724:
211:
474:
high-latitude conditions as a result of having recently migrated from lower latitudes. On the other hand, although we have shown that these populations carried few of the light pigmentation alleles that are segregating in present-day Europe, they may have carried different alleles that we cannot now detect. As an extreme example, Neanderthals and the Altai
Denisovan individual show genetic scores that are in a similar range to Early Upper Paleolithic individuals, but it is highly plausible that these populations, who lived at high latitudes for hundreds of thousands of years, would have adapted independently to low UV levels. For this reason, we cannot confidently make statements about the skin pigmentation of ancient populations."
940:, and the select alleles of single-nucleotide polymorphisms rs1426654 and rs1834640 characteristic of fair complexions in Eurasian populations were of high frequency (47.9%) in this Omotic-speaking Ethiopian population. A higher proportion of these genes MYEF2-SLC24A5 were seen in high altitude (Amhara and Tigray) compared with the low-altitude (Afar) Ethiopians, with also elevated European admixture proportions observed in the high altitude tribes. The authors did not rule out the possibility that these European alleles were differentially selected in high-altitude populations due to unknown selective pressures.
2543:
Wata; Mokone, Gaonyadiwe George; Nyambo, Thomas; Meskel, Dawit Wolde; Belay, Gurja; Haut, Jake; NISC Comparative
Sequencing Program; Rothschild, Harriet; Zon, Leonard; Zhou, Yi; Kovacs, Michael A.; Xu, Mai; Zhang, Tongwu; Bishop, Kevin; Sinclair, Jason; Rivas, Cecilia; Elliot, Eugene; Choi, Jiyeon; Li, Shengchao A.; Hicks, Belynda; Burgess, Shawn; Abnet, Christian; Watkins-Chow, Dawn E.; Oceana, Elena; Song, Yun S.; Eskin, Eleazar; Brown, Kevin M.; Marks, Michael S.; Loftus, Stacie K.; Pavan, William J.; Yeager, Meredith; Chanock, Stephen; Tishkoff, Sarah A. (17 November 2017).
707:
36:
872:
1133:
kill at all. Rather it weakens the immune system, the bones, and compromises the body's ability to fight uncontrolled cell division which results in cancer. A form of vitamin D is a potent cell growth inhibitor; thus chronic deficiencies of vitamin D seem to be associated with higher risk of certain cancers. This is an active topic of cancer research and is still debated. The vitamin D deficiency associated with dark skin leads to higher levels of schizophrenia in such populations residing in northerly latitudes.
449:
Europeans or East Asians. Huang et al. (2021) found the existence of "selective pressure on light pigmentation in the ancestral population of
Europeans and East Asians", prior to their divergence from each other. Skin pigmentation was also found to be affected by directional selection towards darker skin among Africans, as well as lighter skin among Eurasians. Crawford et al. (2017) similarly found evidence for selection towards light pigmentation prior to the divergence of West Eurasians and East Asians.
652:
45:
56:
358:. Analysing newly sequenced ancient genomes, Jones et al. estimated the split date at ~24,000 bp and localised the separation to somewhere south of the Caucasus. However, a coalescent analysis of this allele by Crawford et al. (2017) gave a more narrowly constrained, and earlier, split date of ~29,000 years ago (with a 95% confidence window from 28,000 to 31,000 bp).
1129:
interacts with a cholesterol-like molecule produce pre-vitamin D3. This reaction only occurs in the presence of medium length UVR, UVB. Most of the UVB and UVC rays are destroyed or reflected by ozone, oxygen, and dust in the atmosphere. UVB reaches the Earth's surface in the highest amounts when its path is straight and goes through a little layer of atmosphere.
1178:
863:(gradual) distribution of skin pigmentation observable in the Eastern hemisphere, and to a lesser extent in the Western hemisphere, is one of the most significant characteristics of human skin pigmentation. Increasingly lighter skinned populations are distributed across areas with incrementally lower levels of UV radiation.
644:
1197:. This increased risk has come along with the cultural practice of sunbathing, which is popular among light-skinned populations. This cultural practice to gain tanned skin if not regulated properly can lead to sunburn, especially among very lightly-skinned humans. The overexposure to sunlight also can lead to
703:
have the highest chance of developing vitamin D deficiency. She suggests that people living far from the equator developed light skin to produce adequate amounts of vitamin D during winter with low levels of UV radiation. Genetic studies suggest that light-skinned humans have been selected for multiple times.
1048:
mutation in the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) gene. However, variations in the MC1R gene sequence only have considerable influence on pigmentation in populations where red hair and extremely light skin is prevalent. The gene variation's primary effect is to promote eumelanin synthesis at the expense
226:, already had higher levels of light pigmentation variants compared to their ancestors from other parts of Europe, suggesting adaptation to low light conditions thousands of years ago. Some authors have expressed caution regarding the dark skin pigmentation predictions for Upper Paleolithic Europeans.
3395:
Jones, Eppie R.; Gonzalez-Fortes, Gloria; Connell, Sarah; Siska, Veronika; Eriksson, Anders; Martiniano, Rui; McLaughlin, Russell L.; Gallego
Llorente, Marcos; Cassidy, Lara M.; Gamba, Cristina; Meshveliani, Tengiz; Bar-Yosef, Ofer; MĂŒller, Werner; Belfer-Cohen, Anna; Matskevich, Zinovi (16 November
1111:
Skin pigmentation is an evolutionary adaptation to the various UV radiation levels around the world. There are health implications of light-skinned people living in environments of high UV radiation. Various cultural practices increase problems related to health conditions of light skin, for example
702:
populations of more than 50 countries. The results showed a very high correlation between UV radiation and skin colour; the weaker the sunlight was in a geographic region, the lighter the indigenous people's skin tended to be. Jablonski points out that people living above the latitudes of 50 degrees
4007:
Lamason, R. L.; Mohideen, M. A.; Mest, J. R.; Wong, A. C.; Norton, H. L.; Aros, M. C.; Jurynec, M. J.; Mao, X.; Humphreville, V. R.; Humbert, J. E.; Sinha, S.; Moore, J. L.; Jagadeeswaran, P.; Zhao, W.; Ning, G.; Makalowska, I.; McKeigue, P. M.; O'Donnell, D.; Kittles, R.; Parra, E. J.; Mangini, N.
2604:
Paschou, Peristera; Drineas, Petros; Yannaki, Evangelia; Razou, Anna; Kanaki, Katerina; Tsetsos, Fotis; Padhmanabuni, Shanmukha; Michalodimitrakis, Manolis; Renda, Maria; Pavolovic, Sonja; Anagnostopoulos, Achilles; Stamatoyannopoulos, John; Kidd, Kenneth; Stamatoyannopoulos, George (24 June 2014).
1132:
The farther a place is from the equator, the less UVB is received, and the potential to produce of vitamin D is diminished. Some regions far from the equator do not receive UVB radiation at all between autumn and spring. Vitamin D deficiency does not kill its victims quickly, and generally does not
3137:
GĂŒnther, Torsten; Malmström, Helena; Svensson, Emma M.; Omrak, Ayça; SĂĄnchez-Quinto, Federico; Kılınç, GĂŒlĆah M.; KrzewiĆska, Maja; Eriksson, Gunilla; Fraser, Magdalena; Edlund, Hanna; Munters, Arielle R.; Coutinho, Alexandra; SimĂ”es, Luciana G.; Vicente, MĂĄrio; Sjölander, Anders (9 January 2018).
2000:
The genomic data further allowed us to study the physical appearance of SHGs; for instance, they show a combination of eye color varying from blue to light brown and light skin pigmentation. This is strikingly different from the WHGs-who have been suggested to have the specific combination of blue
580:
gene which is one of the most important determinants of light pigmentation in West
Eurasians, was fixed for the derived variants in all Levant Chalcolithic samples, suggesting that the light skinned phenotype may have been common in the community. The individuals also had high incidence of genomic
2699:
Crawford, Nicholas G.; Kelly, Derek E.; Hansen, Matthew E. B.; Beltrame, Marcia H.; Fan, Shaohua; Bowman, Shanna L.; Jewett, Ethan; Ranciaro, Alessia; Thompson, Simon; Lo, Yancy; Pfeifer, Susanne P.; Jensen, Jeffrey D.; Campbell, Michael C.; Beggs, William; Hormozdiari, Farhad (17 November 2017).
2542:
Crawford, Nicholas G.; Kelly, Derek E.; Hansen, Matthew E. B.; Beltrame, Marcia H.; Fan, Shaohua; Bowman, Shanna L.; Jewett, Ethan; Ranciaro, Alessia; Thompson, Simon; Lo, Yancy; Pfeifer, Susanne P.; Jensen, Jeffrey D.; Campbell, Michael C.; Beggs, William; Hormozdiari, Farhad; Mpoloka, Sununguko
2063:
Relatively dark skin pigmentation in Early Upper
Paleolithic Europe would be consistent with those populations being relatively poorly adapted to high-latitude conditions as a result of having recently migrated from lower latitudes. On the other hand, although we have shown that these populations
448:
According to
Crawford et al. (2017), most of the genetic variants associated with light and dark pigmentation appear to have originated more than 300,000 years ago. African, South Asian and Australo-Melanesian populations also carry derived alleles for dark skin pigmentation that are not found in
2476:
Jones, Eppie R.; Gonzalez-Fortes, Gloria; Connell, Sarah; Siska, Veronika; Eriksson, Anders; Martiniano, Rui; McLaughlin, Russell L.; Gallego
Llorente, Marcos; Cassidy, Lara M.; Gamba, Cristina; Meshveliani, Tengiz; Bar-Yosef, Ofer; MĂŒller, Werner; Belfer-Cohen, Anna; Matskevich, Zinovi; Jakeli,
2372:
Basu
Mallick, Chandana; Iliescu, Florin Mircea; Möls, MÀrt; Hill, Sarah; Tamang, Rakesh; Chaubey, Gyaneshwer; Goto, Rie; Ho, Simon Y. W.; Gallego Romero, Irene; Crivellaro, Federica; Hudjashov, Georgi; Rai, Niraj; Metspalu, Mait; Mascie-Taylor, C. G. Nicholas; Pitchappan, Ramasamy; Singh, Lalji;
4059:
Lalueza-Fox; Römpler, H.; Caramelli, D.; StÀubert, C.; Catalano, G.; Hughes, D; Rohland, N; Pilli, E.; Longo, L.; Condemi, S.; de la
Rasilla, M.; Fortea, J.; Rosas, A.; Stoneking, M.; Schöneberg, T.; Bertranpetit, J.; Hofreiter, M.; et al. (2007). "A melanocortin-1 receptor allele suggests
3714:
Fregel, Rosa; MĂ©ndez, Fernando L.; Bokbot, Youssef; MartĂn-Socas, Dimas; Camalich-Massieu, MarĂa D.; Santana, Jonathan; Morales, Jacob; Ăvila-Arcos, MarĂa C.; Underhill, Peter A.; Shapiro, Beth; Wojcik, Genevieve; Rasmussen, Morten; Soares, AndrĂ© E. R.; Kapp, Joshua; Sockell, Alexandra (26 June
440:
speaking groups. It is inferred that it may have arrived into the region via migration from the Levant, which is also supported by linguistic evidence. In the San people, it was acquired from interactions with Eastern African pastoralists. Meanwhile, in the case of East Asia and the Americas, a
464:
ancestry. The geographical distribution shows that it is nearly fixed in all of Europe and most of the Middle East, extending east to some populations in present-day Pakistan and Northern India. It shows a latitudinal decline toward the Equator, with high frequencies in North Africa (80%), and
537:
In 2015, it was discovered that 13,000 year old samples of Caucasus Hunter Gatherers (CHG) from Georgia carried the mutation and derived alleles for very fair skinned pigmentation similar to Early Farmers (EF). This trait was said to have a relatively long history in Eurasia and risen to high
3263:
Mittnik, Alissa; Wang, Chuan-Chao; Pfrengle, Saskia; Daubaras, Mantas; ZariĆa, Gunita; Hallgren, Fredrik; AllmĂ€e, Raili; Khartanovich, Valery; Moiseyev, Vyacheslav; TĂ”rv, Mari; FurtwĂ€ngler, Anja; Andrades Valtueña, Aida; Feldman, Michal; Economou, Christos; Oinonen, Markku (30 January 2018).
