent
344:ethanolic
243:compound
241:didepside
210:xanthones
195:atranorin
177:that are
109:fluoresce
72:in 1866.
34:spot test
1611:(1973).
1585:(1973).
1562:40597010
1518:: 47–64.
1464:(1866).
1422:(2001).
1228:(2001).
866:See also
721:Cladonia
638:crustose
532:species.
449:phenolic
280:erythrin
231:parietin
191:depsides
175:pigments
1550:Torreya
1448:3244891
815:History
770:lobaric
743:thallus
704:Bryoria
663:soralia
659:medulla
644:lichen
586:acetone
518:(Ba(OH)
437:thallus
431:KC test
327:PD test
203:orcinol
171:quinone
151:reagent
127:lichen
125:foliose
50:reagent
46:lichens
1645:
1619:
1593:
1560:
1446:
1236:
1165:
1105:
1017:
1007:
958:
807:, and
776:, and
772:, and
763:under
655:cortex
313:, and
282:, and
251:C test
185:, and
145:K test
1558:JSTOR
1493:Flora
1470:Flora
1444:JSTOR
1315:(PDF)
922:"The
679:razor
673:or a
554:(FeCl
115:Tests
40:is a
1643:ISBN
1617:ISBN
1591:ISBN
1401:2016
1234:ISBN
1163:ISBN
1103:ISBN
1015:OCLC
1005:ISBN
956:ISBN
856:para
843:and
830:and
745:and
713:para
677:. A
657:and
640:and
611:The
602:and
539:(BaO
461:and
454:meta
349:para
197:and
149:The
66:taxa
1436:doi
1432:104
1372:doi
1327:doi
1278:doi
1095:doi
934:113
903:doi
473:or
402:+ H
398:−NH
386:−NH
378:N−C
157:of
83:or
77:KOH
36:in
1662::
1633:;
1607:;
1581:;
1554:35
1552:.
1535:12
1497:49
1474:49
1442:.
1430:.
1426:.
1409:^
1392:.
1368:69
1366:.
1323:21
1321:.
1317:.
1290:^
1274:45
1272:.
1260:^
1177:^
1149:^
1134:^
1117:^
1101:.
1081:^
1071:.
1051:^
1013:.
985:^
970:^
932:.
928:.
897:.
885:^
862:.
803:,
707:.
619:;
596:,
483:.
443:)
323:.
278:,
271:.
247:.
212:,
181:,
32:A
1651:.
1625:.
1599:.
1564:.
1516:8
1450:.
1438::
1403:.
1378:.
1374::
1335:.
1329::
1284:.
1280::
1242:.
1171:.
1111:.
1097::
1021:.
964:.
909:.
905::
899:9
577:.
556:3
541:2
520:2
406:O
404:2
400:2
396:4
394:H
392:6
388:2
384:4
382:H
380:6
376:2
336:p
90:p
60:(
20:)
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