1128:
synthesis compared to humans with dark skin pigmentation due to the ability to absorb more sunlight. Almost every part of the human body, including the skeleton, the immune system, and brain requires vitamin D. Vitamin D production in the skin begins when UV radiation penetrates the skin and
5634:
A separate observation that the offspring of migrants with dark skin who migrate to cold climates have an increased risk of schizophrenia may also be due to low vitamin D during gestation and early life as dark skin requires greater sunlight exposure to make adequate levels of the vitamin D
4964:
Huerta-SĂĄnchez, Emilia; DeGiorgio, Michael; Pagani, Luca; Tarekegn, Ayele; Ekong, Rosemary; Antao, Tiago; Cardona, Alexia; Montgomery, Hugh E.; Cavalleri, Gianpiero L.; Robbins, Peter A.; Weale, Michael E.; Bradman, Neil; Bekele, Endashaw; Kivisild, Toomas; Tyler-Smith, Chris (10 May 2013).
473:
Some authors have expressed caution regarding the skin pigmentation SNP predictions in early Paleolithic groups. According to Ju et al. (2021): "Relatively dark skin pigmentation in Early Upper Paleolithic Europe would be consistent with those populations being relatively poorly adapted to
3071:
Mathieson, Iain; Lazaridis, Iosif; Rohland, Nadin; Mallick, Swapan; Patterson, Nick; Roodenberg, SongĂŒl Alpaslan; Harney, Eadaoin; Stewardson, Kristin; Fernandes, Daniel; Novak, Mario; Sirak, Kendra; Gamba, Cristina; Jones, Eppie R.; Llamas, Bastien; Dryomov, Stanislav (December 2015).
503:(WHG). However, a 2024 paper found that phenotypically most of their studied WHG individuals carried the dark skin and blue eyes characteristic of WHGs, but some other WHGs in France they sequenced also had pale to intermediate skin pigmentation. Another entry in 2018, showed that the
989:
For the same body region, individuals, independently of skin colour, have the same amount of melanocytes (however variation between different body parts is substantial), but organelles which contain pigments, called melanosomes, are smaller and less numerous in light-skinned humans.
858:
and sexual selection contributed to an even lighter pigmentation in females. Doubt has been cast on this hypothesis, as more random patterns of skin colouration would be expected in contrast to the observed structural light skin pigmentation in areas of low UV radiation. The
3453:
Lazaridis, Iosif; Nadel, Dani; Rollefson, Gary; Merrett, Deborah C.; Rohland, Nadin; Mallick, Swapan; Fernandes, Daniel; Novak, Mario; Gamarra, Beatriz; Sirak, Kendra; Connell, Sarah; Stewardson, Kristin; Harney, Eadaoin; Fu, Qiaomei; Gonzalez-Fortes, Gloria (25 July 2016).
2591:
On the basis of coalescent analysis with sequence data from the Simons Genomic Diversity Project (SGDP), the time to most recent common ancestor (TMRCA) of most Eurasian lineages containing the rs1426654 (A) allele is 29 thousand years ago (ka) , consistent with previous
908:
gene account for 20â25% of the variation between dark and light skinned populations of Africa, and appear to have arisen as recently as within the last 10,000 years. The Ala111Thr or rs1426654 polymorphism in the coding region of the SLC24A5 gene reaches fixation in
1255:
Individuals with lightly pigmented skin who are repeatedly exposed to strong UV radiation, experience faster aging of the skin, which shows in increased wrinkling and anomalies of pigmentation. Oxidative damage causes the degradation of protective tissue in the
2432:
Yuasa, I.; Umetsu, K.; Harihara, S.; Kido, A.; Miyoshi, A.; Saitou, N.; Dashnyam, B.; Jin, F.; Lucotte, G.; Chattopadhyay, P.K.; Henke, L.; Henke, J. (November 2006). "Distribution of the F374 Allele of the SLC45A2 (MATP) Gene and Founder-Haplotype Analysis".
742:
receive little UV radiation, and even less vitamin D-producing UVB, for most of the year. These regions were uninhabited by humans until about 12,000 years ago. (In northern Fennoscandia at least, human populations arrived soon after deglaciation.) Areas like
3666:
RodrĂguez-Varela, Ricardo; GĂŒnther, Torsten; KrzewiĆska, Maja; StorĂ„, Jan; Gillingwater, Thomas H.; MacCallum, Malcolm; Arsuaga, Juan Luis; Dobney, Keith; Valdiosera, Cristina; Jakobsson, Mattias; Götherström, Anders; Girdland-Flink, Linus (6 November 2017).
3197:
SimĂ”es, Luciana G.; Peyroteo-Stjerna, Rita; Marchand, GrĂ©gor; Bernhardsson, Carolina; Vialet, AmĂ©lie; Chetty, Darshan; Alaçamlı, Erkin; Edlund, Hanna; Bouquin, Denis; Dina, Christian; Garmond, Nicolas; GĂŒnther, Torsten; Jakobsson, Mattias (5 March 2024).
819:
Two other main hypotheses have been put forward to explain the development of light skin pigmentation: resistance to cold injury, and genetic drift; now both of them are considered unlikely to be the main mechanism behind the evolution of light skin.
806:
after being introduced by random mutations. "This was one of the last barriers in the history of human settlement," Jablonski states. "Only after humans learned fishing, and therefore had access to food rich in vitamin D, could they settle regions of
1103:, however it offers great protection against seasonal variations in UVR. Gradually developed tan in the spring prevents sunburns in the summer. This mechanism is almost certainly the evolutionary reason behind the development of tanning behaviour.
801:
Furthermore, these people have been living in the far north for less than 7,000 years. As their founding populations lacked alleles for light skin colour, they may have had insufficient time for significantly lower melanin production to have been
494:
that is the other major determinant of light skin pigmentation in modern Europe appears fixed in the Anatolian Neolithic, suggesting that its rapid increase in frequency to around 0.9 (90%) in Early Neolithic Europe was mostly due to migration."
4857:
Pagani, Luca; Toomas Kivisild; Ayele Tarekegn; Rosemary Ekong; Chris Plaster; Irene Gallego Romero; Qasim Ayub; S. Qasim Mehdi; Mark G. Thomas; Donata Luiselli; Endashaw Bekele; Neil Bradman; David J. Balding; Chris Tyler-Smith (21 June 2012).
197:
The distribution of light-skinned populations is highly correlated with the low ultraviolet radiation levels of the regions inhabited by them. Historically, light-skinned populations almost exclusively lived far from the equator, in high
3917:
Armas, L. A.; Dowell, S.; Akhter, M.; Duthuluru, S.; Huerter, C.; Hollis, B. W.; Lund, R.; Heaney, R. P.; et al. (2007). "Ultraviolet-B radiation increases serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels: The effect of UVB dose and skin color".
1136:
With the increase of vitamin D synthesis, there is a decreased incidence of conditions that are related to common vitamin D deficiency conditions of people with dark skin pigmentation living in environments of low UV radiation:
302:
indicates that all people who carry this skin-lightening allele descend from a common origin: a single carrier who lived most likely "between the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent". Canfield et al. attempted to date the
3329:
Bagnasco, G.; Marzullo, M.; Cattaneo, C.; Biehler-Gomez, L.; Mazzarelli, D.; Ricciardi, V.; MĂŒller, W.; Coppa, A.; McLaughlin, R.; Motta, L.; Prato, O.; Schmidt, F.; Gaveriaux, F.; Marras, G. B.; Millet, M. A. (28 May 2024).
1064:) make very little melanin in their melanocytes, and have very little or no ability to produce melanin in the stimulus of UV radiation. This can result in frequent sunburns and a more dangerous, but invisible, damage done to
1949:
GĂŒnther, Torsten; Malmström, Helena; Svensson, Emma M.; Omrak, Ayça; SĂĄnchez-Quinto, Federico; Kılınç, GĂŒlĆah M.; KrzewiĆska, Maja; Eriksson, Gunilla; Fraser, Magdalena; Edlund, Hanna; Munters, Arielle R. (9 January 2018).
897:
gene have been positively associated with about 20% of melanin concentration differences between African and non-African populations. One of the alleles of the gene has an 80% occurrence rate in Eurasian populations. The
3493:
Harney, Ăadaoin; May, Hila; Shalem, Dina; Rohland, Nadin; Mallick, Swapan; Lazaridis, Iosif; Sarig, Rachel; Stewardson, Kristin; Nordenfelt, Susanne; Patterson, Nick; Hershkovitz, Israel; Reich, David (20 August 2018).
4718:
Lamason, R. L.; Mohideen, M. A.; Mest, J. R.; Wong, A. C.; Norton, H. L.; Aros, M. C.; Jurynec, M. J.; Mao, X.; et al. (2005). "SLC24A5, a Putative Cation Exchanger, Affects Pigmentation in Zebrafish and Humans".
613:, further discovered that these ancient Egyptian samples instead had a light brown complexion, but carried the main gene for light skin. They stated the results were highly consistent with Schueneman et al's findings.
723:
349:
about 22,000 to 28,000 years ago and these two mutations each arose in a single carrier. This is consistent with Jones et al. (2015), who reconstructed the relationship between Near Eastern Neolithic farmers and
498:
In 2018, a study was released showing many late Mesolithic Scandinavians from 9,500 years ago in Northern Europe had blonde hair and light skin, which was in contrast to some of their contemporaries, the darker
2814:
Pagani, Luca; Kivisild, Toomas; Tarekegn, Ayele; Ekong, Rosemary; Plaster, Chris; Gallego Romero, Irene; Ayub, Qasim; Mehdi, S. Qasim; Thomas, Mark G.; Luiselli, Donata; Bekele, Endashaw (13 July 2012).
265:
After the ancestors of West Eurasians and East Eurasians diverged more than 40,000 years ago, lighter skin tones evolved independently in a subset of each of the two populations. In West Eurasians, the
986:. The concentration of pheomelanin varies highly within populations from individual to individual, but it is more commonly found among lightly pigmented Europeans, East Asians, and Native Americans.
1272:, concluded that the study could not prove the findings but they suspect the underlying cause. Light-coloured skin has been suspected to be one of the contributing factors that promote wrinkling.
2076:
Vieth, Reinhold (2003). "Effects of Vitamin D on bone and natural selection of skin color: How much vitamin D nutrition are we talking about?". In Agarwal, Sabrina C.; Stout, Samuel D. (eds.).
490:, which contributes to light skin pigmentation and is almost fixed in present-day Europeans but occurred at much lower frequency in ancient populations. In contrast, the derived allele of
482:
A study from 2015 found that genes contributing to fair skin were nearly fixed in the Anatolian Neolithic Farmers: "The second strongest signal in our analysis is at the derived allele of
2872:
Lin, Meng; Siford, Rebecca L.; Martin, Alicia R.; Nakagome, Shigeki; Möller, Marlo; Hoal, Eileen G.; Bustamante, Carlos D.; Gignoux, Christopher R.; Henn, Brenna M. (26 December 2018).
683:. Vitamin D production depends on exposure to sunlight. Humans living at latitudes far from the equator developed light skin in order to help absorb more vitamin D. People with light (
1056:
Freckles usually only occur in people with very lightly pigmented skin. They vary from very dark to brown in colour and develop a random pattern on the skin of the individual. Solar
210:
823:
The resistance to cold injury hypothesis claimed that dark skin was selected against in cold climates far from the equator and in higher altitudes as dark skin was more affected by
99:. Due to migrations of people in recent centuries, light-skinned populations today are found all over the world. Light skin is most commonly found amongst the native populations of
1049:
of pheomelanin synthesis, although this contributes to very little variation in skin reflectance between different ethnic groups. Melanocytes from light skin cells cocultured with
811:." Additionally, in the spring, Inuit would receive high levels of UV radiation as reflection from the snow, and their relatively darker skin then protects them from the sunlight.
4159:
Bergman, Ingela; Olofsson, Anders; Hörnberg, Greger; Zackrissen, Olle; Hellberg, Erik (June 2004). "Deglaciation and colonization: Pioneer settlements in northern Fennoscandia".
1080:. The strongly red appearance of lightly pigmented skin as a response to high UV radiation levels is caused by the increased diameter, number, and blood flow of the capillaries.
4008:
J.; Grunwald, D. J.; Shriver, M. D.; Canfield, V. A.; Cheng, K. C.; et al. (2005). "SLC24A5, a putative cation exchanger, affects pigmentation in zebrafish and humans".
190:. These two observations form the "vitamin Dâfolate hypothesis", which attempts to explain why populations that migrated away from the tropics into areas of low UV radiation
698:
and her husband George Chaplin collected spectrometer data to measure UV radiation levels around the world and compared it to published information on the skin colour of
2154:
4223:
Van deer Meer; Boeke, A. J.; Lips, P.; Grootjans-Geerts, I.; Wuister, J. D.; Devillé, W. L.; Wielders, J. P.; Bouter, L. M.; Middelkoop, B. J.; et al. (2007).
5133:
3920:
4692:
404:
gene linked with light pigmentation in Europeans was introduced into East Africa from Europe over five thousand years ago. These alleles can now be found in the
4679:
4907:
Tekola-Ayele, Fasil; Adeyemo, Adebowale; Chen, Guanjie; Hailu, Elena; Aseffa, Abraham; Davey, Gail; Newport, Melanie J.; Rotimi, Charles N. (23 August 2015).
4118:
Norton, H. L.; Kittles, R. A.; Parra, E.; McKeigue, P.; Mao, X.; Cheng, K.; Canfield, V. A.; Bradley, D. G.; McEvoy, B.; Shriver, M. D.; et al. (2007).
2477:
Nino; Higham, Thomas F. G.; Currat, Mathias; Lordkipanidze, David; Hofreiter, Michael; Manica, Andrea; Pinhasi, Ron; Bradley, Daniel G. (16 November 2015).
2064:
carried few of the light pigmentation alleles that are segregating in present-day Europe, they may have carried different alleles that we cannot now detect.
1169:. When exposed to UVB, the entire exposed area of body's skin of a relatively light skinned person is able to produce between 10 and 20000 IU of vitamin D.
4196:
5558:
Nielsen, K.P.; et al. (2006a). "The importance of the depth distribution of melanin in skin for DNA protection and other photobiological processes".
5101:
2964:
5057:
Thong, H.Y.; et al. (2003). "The patterns of melanosome distribution in keratinocytes of human skin as one determining factor of skin colour".
3641:
307:
mutation but only constrained the age range to before the Neolithic. However, a second study from the same year (Basu Mallick et al.) estimated the
5022:
Haass, Nikolas K.; Smalley, Keiran S. M.; Li, Ling; Herlyn, Meenhard (2005). "Adhesion, migration and communication in melanocytes and melanoma".
2313:
Canfield, Victor A.; Berg, Arthur; Peckins, Steven; Wentzel, Steven M.; Ang, Khai Chung; Oppenheimer, Stephen; Cheng, Keith C. (1 November 2013).
982:. Humans with naturally occurring light skin have varied amounts of smaller and sparsely distributed eumelanin and its lighter-coloured relative,
3332:"Bioarchaeology aids the cultural understanding of six characters in search of their agency (Tarquinia, ninthâseventh century BC, central Italy)"
936:
The derived Ala111Thr allele in the SLC24A5 gene locus known to be associated with lighter skin pigmentation was in top selection signals in the
569:. It indicated evidence of a more northerly origin for this population, possibly indicating an influx from the region of northeastern Anatolia.
4225:"Fatty fish and supplement are the greatest modifiable contributors to the serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration in a multiethnic population"
2115:
3783:
131:" although these usages can be ambiguous in some countries where they are used to refer specifically to certain ethnic groups or populations.
5754:
4296:
2093:
1408:
146:
pigmentation. Light skin provides better absorption qualities of ultraviolet radiation, which helps the body to synthesize higher amounts of
518:
population are believed to have also contributed to the skin and hair pigmentation in Europe, having a dominant effect on the phenotypes of
445:
gene is responsible for lighter skin colour. The modern association between skin tone and latitude is thus a relatively recent development.
2940:
279:
1189:
Light-skinned people living in high sunlight environments are more susceptible to the harmful UV rays of sunlight because of the lack of
1029:). Up to 50% of UVA can penetrate deeply into the dermis in persons with light skin pigmentation with little protective melanin pigment.
5866:
5482:
5397:
5378:
4770:
Gibbons, A. (2007). "AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGISTS MEETING: European Skin Turned Pale Only Recently, Gene Suggests".
5301:
Alaluf, S.; et al. (2002). "Ethnic variation in melanin content and composition in photo exposed and photo protected human sjin".
4609:
4573:
4556:
4311:
1588:
643:
5111:
1607:
1316:
529:
from 3,000-2,700 years ago showed a population with blue-eyes, light to dark brown hair, and pale white to intermediate skin tones.
4631:
Miller, Craig T.; Beleza, Sandra; Pollen, Alex A.; Schluter, Dolph; Kittles, Rick A.; Shriver, Mark D.; Kingsley, David M. (2007).
1635:
2668:
1468:"Skin color of Chinese women across different regions of China: An analysis based on both individual typology angle and hue angle"
554:
3669:"Genomic Analyses of Pre-European Conquest Human Remains from the Canary Islands Reveal Close Affinity to Modern North Africans"
3140:"Population genomics of Mesolithic Scandinavia: Investigating early postglacial migration routes and high-latitude adaptation"
1952:"Population genomics of Mesolithic Scandinavia: Investigating early postglacial migration routes and high-latitude adaptation"
754:
However, dietary factors may allow vitamin D sufficiency even in dark skinned populations. Many indigenous populations across
507:(EHG), Scandinavian Hunter Gatherers (SHG), and the Baltic foragers, all had the derived alleles for light skin pigmentation.
283:
has the largest skin lightening effect and is widespread in Europe, South Asia, Central Asia, the Near East and North Africa.
5843:
274:
5215:
Sturm, R.A.; et al. (2003). "Genetic association and cellular function of MC1R variant alleles in human pigmentation".
1882:"The Vitamin Dâ»Folate Hypothesis as an Evolutionary Model for Skin Pigmentation: An Update and Integration of Current Ideas"
5834:
5790:
4835:
254:
were also dark-skinned. It is widely supposed that light skin pigmentation developed due to the importance of maintaining
1436:
1009:
of the dermis. The colour associated with the circulating haemoglobin becomes more obvious, especially in the face, when
902:
gene has a 75â80% variation rate among Eurasian populations compared to 20â25% in African populations. Variations in the
2319:
1388:
250:. This accounts for the dark skin pigmentation of Homo sapiens during their development in Africa; the major migrations
223:
4469:
Frost, P. (1988). "Human skin color: a possible relationship between its sexual dimorphism and its social perception".
1931:
5819:
5420:
Fitzpatrick, T. B.; Ortonne, J. P. (2003). "Normal skin color and general considerations of pigmentary disorders".
4633:"cis-Regulatory Changes in Kit Ligand Expression and Parallel Evolution of Pigmentation in Sticklebacks and Humans"
3839:
1236:
do not close before birth. The peak of neural tube defect occurrences is the highest in the MayâJune period in the
1018:
706:
3717:"Ancient genomes from North Africa evidence prehistoric migrations to the Maghreb from both the Levant and Europe"
5892:
5747:
4860:"Ethiopian Genetic Diversity Reveals Linguistic Stratification and Complex Influences on the Ethiopian Gene Pool"
2817:"Ethiopian genetic diversity reveals linguistic stratification and complex influences on the Ethiopian gene pool"
993:
For people with very light skin, the skin gets most of its colour from the bluish-white connective tissue in the
35:
871:
393:
351:
4512:
Aoki, K. (2002). "Sexual selection as a cause of human skin colour variation: Darwin's hypothesis revisited".
4224:
1216:. Folate deficiency in pregnant women can be detrimental to the health of their newborn babies in the form of
1193:
produced in the skin. The most common risk that comes with high exposure to sunlight is the increased risk of
1060:, the other types of freckles, occur among old people regardless of skin colour. People with very light skin (
5480:
Matsumura, Yasuhiro; Ananthawamy, Honnavara N. (2004). "Toxic effects of ultraviolet radiation in the skin".
4342:
Post; Daniels Jr, F; Binford Jr, R. T.; et al. (1975). "Cold injury and the evolution of "white" skin".
1269:
606:
504:
500:
150:
for bodily processes such as calcium development. On the other hand, light-skinned people who live near the
5379:"Sun-induced freckles in children and young adults: a correlation of clinical and histopathologic features"
663:
In the 1960s, biochemist W. Farnsworth Loomis suggested that skin colour is related to the body's need for
3586:"Ancient Egyptian mummy genomes suggest an increase of Sub-Saharan African ancestry in post-Roman periods"
511:
382:
378:
191:
5686:
1665:
751:
have very low concentrations of ultraviolet radiation, and indigenous populations are all light-skinned.
3496:"Ancient DNA from Chalcolithic Israel reveals the role of population mixture in cultural transformation"
2152:
Kimball, Samantha; Fuleihan, Ghada El-Hajj; Vieth, Reinhold (2008). "Vitamin D: A growing perspective".
550:
437:
5740:
5224:
5156:
4728:
4071:
4017:
3848:
3728:
3597:
3507:
3409:
3343:
3277:
3211:
3085:
3025:
2885:
2618:
2490:
2026:
1812:
1213:
1198:
543:
539:
374:
4314:
Department of Physics: The Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences By Johan Moan, Asta Juzeniene
572:
A study on the populations of the Chalcolithic Levant (6,000-7,000 years ago), found that an allele
5887:
5650:
5519:"Mechanisms of skin tanning in different racial/ethnic groups in response to ultraviolet radiation"
5147:
Szabo, G.; et al. (1969). "Racial differences in the fate of melanosomes in human epidermis".
4813:
2965:"Dissecting dynamics and differences of selective pressures in the evolution of human pigmentation"
1853:
Relethford, JH (2000). "Human skin color diversity is highest in sub-Saharan African populations".
1237:
842:
The supposition that dark skin evolved in the absence of selective pressure was put forward by the
739:
388:
A further wave of lighter-skinned populations across Europe (and elsewhere) is associated with the
2373:
Mirazon-Lahr, Marta; Thangaraj, Kumarasamy; Villems, Richard; Kivisild, Toomas (7 November 2013).
846:
hypothesis. The main factor initiating the development of light skin was seen as a consequence of
651:
635:
mutation and other alleles and genes that predispose individuals to lighter skin and eye colours.
5774:
5338:"Keratinocytes Play a Role in Regulating Distribution Patterns of Recipient Melanosomes in Vitro"
5248:
5180:
5082:
4795:
4752:
4537:
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4451:
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4176:
4095:
4041:
3814:
3559:
2950:
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2187:
1311:
1217:
851:
831:
to extreme cold climates has actually more to do with other aspects, such as the distribution of
699:
598:
425:
259:
251:
597:
locus, which contributes to lighter skin pigmentation, and was shown to be at high frequency in
182:
may have lower vitamin D levels, which can also lead to health complications, both physical and
3882:
Webb, A. R. (2006). "Who, what, where, and when: influences on cutaneous vitamin D synthesis".
1501:"Comparison of skin color between two Asian populations: according to latitude and UV exposure"
1268:
because white women are more susceptible to sun damage throughout life. Dr. Hugh S. Taylor, of
337:
Summarising these studies, Hanel and Carlberg (2020) decided that the alleles of the two genes
330:. From its low haplotype diversity, Yuasa et al. (2006) likewise concluded that this mutation (
5814:
5667:
5624:
5575:
5540:
5499:
5462:
5402:
5359:
5318:
5283:
5240:
5172:
5127:
5107:
5074:
5039:
5004:
4986:
4946:
4928:
4889:
4787:
4744:
4662:
4613:
4578:
4529:
4486:
4378:
4351:
4292:
4252:
4205:
4141:
4087:
4062:
4033:
3986:
3937:
3899:
3864:
3806:
3764:
3746:
3696:
3688:
3623:
3541:
3523:
3475:
3435:
3377:
3359:
3311:
3293:
3245:
3227:
3179:
3161:
3119:
3101:
3053:
2994:
2921:
2903:
2854:
2836:
2796:
2778:
2739:
2721:
2646:
2582:
2564:
2524:
2506:
2458:
2450:
2414:
2396:
2354:
2336:
2288:
2235:
2179:
2171:
2134:
2089:
2054:
1991:
1973:
1913:
1862:
1830:
1781:
1732:
1714:
1584:
1559:
1520:
1404:
1260:, which confers the strength of the skin. It has been postulated that white women may develop
1209:
1084:
1065:
1061:
1014:
832:
803:
688:
684:
433:
421:
314:
The second most important skin-lightening factor in West Eurasians is the depigmenting allele
308:
243:
1124:
Humans with light skin pigmentation living in low sunlight environments experience increased
774:
contain large amounts of vitamin D which the reindeer get from eating substantial amounts of
687:) skin can produce previtamin D3 in their skin at rates 5â10 times faster than dark-skinned (
624:
were showing consistent traits such as light and medium skin, with dark hair and brown eyes.
5763:
5659:
5614:
5606:
5567:
5530:
5491:
5452:
5392:
5383:
5349:
5310:
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5232:
5164:
5066:
5031:
4994:
4978:
4936:
4920:
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4871:
4779:
4736:
4652:
4644:
4605:
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4521:
4478:
4443:
4408:
4244:
4236:
4168:
4131:
4079:
4025:
3976:
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3891:
3856:
3798:
3754:
3736:
3680:
3613:
3605:
3531:
3515:
3467:
3425:
3417:
3367:
3351:
3301:
3285:
3235:
3219:
3169:
3151:
3109:
3093:
3043:
3033:
2984:
2976:
2911:
2893:
2844:
2828:
2786:
2770:
2729:
2713:
2636:
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2572:
2556:
2514:
2498:
2442:
2404:
2386:
2344:
2328:
2284:
2280:
2225:
2163:
2124:
2081:
2044:
2034:
1981:
1963:
1903:
1893:
1820:
1771:
1763:
1722:
1704:
1639:
1551:
1512:
1479:
1396:
1229:
1092:
1045:
975:
855:
847:
602:
461:
429:
124:
88:
5279:
2375:"The Light Skin Allele of SLC24A5 in South Asians and Europeans Shares Identity by Descent"
5593:
Cui, Xiaoying; McGrath, John J.; Burne, Thomas H. J.; Eyles, Darryl W. (26 January 2021).
4120:"Genetic evidence for the convergent evolution of light skin in Europeans and East Asians"
1249:
1241:
1073:
914:
860:
755:
728:
590:
519:
389:
183:
1500:
5663:
5228:
5160:
4966:
4732:
4075:
4021:
3852:
3732:
3601:
3511:
3413:
3372:
3347:
3331:
3281:
3240:
3215:
3199:
3089:
3029:
2889:
2622:
2494:
2315:"Molecular Phylogeography of a Human Autosomal Skin Color Locus Under Natural Selection"
2030:
1816:
381:
spread Neolithic farming across Europe. Lighter skin and blond hair also evolved in the
5619:
5594:
5236:
4999:
4941:
4884:
4859:
4657:
4632:
3981:
3956:
3759:
3716:
3618:
3585:
3536:
3495:
3306:
3265:
3174:
3139:
3114:
3073:
3048:
3013:
2989:
2916:
2873:
2849:
2816:
2791:
2758:
2734:
2701:
2641:
2606:
2577:
2544:
2519:
2478:
2409:
2374:
2349:
2314:
2268:
2049:
2014:
2001:
eyes and dark skin and EHGs-who have been suggested to be brown-eyed and light-skinned.
1986:
1951:
1908:
1881:
1776:
1751:
1727:
1692:
1540:"Objective measurement and comparison of human facial skin color in East Asian females"
1296:
937:
918:
695:
628:
621:
610:
4967:"Genetic Signatures Reveal High-Altitude Adaptation in a Set of Ethiopian Populations"
3802:
3200:"Genomic ancestry and social dynamics of the last hunter-gatherers of Atlantic France"
5881:
5571:
5535:
5518:
5354:
5337:
5314:
5199:
5070:
5035:
4420:
4240:
4180:
3895:
2446:
2247:
1245:
1154:
1022:
808:
759:
345:
which are most associated with lighter skin colour in modern Europeans originated in
187:
5086:
4799:
4541:
4498:
4455:
4324:
4264:
4099:
3818:
3782:
Clements, T. L.; Adams, J. S.; Henderson, S. L.; Holick, M. F.; et al. (1982).
2191:
5848:
5824:
5252:
5184:
4756:
4045:
1619:
1233:
1225:
1158:
1150:
1142:
1050:
926:
779:
735:
235:
167:
128:
120:
112:
5714:
4783:
1697:
American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology
4596:
Chaplin, G.; Jablonski, N. (1998). "Hemisphere differences in human skin color".
4194:
Bjorn, L. O.; Wang, T; et al. (2000). "Vitamin D in an ecological context".
3957:"Factors that influence the cutaneous synthesis and dietary sources of vitamin D"
3156:
2391:
1968:
1578:
1400:
1336:
1095:. Heavy tanning does not approach the photoprotective effect against UVR-induced
1040:
is associated with high amount of pheomelanin, little amounts of eumelanin. This
679:
which is essential for building and maintaining bones, especially for developing
5103:
Skin Stress Response Pathways: Environmental Factors and Molecular Opportunities
4525:
3837:
Jablonski, N. G.; Chaplin, G. (2000). "The evolution of human skin coloration".
2085:
1484:
1467:
1291:
1221:
1202:
1182:
1088:
1077:
1006:
998:
983:
836:
744:
711:
525:
Bagnasco, G et al. (2024), discovered that the phenotypic traits for a group of
262:
would be expected for the evolution of light skin in areas of low UV radiation.
175:
96:
44:
5610:
5495:
5398:
10.1002/1097-0142(19910401)67:7<1990::aid-cncr2820670728>3.0.co;2-p
4875:
4648:
4412:
3933:
3721:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3519:
3355:
3289:
2878:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2832:
2611:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1767:
1709:
5853:
5786:
4369:
Steegman, A.T. Jr (1967). "Frostbite of the human face as a selective force".
4172:
3972:
3684:
3455:
2167:
1444:
1286:
1113:
1096:
1057:
979:
971:
963:
952:
930:
672:
668:
515:
409:
405:
255:
247:
163:
162:
depletion. As a consequence of folate depletion, they are at a higher risk of
139:
65:
55:
5043:
4990:
4932:
3784:"Increased skin pigment reduces the capacity of skin to synthesize vitamin D"
3750:
3692:
3527:
3479:
3439:
3397:
3363:
3297:
3231:
3165:
3105:
2907:
2840:
2782:
2725:
2568:
2510:
2454:
2400:
2340:
2292:
2175:
1977:
1718:
627:
A paper conducted by Fregel, Rosa et al. (2018) showed that in North Africa,
5800:
4982:
4908:
4740:
4136:
4119:
4083:
4029:
3741:
3668:
3223:
3038:
2898:
2717:
2631:
2560:
2039:
1935:
1539:
1281:
1265:
1162:
1161:, which helps to defend humans' bodies against fungal, bacterial, and viral
1125:
1100:
1041:
1037:
1010:
959:
922:
883:
824:
664:
526:
413:
346:
291:
239:
231:
147:
143:
135:
108:
104:
92:
17:
5671:
5628:
5579:
5544:
5503:
5466:
5363:
5322:
5287:
5244:
5078:
5008:
4950:
4893:
4791:
4748:
4666:
4533:
4399:
Kittles, R. (1995). "Nature, origin, and variation of human pigmentation".
4256:
4209:
4145:
4091:
4037:
3990:
3941:
3903:
3868:
3860:
3768:
3700:
3627:
3545:
3381:
3315:
3249:
3183:
3123:
3057:
2998:
2925:
2858:
2800:
2757:
Feng, Yuanqing; McQuillan, Michael A.; Tishkoff, Sarah A. (26 April 2021).
2743:
2650:
2586:
2528:
2462:
2418:
2358:
2239:
2183:
2138:
2058:
1995:
1917:
1866:
1834:
1785:
1736:
1563:
1524:
5406:
5176:
4924:
4617:
4610:
10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199810)107:2<221::AID-AJPA8>3.0.CO;2-X
4582:
4574:
10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199712)104:4<449::AID-AJPA2>3.0.CO;2-N
4490:
4482:
4382:
4355:
3810:
2774:
2702:"Loci associated with skin pigmentation identified in African populations"
2545:"Loci associated with skin pigmentation identified in African populations"
2332:
2129:
2110:
1157:), and immune system malfunctioning. Vitamin D promotes the production of
294:, one of which (C11) is shared by virtually all chromosomes that bear the
3014:"The evolution of skin pigmentation-associated variation in West Eurasia"
2874:"Rapid evolution of a skin-lightening allele in southern African KhoeSan"
2669:"Genetic study provides novel insights into the evolution of skin colour"
2015:"The evolution of skin pigmentation-associated variation in West Eurasia"
1306:
1033:
967:
955:
763:
656:
617:
557:, Jordan had both of the major derived 'European' depigmentation alleles
370:
199:
155:
69:
3609:
3471:
3097:
1750:
Cui, Xiaoying; J. McGrath, John; H. J. Burne, Thomas (26 January 2021).
5829:
5691:
3421:
2980:
2502:
2109:
Hatchcock, J. N.; Shao, A.; Vieth, R.; Heaney, R.; et al. (2007).
1898:
1516:
1261:
1194:
1190:
1138:
1091:
is usually delayed as it takes time for the melanins to move up in the
1087:) are able to produce melanin in their skin in response to UVR. Normal
948:
904:
795:
791:
787:
748:
676:
616:
In the same year, according to phenotype SNP analysis, the precolonial
323:
311:(split date) for this allele to between ~28,000 and ~22,000 years ago.
179:
151:
116:
73:
5168:
4909:"Novel genomic signals of recent selection in an Ethiopian population"
4248:
3456:"Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East"
3430:
2230:
2213:
1555:
4682:. Hapmap.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov (19 October 2009). Retrieved on 2011-02-27.
3560:"DNA analysis of 6,500-year-old human remains with blue eye mutation"
1257:
1146:
994:
910:
887:
775:
680:
675:
from it. A certain amount of vitamin D helps the body to absorb more
215:
171:
159:
100:
76:(Bottom), are examples of people around the world who have light skin
5457:
5440:
1825:
1800:
1177:
5732:
4447:
2759:"Evolutionary genetics of skin pigmentation in African populations"
2080:. New York City: Kluwer Academic / Plenum Press. pp. 139â154.
1605:"belonging to or denoting a human group having light-coloured skin"
913:, but is found across the globe, particularly among populations in
835:
and distribution of fat, and with the responsiveness of peripheral
5838:
5794:
3584:
Schuenemann, Verena; Krause, Johannes; et al. (30 May 2017).
3398:"Upper Palaeolithic genomes reveal deep roots of modern Eurasians"
2479:"Upper Palaeolithic genomes reveal deep roots of modern Eurasians"
1387:
Jablonski, Nina G. (29 July 2010), Muehlenbein, Michael P. (ed.),
1301:
1053:
give rise to a distribution pattern characteristic of light skin.
1026:
1002:
978:. Melanin is produced inside small membrane-bound packages called
854:. The subsequent spread of light skin was thought to be caused by
783:
722:
705:
650:
209:
134:
Humans with light skin pigmentation have skin with low amounts of
4291:. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press.
2941:"Genes responsible for diversity of human skin colors identified"
1244:
in dividing cells and deficiency can lead to failures of normal
1212:
within the body, where the overexposure to UV light can lead to
828:
767:
219:
127:. People with light skin pigmentation are often referred to as "
5736:
1013:
dilate and become tumefied with blood as a result of prolonged
605:(2021) based on this data from Schuenemann et al. (2017) using
2271:(October 2004). "The evolution of human skin and skin color".
1166:
1069:
966:. Eumelanin protects tissues and DNA from radiation damage by
771:
4325:"Human Biological Adaptability: Skin Color as an Adaptation"
3074:"Genome-wide patterns of selection in 230 ancient Eurasians"
2694:
2692:
2690:
1395:(1 ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 192â213,
642:
5648:
Djukic, A. (2007). "Folate-resposive neurologic diseases".
667:. The major positive effect of UV radiation in land-living
2078:
Bone loss and osteoporosis: An anthropological perspective
1693:"The vitamin D-folate hypothesis in human vascular health"
1603:
Oxford Dictionaries. April 2010. Oxford University Press.
1441:
Human Biological Adaptability: Skin Color as an Adaptation
839:
to differences in temperature, and not with pigmentation.
593:
from 2,590-2,023 years ago, had a derived variant for the
373:
by 9,000 years ago, where they became associated with the
354:: two populations which carried the light skin variant of
4434:
Brace, C.L. (1963). "Structural reduction in evolution".
3642:"Parabon Recreates Egyptian Mummy Faces from Ancient DNA"
1962:(1). From supporting information document S8, page 5/28.
4814:"Graphical display of Allele Frequencies for Ala111Thr"
1880:
Jones, P.; Lucock, M.; Veysey, M.; Beckett, E. (2018).
1472:
Journal of Dermatologic Science and Cosmetic Technology
5266:
Rees, J.L. (2003). "Genetics of hair and skin color".
1638:. American Anthropological Association. Archived from
334:) "occurred only once in the ancestry of Caucasians".
5560:
Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology
790:), retained their dark skin; they ate Vitamin D-rich
222:
geographic extension). European populations like the
95:
pigmentation as an adaptation to environments of low
1691:
Wolf, S. Tony; Kenney, W. Larry (1 September 2019).
601:, accordant with the sample's ancestral affinities.
178:. Humans with darker skin who live further from the
420:in Ethiopia maintains a substantial frequency with
5106:, Springer International Publishing, p. 159,
4699:. US National Center for Biotechnology Information
1855:Human Biology; an International Record of Research
970:. Melanin is produced in specialized cells called
639:Geographic distribution; ultraviolet and vitamin D
286:In a 2013 study, Canfield et al. established that
3266:"The genetic prehistory of the Baltic Sea region"
1848:
1846:
1844:
5422:In Fitzpatrick's Dermatology in General Medicine
2155:Critical Reviews in Clinical Laboratory Sciences
1703:(3). American Physiological Society: R491âR501.
589:A research paper in 2017 indicated Egyptians at
559:(AA, SLC45A2: rs16891982 and SLC24A5: rs1426654)
396:bearing Ancient North Eurasian ancestry and the
5441:"UV damage, DNA repair and skin carcinogenesis"
5204:. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
4836:"ALFRED â Polymorphism Information â Ala111Thr"
3204:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
465:intermediate (40â60%) in Ethiopia and Somalia.
252:out of Africa to colonize the rest of the world
4870:(1): Volume 91, Issue 1, 83â96, 21 June 2012.
3921:Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology
2207:
2205:
2203:
2201:
5748:
5687:"White women's skin may show wrinkles sooner"
974:, which are found in the lowest level of the
8:
3884:Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology
2947:(Press release). University of Pennsylvania.
2939:Baillie, Katherine Unger (12 October 2017).
1666:"The Biology of Skin Color: Black and White"
1583:. Mayfield Publishing Company. p. 270.
1072:underlying the skin. This can contribute to
416:populations with Afro-Asiatic ancestry. The
298:variant. This "equivalence" between C11 and
4557:"Hemisphere difference in human skin color"
4197:International Journal of Circumpolar Health
4113:
4111:
4109:
1624:"marked by slight pigmentation of the skin"
5755:
5741:
5733:
5595:"Vitamin D and schizophrenia: 20 years on"
5217:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
5132:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
4060:varying pigmentation among Neanderthals".
2675:(Press release). University College London
2607:"Maritime route of colonization of Europe"
1752:"Vitamin D and schizophrenia: 20 years on"
5618:
5534:
5456:
5396:
5353:
4998:
4940:
4883:
4656:
4598:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
4572:
4561:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
4282:
4280:
4278:
4276:
4274:
4135:
3980:
3832:
3830:
3828:
3758:
3740:
3617:
3535:
3429:
3371:
3305:
3239:
3173:
3155:
3113:
3047:
3037:
2988:
2915:
2897:
2848:
2790:
2733:
2640:
2630:
2576:
2518:
2408:
2390:
2348:
2263:
2261:
2259:
2257:
2229:
2212:Hanel, Andrea; Carlberg, Carsten (2020).
2128:
2048:
2038:
1985:
1967:
1907:
1897:
1824:
1775:
1726:
1708:
1483:
962:is the dominant form of melanin found in
827:. It has been found that reaction of the
542:, with its origin probably predating the
186:, including a greater risk of developing
4913:European journal of human genetics: EJHG
2662:
2660:
1430:
1428:
1426:
1382:
1380:
1378:
1376:
1374:
1176:
870:
581:markers associated with blue-eye color.
400:allele for blond hair. Furthermore, the
4394:
4392:
4002:
4000:
3961:Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics
2285:10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143955
1580:Fundamentals of Biological Anthropology
1372:
1370:
1368:
1366:
1364:
1362:
1360:
1358:
1356:
1354:
1328:
1083:People with moderately pigmented skin (
5280:10.1146/annurev.genet.37.110801.143233
5125:
2214:"Skin colour and vitamin D: An update"
2116:American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
1659:
1657:
1181:Fatal neural tube defect with evident
460:gene predominates in populations with
234:as a protection against the effect of
2308:
2306:
2304:
2302:
7:
5523:Journal of Investigative Dermatology
5439:Cleaver, J. E.; Crowely, E. (2002).
5342:Journal of Investigative Dermatology
4471:Perspectives in Biology and Medicine
561:, while another only had one of the
428:speaking populations, compared with
202:areas with low sunlight intensity.
5867:Pre-modern conceptions of whiteness
5664:10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2007.09.001
5483:Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology
5377:Rhodes, A. R.; et al. (1991).
2667:Downes, Natasha (21 January 2019).
1801:"Human migrations: Eastern odyssey"
5517:Tadokoro, T.; et al. (2005).
5237:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2003.tb03199.x
4864:American Journal of Human Genetics
2821:American Journal of Human Genetics
1932:"Modern human variation: overview"
1208:Another health implication is the
719:Polar regions, vitamin D, and diet
631:had the European/Caucasus derived
25:
5336:Minwala, S.; et al. (2001).
3955:Chen, T. C.; et al. (2007).
1317:Discrimination based on skin tone
214:History of human pigmentation in
194:to have light skin pigmentation.
5685:Norton, Amy (10 November 2010).
5572:10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2005.11.008
5536:10.1111/j.0022-202X.2005.23760.x
5355:10.1046/j.0022-202x.2001.01411.x
5315:10.1034/j.1600-0749.2002.1o071.x
5071:10.1046/j.1365-2133.2003.05473.x
5036:10.1111/j.1600-0749.2005.00235.x
4241:10.1111/j.1365-2265.2007.03066.x
3896:10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2006.02.004
3012:Ju, Dan; Mathieson, Ian (2021).
2447:10.1111/j.1469-1809.2006.00261.x
2013:Ju, Dan; Mathieson, Ian (2021).
1099:compared to naturally occurring
54:
43:
34:
4971:Molecular Biology and Evolution
4680:HapMap: SNP report for rs642742
4124:Molecular Biology and Evolution
2111:"Risk assessment for vitamin D"
1505:Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology
1032:The combination of light skin,
258:production in the skin. Strong
5059:British Journal of Dermatology
1499:Cho, Changhui (January 2015).
1264:faster than black women after
1228:, a birth defect in which the
1173:Disadvantages in high sunlight
794:, such as fish and sea mammal
230:It is generally accepted that
158:, are at an increased risk of
1:
4784:10.1126/science.316.5823.364a
3803:10.1016/S0140-6736(82)90214-8
2273:Annual Review of Anthropology
770:. Reindeer meat, organs, and
671:is the ability to synthesize
647:Skin reflectance vs. latitude
224:Scandinavian Hunter-Gatherers
4697:International HapMap project
3157:10.1371/journal.pbio.2003703
2392:10.1371/journal.pgen.1003912
2320:G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics
1969:10.1371/journal.pbio.2003703
1544:Skin Research and Technology
1401:10.1017/cbo9780511781193.016
1201:, which is a common form of
322:polymorphism located in the
4838:. Allele Frequency Database
4816:. Allele Frequency Database
4526:10.1080/0301446021000019144
4161:Journal of World Prehistory
2086:10.1007/978-1-4419-8891-1_9
1485:10.1016/j.jdsct.2024.100003
361:The light skin variants of
5909:
5820:Color terminology for race
5611:10.1038/s41380-021-01025-0
5496:10.1016/j.taap.2003.08.019
4876:10.1016/j.ajhg.2012.05.015
4693:"SNP report for rs2424984"
4649:10.1016/j.cell.2007.10.055
4413:10.1177/002193479502600104
3934:10.1016/j.jaad.2007.03.004
3840:Journal of Human Evolution
3520:10.1038/s41467-018-05649-9
3356:10.1038/s41598-024-61052-z
3290:10.1038/s41467-018-02825-9
2833:10.1016/j.ajhg.2012.05.015
1768:10.1038/s41380-021-01025-0
1710:10.1152/ajpregu.00136.2019
1393:Human Evolutionary Biology
1120:Advantages in low sunlight
1019:sympathetic nervous system
154:, where there is abundant
5862:
5810:
5770:
5268:Annual Review of Genetics
4555:Relethford, J.H. (1997).
4173:10.1007/s10963-004-2880-z
3973:10.1016/j.abb.2006.12.017
3685:10.1016/j.cub.2017.09.059
2168:10.1080/10408360802165295
1799:Appenzeller, Tim (2012).
1610:(accessed 6 August 2012).
1577:Relethford, John (1997).
1443:. Palomar. Archived from
1116:among the light-skinned.
1005:cells circulating in the
352:Caucasus Hunter-Gatherers
277:in the pigmentation gene
5198:Jablonski, N.G. (2006).
4401:Journal of Black Studies
4287:Jablonski, Nina (2012).
3646:www.parabon-nanolabs.com
2763:Human Molecular Genetics
2435:Annals of Human Genetics
2218:Experimental Dermatology
850:without an evolutionary
844:probable mutation effect
766:, which they follow and
694:In 1998, anthropologist
629:Late Neolithic Moroccans
505:Eastern Hunter Gatherers
501:Western Hunter Gatherers
394:Indo-European migrations
170:, and numerous types of
91:that has a low level of
5445:Frontiers in Bioscience
5201:Skin: a Natural History
5100:Wondrak, Georg (2016),
4741:10.1126/science.1116238
4514:Annals of Human Biology
4312:Why Skin Colours Differ
4084:10.1126/science.1147417
4030:10.1126/science.1116238
3742:10.1073/pnas.1800851115
3224:10.1073/pnas.2310545121
3039:10.1073/pnas.2009227118
2899:10.1073/pnas.1801948115
2718:10.1126/science.aan8433
2632:10.1073/pnas.1320811111
2561:10.1126/science.aan8433
2040:10.1073/pnas.2009227118
1466:Hou, Sen (March 2024).
1437:"Skin Color Adaptation"
1339:. thefreedictionary.com
1270:Yale School of Medicine
1240:. Folate is needed for
951:is a derivative of the
607:whole genome sequencing
549:An individual from the
4229:Clinical Endocrinology
3861:10.1006/jhev.2000.0403
1186:
1017:or stimulation of the
890:
804:selected for by nature
732:
715:
660:
648:
512:Western Steppe Herders
383:Ancient North Eurasian
242:protects against both
227:
64:Ethnic groups such as
5303:Pigment Cell Research
5024:Pigment Cell Research
4983:10.1093/molbev/mst089
4925:10.1038/ejhg.2014.233
4483:10.1353/pbm.1988.0010
4137:10.1093/molbev/msl203
3590:Nature Communications
3500:Nature Communications
3402:Nature Communications
3270:Nature Communications
2483:Nature Communications
2333:10.1534/g3.113.007484
1620:Dictionary.com: white
1538:Wu, Yue (July 2020).
1180:
874:
778:. Some people of the
762:survive by consuming
726:
709:
654:
646:
551:Pre-Pottery Neolithic
538:frequency during the
213:
4727:(5755): 1782â17886.
3679:(21): 3396â3402.e5.
1642:on 14 September 2018
1214:megaloblastic anemia
1199:basal cell carcinoma
867:Genetic associations
565:ancestral genotypes
544:Last Glacial Maximum
375:Neolithic Revolution
138:, and possess fewer
123:as measured through
5651:Pediatric Neurology
5229:2003NYASA.994..348S
5161:1969Natur.222.1081S
5155:(5198): 1081â1082.
4733:2005Sci...310.1782L
4436:American Naturalist
4076:2007Sci...318.1453L
4070:(5855): 1453â1455.
4022:2005Sci...310.1782L
4016:(5755): 1782â1786.
3853:2000JHumE..39...57J
3733:2018PNAS..115.6774F
3673:Current biology: CB
3610:10.1038/ncomms15694
3602:2017NatCo...815694S
3512:2018NatCo...9.3336H
3472:10.1038/nature19310
3414:2015NatCo...6.8912J
3348:2024NatSR..1411895B
3282:2018NatCo...9..442M
3216:2024PNAS..12110545S
3210:(10): e2310545121.
3098:10.1038/nature16152
3090:2015Natur.528..499M
3030:2021PNAS..11809227J
2963:Huang, Xin (2021).
2890:2018PNAS..11513324L
2884:(52): 13324â13329.
2775:10.1093/hmg/ddab007
2623:2014PNAS..111.9211P
2495:2015NatCo...6.8912J
2130:10.1093/ajcn/85.1.6
2031:2021PNAS..11809227J
1938:on 5 November 2012.
1817:2012Natur.485...24A
1447:on 18 December 2012
1238:Northern Hemisphere
1218:neural tube defects
1210:depletion of folate
1107:Health implications
740:Northern Hemisphere
620:inhabitants of the
540:Neolithic expansion
469:Ancient Populations
377:. From here, their
290:sits in a block of
5451:(1â3): 1024â1043.
3422:10.1038/ncomms9912
3336:Scientific Reports
3024:(1): e2009227118.
2981:10.1242/bio.056523
2712:(6365): eaan8433.
2503:10.1038/ncomms9912
2269:Jablonski, Nina G.
2025:(1): e2009227118.
1899:10.3390/nu10050554
1664:Kirchweger, Gina.
1517:10.1111/jocd.12130
1312:Albinism in humans
1187:
893:Variations in the
891:
852:selective pressure
815:Earlier hypotheses
733:
716:
661:
649:
599:Neolithic Anatolia
520:Northern Europeans
260:selective pressure
228:
5875:
5874:
5815:Fitzpatrick scale
5717:. MedicineNet.com
5169:10.1038/2221081a0
4298:978-0-520-25153-3
3727:(26): 6774â6779.
3466:(7617): 419â424.
3084:(7583): 499â503.
2617:(25): 9211â9216.
2327:(11): 2059â2067.
2231:10.1111/exd.14142
2095:978-0-306-47767-6
1670:Evolution Library
1556:10.1111/srt.12838
1410:978-0-521-70510-3
1389:"Skin Coloration"
1149:types (including
1066:connective tissue
1015:physical exercise
877:SLC24A5 rs1426654
875:Frequency of the
833:connective tissue
441:variation of the
232:dark skin evolved
142:than humans with
72:(Top right), and
16:(Redirected from
5900:
5893:Human skin color
5801:Dark/Black/Ebony
5781:Light/White/Fair
5764:Human skin color
5757:
5750:
5743:
5734:
5727:
5726:
5724:
5722:
5710:
5704:
5703:
5701:
5699:
5682:
5676:
5675:
5645:
5639:
5638:
5622:
5605:(7): 2708â2720.
5590:
5584:
5583:
5555:
5549:
5548:
5538:
5529:(6): 1326â1332.
5514:
5508:
5507:
5477:
5471:
5470:
5460:
5436:
5430:
5429:
5417:
5411:
5410:
5400:
5391:(7): 1990â2001.
5374:
5368:
5367:
5357:
5333:
5327:
5326:
5298:
5292:
5291:
5263:
5257:
5256:
5212:
5206:
5205:
5195:
5189:
5188:
5144:
5138:
5137:
5131:
5123:
5122:
5120:
5097:
5091:
5090:
5054:
5048:
5047:
5019:
5013:
5012:
5002:
4977:(8): 1877â1888.
4961:
4955:
4954:
4944:
4919:(8): 1085â1092.
4904:
4898:
4897:
4887:
4854:
4848:
4847:
4845:
4843:
4832:
4826:
4825:
4823:
4821:
4810:
4804:
4803:
4767:
4761:
4760:
4715:
4709:
4708:
4706:
4704:
4689:
4683:
4677:
4671:
4670:
4660:
4628:
4622:
4621:
4593:
4587:
4586:
4576:
4552:
4546:
4545:
4509:
4503:
4502:
4466:
4460:
4459:
4431:
4425:
4424:
4396:
4387:
4386:
4366:
4360:
4359:
4339:
4333:
4332:
4329:www2.palomar.edu
4321:
4315:
4309:
4303:
4302:
4284:
4269:
4268:
4220:
4214:
4213:
4191:
4185:
4184:
4156:
4150:
4149:
4139:
4115:
4104:
4103:
4056:
4050:
4049:
4004:
3995:
3994:
3984:
3952:
3946:
3945:
3914:
3908:
3907:
3879:
3873:
3872:
3834:
3823:
3822:
3788:
3779:
3773:
3772:
3762:
3744:
3711:
3705:
3704:
3663:
3657:
3656:
3654:
3652:
3638:
3632:
3631:
3621:
3581:
3575:
3574:
3572:
3570:
3556:
3550:
3549:
3539:
3490:
3484:
3483:
3450:
3444:
3443:
3433:
3392:
3386:
3385:
3375:
3326:
3320:
3319:
3309:
3260:
3254:
3253:
3243:
3194:
3188:
3187:
3177:
3159:
3134:
3128:
3127:
3117:
3068:
3062:
3061:
3051:
3041:
3009:
3003:
3002:
2992:
2960:
2954:
2948:
2936:
2930:
2929:
2919:
2901:
2869:
2863:
2862:
2852:
2811:
2805:
2804:
2794:
2754:
2748:
2747:
2737:
2696:
2685:
2684:
2682:
2680:
2664:
2655:
2654:
2644:
2634:
2601:
2595:
2594:
2580:
2539:
2533:
2532:
2522:
2473:
2467:
2466:
2429:
2423:
2422:
2412:
2394:
2385:(11): e1003912.
2369:
2363:
2362:
2352:
2310:
2297:
2296:
2265:
2252:
2251:
2233:
2209:
2196:
2195:
2149:
2143:
2142:
2132:
2106:
2100:
2099:
2073:
2067:
2066:
2052:
2042:
2010:
2004:
2003:
1989:
1971:
1946:
1940:
1939:
1934:. Archived from
1928:
1922:
1921:
1911:
1901:
1877:
1871:
1870:
1850:
1839:
1838:
1828:
1796:
1790:
1789:
1779:
1762:(7): 2708â2720.
1747:
1741:
1740:
1730:
1712:
1688:
1682:
1681:
1679:
1677:
1661:
1652:
1651:
1649:
1647:
1632:
1626:
1617:
1611:
1601:
1595:
1594:
1574:
1568:
1567:
1535:
1529:
1528:
1496:
1490:
1489:
1487:
1463:
1457:
1456:
1454:
1452:
1435:O'Neil, Dennis.
1432:
1421:
1420:
1419:
1417:
1384:
1349:
1348:
1346:
1344:
1333:
1046:loss-of-function
856:assortive mating
848:genetic mutation
727:A light-skinned
714:have light skin.
659:have light skin.
603:Parabon NanoLabs
462:Western Eurasian
456:mutation in the
369:were present in
326:-synthesis gene
244:folate depletion
125:skin reflectance
89:human skin color
58:
47:
38:
27:Human skin color
21:
5908:
5907:
5903:
5902:
5901:
5899:
5898:
5897:
5878:
5877:
5876:
5871:
5858:
5806:
5766:
5761:
5731:
5730:
5720:
5718:
5712:
5711:
5707:
5697:
5695:
5684:
5683:
5679:
5647:
5646:
5642:
5592:
5591:
5587:
5557:
5556:
5552:
5516:
5515:
5511:
5479:
5478:
5474:
5458:10.2741/cleaver
5438:
5437:
5433:
5419:
5418:
5414:
5376:
5375:
5371:
5335:
5334:
5330:
5300:
5299:
5295:
5265:
5264:
5260:
5214:
5213:
5209:
5197:
5196:
5192:
5146:
5145:
5141:
5124:
5118:
5116:
5114:
5099:
5098:
5094:
5056:
5055:
5051:
5021:
5020:
5016:
4963:
4962:
4958:
4906:
4905:
4901:
4856:
4855:
4851:
4841:
4839:
4834:
4833:
4829:
4819:
4817:
4812:
4811:
4807:
4769:
4768:
4764:
4717:
4716:
4712:
4702:
4700:
4691:
4690:
4686:
4678:
4674:
4630:
4629:
4625:
4595:
4594:
4590:
4554:
4553:
4549:
4511:
4510:
4506:
4468:
4467:
4463:
4433:
4432:
4428:
4398:
4397:
4390:
4368:
4367:
4363:
4341:
4340:
4336:
4323:
4322:
4318:
4310:
4306:
4299:
4286:
4285:
4272:
4222:
4221:
4217:
4193:
4192:
4188:
4158:
4157:
4153:
4117:
4116:
4107:
4058:
4057:
4053:
4006:
4005:
3998:
3954:
3953:
3949:
3916:
3915:
3911:
3881:
3880:
3876:
3836:
3835:
3826:
3797:(8263): 74â76.
3786:
3781:
3780:
3776:
3713:
3712:
3708:
3665:
3664:
3660:
3650:
3648:
3640:
3639:
3635:
3583:
3582:
3578:
3568:
3566:
3558:
3557:
3553:
3492:
3491:
3487:
3452:
3451:
3447:
3394:
3393:
3389:
3328:
3327:
3323:
3262:
3261:
3257:
3196:
3195:
3191:
3150:(1): e2003703.
3136:
3135:
3131:
3070:
3069:
3065:
3011:
3010:
3006:
2962:
2961:
2957:
2949:Republished by
2938:
2937:
2933:
2871:
2870:
2866:
2813:
2812:
2808:
2769:(R1): R88âR97.
2756:
2755:
2751:
2698:
2697:
2688:
2678:
2676:
2666:
2665:
2658:
2603:
2602:
2598:
2541:
2540:
2536:
2475:
2474:
2470:
2431:
2430:
2426:
2371:
2370:
2366:
2312:
2311:
2300:
2267:
2266:
2255:
2211:
2210:
2199:
2151:
2150:
2146:
2108:
2107:
2103:
2096:
2075:
2074:
2070:
2012:
2011:
2007:
1948:
1947:
1943:
1930:
1929:
1925:
1879:
1878:
1874:
1852:
1851:
1842:
1826:10.1038/485024a
1811:(7396): 24â26.
1798:
1797:
1793:
1749:
1748:
1744:
1690:
1689:
1685:
1675:
1673:
1663:
1662:
1655:
1645:
1643:
1636:"Global Census"
1634:
1633:
1629:
1618:
1614:
1602:
1598:
1591:
1576:
1575:
1571:
1537:
1536:
1532:
1498:
1497:
1493:
1465:
1464:
1460:
1450:
1448:
1434:
1433:
1424:
1415:
1413:
1411:
1386:
1385:
1352:
1342:
1340:
1337:"Light-skinned"
1335:
1334:
1330:
1325:
1278:
1250:spermatogenesis
1242:DNA replication
1175:
1122:
1109:
1074:premature aging
1044:is caused by a
946:
915:Northern Africa
869:
817:
756:Northern Europe
721:
710:Some people in
655:Some people in
641:
591:Abusir el-Meleq
587:
535:
522:in particular.
480:
471:
390:Yamnaya culture
208:
80:
79:
78:
77:
61:
60:
59:
50:
49:
48:
40:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5906:
5904:
5896:
5895:
5890:
5880:
5879:
5873:
5872:
5870:
5869:
5863:
5860:
5859:
5857:
5856:
5851:
5846:
5841:
5832:
5827:
5822:
5817:
5811:
5808:
5807:
5805:
5804:
5798:
5784:
5778:
5771:
5768:
5767:
5762:
5760:
5759:
5752:
5745:
5737:
5729:
5728:
5705:
5677:
5658:(6): 387â397.
5640:
5585:
5566:(3): 194â198.
5550:
5509:
5490:(3): 298â308.
5472:
5431:
5412:
5369:
5348:(2): 341â347.
5328:
5309:(2): 112â118.
5293:
5258:
5223:(1): 348â358.
5207:
5190:
5139:
5112:
5092:
5065:(3): 498â505.
5049:
5030:(3): 150â159.
5014:
4956:
4899:
4849:
4827:
4805:
4778:(5823): 364a.
4762:
4710:
4684:
4672:
4643:(6): 1179â89.
4623:
4604:(2): 221â224.
4588:
4567:(4): 449â457.
4547:
4520:(6): 589â608.
4504:
4461:
4448:10.1086/282252
4442:(892): 39â49.
4426:
4388:
4377:(2): 131â144.
4361:
4334:
4316:
4304:
4297:
4270:
4235:(3): 466â472.
4215:
4186:
4167:(2): 155â177.
4151:
4130:(3): 710â722.
4105:
4051:
3996:
3967:(2): 213â217.
3947:
3928:(4): 588â593.
3909:
3874:
3824:
3774:
3706:
3658:
3633:
3576:
3551:
3485:
3445:
3387:
3321:
3255:
3189:
3129:
3063:
3004:
2955:
2931:
2864:
2806:
2749:
2686:
2656:
2596:
2534:
2468:
2441:(6): 802â811.
2424:
2364:
2298:
2279:(1): 585â623.
2253:
2224:(9): 864â875.
2197:
2162:(4): 339â414.
2144:
2123:(1): 451â462.
2101:
2094:
2068:
2005:
1941:
1923:
1872:
1840:
1791:
1742:
1683:
1653:
1627:
1612:
1596:
1590:978-1559346672
1589:
1569:
1550:(4): 584â590.
1530:
1491:
1458:
1422:
1409:
1350:
1327:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1320:
1319:
1314:
1309:
1304:
1299:
1297:Skin whitening
1294:
1289:
1284:
1277:
1274:
1174:
1171:
1121:
1118:
1108:
1105:
1062:types I and II
945:
942:
919:Horn of Africa
882:allele in the
868:
865:
816:
813:
720:
717:
696:Nina Jablonski
640:
637:
622:Canary Islands
611:bioinformatics
586:
583:
534:
531:
479:
476:
470:
467:
309:coalescent age
270:allele of the
207:
204:
63:
62:
53:
52:
51:
42:
41:
33:
32:
31:
30:
29:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5905:
5894:
5891:
5889:
5886:
5885:
5883:
5868:
5865:
5864:
5861:
5855:
5852:
5850:
5847:
5845:
5842:
5840:
5836:
5833:
5831:
5828:
5826:
5823:
5821:
5818:
5816:
5813:
5812:
5809:
5802:
5799:
5796:
5792:
5788:
5785:
5782:
5779:
5776:
5773:
5772:
5769:
5765:
5758:
5753:
5751:
5746:
5744:
5739:
5738:
5735:
5716:
5709:
5706:
5694:
5693:
5688:
5681:
5678:
5673:
5669:
5665:
5661:
5657:
5653:
5652:
5644:
5641:
5637:
5636:
5630:
5626:
5621:
5616:
5612:
5608:
5604:
5600:
5596:
5589:
5586:
5581:
5577:
5573:
5569:
5565:
5561:
5554:
5551:
5546:
5542:
5537:
5532:
5528:
5524:
5520:
5513:
5510:
5505:
5501:
5497:
5493:
5489:
5485:
5484:
5476:
5473:
5468:
5464:
5459:
5454:
5450:
5446:
5442:
5435:
5432:
5427:
5423:
5416:
5413:
5408:
5404:
5399:
5394:
5390:
5386:
5385:
5380:
5373:
5370:
5365:
5361:
5356:
5351:
5347:
5343:
5339:
5332:
5329:
5324:
5320:
5316:
5312:
5308:
5304:
5297:
5294:
5289:
5285:
5281:
5277:
5273:
5269:
5262:
5259:
5254:
5250:
5246:
5242:
5238:
5234:
5230:
5226:
5222:
5218:
5211:
5208:
5203:
5202:
5194:
5191:
5186:
5182:
5178:
5174:
5170:
5166:
5162:
5158:
5154:
5150:
5143:
5140:
5135:
5129:
5115:
5113:9783319431574
5109:
5105:
5104:
5096:
5093:
5088:
5084:
5080:
5076:
5072:
5068:
5064:
5060:
5053:
5050:
5045:
5041:
5037:
5033:
5029:
5025:
5018:
5015:
5010:
5006:
5001:
4996:
4992:
4988:
4984:
4980:
4976:
4972:
4968:
4960:
4957:
4952:
4948:
4943:
4938:
4934:
4930:
4926:
4922:
4918:
4914:
4910:
4903:
4900:
4895:
4891:
4886:
4881:
4877:
4873:
4869:
4865:
4861:
4853:
4850:
4837:
4831:
4828:
4815:
4809:
4806:
4801:
4797:
4793:
4789:
4785:
4781:
4777:
4773:
4766:
4763:
4758:
4754:
4750:
4746:
4742:
4738:
4734:
4730:
4726:
4722:
4714:
4711:
4698:
4694:
4688:
4685:
4681:
4676:
4673:
4668:
4664:
4659:
4654:
4650:
4646:
4642:
4638:
4634:
4627:
4624:
4619:
4615:
4611:
4607:
4603:
4599:
4592:
4589:
4584:
4580:
4575:
4570:
4566:
4562:
4558:
4551:
4548:
4543:
4539:
4535:
4531:
4527:
4523:
4519:
4515:
4508:
4505:
4500:
4496:
4492:
4488:
4484:
4480:
4476:
4472:
4465:
4462:
4457:
4453:
4449:
4445:
4441:
4437:
4430:
4427:
4422:
4418:
4414:
4410:
4406:
4402:
4395:
4393:
4389:
4384:
4380:
4376:
4372:
4371:Human Biology
4365:
4362:
4357:
4353:
4349:
4345:
4344:Human Biology
4338:
4335:
4330:
4326:
4320:
4317:
4313:
4308:
4305:
4300:
4294:
4290:
4283:
4281:
4279:
4277:
4275:
4271:
4266:
4262:
4258:
4254:
4250:
4246:
4242:
4238:
4234:
4230:
4226:
4219:
4216:
4211:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4198:
4190:
4187:
4182:
4178:
4174:
4170:
4166:
4162:
4155:
4152:
4147:
4143:
4138:
4133:
4129:
4125:
4121:
4114:
4112:
4110:
4106:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4077:
4073:
4069:
4065:
4064:
4055:
4052:
4047:
4043:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4011:
4003:
4001:
3997:
3992:
3988:
3983:
3978:
3974:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3958:
3951:
3948:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3931:
3927:
3923:
3922:
3913:
3910:
3905:
3901:
3897:
3893:
3889:
3885:
3878:
3875:
3870:
3866:
3862:
3858:
3854:
3850:
3847:(1): 57â106.
3846:
3842:
3841:
3833:
3831:
3829:
3825:
3820:
3816:
3812:
3808:
3804:
3800:
3796:
3792:
3785:
3778:
3775:
3770:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3752:
3748:
3743:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3710:
3707:
3702:
3698:
3694:
3690:
3686:
3682:
3678:
3674:
3670:
3662:
3659:
3647:
3643:
3637:
3634:
3629:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3611:
3607:
3603:
3599:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3580:
3577:
3565:
3561:
3555:
3552:
3547:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3529:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3505:
3501:
3497:
3489:
3486:
3481:
3477:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3461:
3457:
3449:
3446:
3441:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3423:
3419:
3415:
3411:
3407:
3403:
3399:
3391:
3388:
3383:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3365:
3361:
3357:
3353:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3325:
3322:
3317:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3259:
3256:
3251:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3233:
3229:
3225:
3221:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3193:
3190:
3185:
3181:
3176:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3158:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3133:
3130:
3125:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3067:
3064:
3059:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3008:
3005:
3000:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2959:
2956:
2952:
2946:
2942:
2935:
2932:
2927:
2923:
2918:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2868:
2865:
2860:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2810:
2807:
2802:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2753:
2750:
2745:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2695:
2693:
2691:
2687:
2674:
2670:
2663:
2661:
2657:
2652:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2600:
2597:
2593:
2588:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2538:
2535:
2530:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2472:
2469:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2428:
2425:
2420:
2416:
2411:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2379:PLOS Genetics
2376:
2368:
2365:
2360:
2356:
2351:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2321:
2316:
2309:
2307:
2305:
2303:
2299:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2264:
2262:
2260:
2258:
2254:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2208:
2206:
2204:
2202:
2198:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2156:
2148:
2145:
2140:
2136:
2131:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2117:
2112:
2105:
2102:
2097:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2072:
2069:
2065:
2060:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2041:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2009:
2006:
2002:
1997:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1945:
1942:
1937:
1933:
1927:
1924:
1919:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1876:
1873:
1868:
1864:
1861:(5): 773â80.
1860:
1856:
1849:
1847:
1845:
1841:
1836:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1795:
1792:
1787:
1783:
1778:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1746:
1743:
1738:
1734:
1729:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1711:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1687:
1684:
1671:
1667:
1660:
1658:
1654:
1641:
1637:
1631:
1628:
1625:
1621:
1616:
1613:
1609:
1606:
1600:
1597:
1592:
1586:
1582:
1581:
1573:
1570:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1534:
1531:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1495:
1492:
1486:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1462:
1459:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1431:
1429:
1427:
1423:
1412:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1383:
1381:
1379:
1377:
1375:
1373:
1371:
1369:
1367:
1365:
1363:
1361:
1359:
1357:
1355:
1351:
1338:
1332:
1329:
1322:
1318:
1315:
1313:
1310:
1308:
1305:
1303:
1300:
1298:
1295:
1293:
1290:
1288:
1285:
1283:
1280:
1279:
1275:
1273:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1253:
1251:
1247:
1246:embryogenesis
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1206:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1184:
1179:
1172:
1170:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1155:breast cancer
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1134:
1130:
1127:
1119:
1117:
1115:
1106:
1104:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1081:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1054:
1052:
1051:keratinocytes
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1030:
1028:
1024:
1023:embarrassment
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
997:and from the
996:
991:
987:
985:
981:
977:
973:
969:
965:
961:
957:
954:
950:
943:
941:
939:
934:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
907:
906:
901:
896:
889:
885:
881:
878:
873:
866:
864:
862:
857:
853:
849:
845:
840:
838:
834:
830:
826:
821:
814:
812:
810:
809:high latitude
805:
799:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
780:polar regions
777:
773:
769:
765:
761:
760:Northern Asia
757:
752:
750:
746:
741:
737:
736:Polar regions
730:
725:
718:
713:
708:
704:
701:
697:
692:
690:
686:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
658:
653:
645:
638:
636:
634:
630:
625:
623:
619:
614:
612:
609:and advanced
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
584:
582:
579:
575:
570:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
547:
545:
541:
532:
530:
528:
523:
521:
517:
513:
508:
506:
502:
496:
493:
489:
485:
477:
475:
468:
466:
463:
459:
455:
450:
446:
444:
439:
435:
431:
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
391:
386:
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
359:
357:
353:
348:
344:
340:
335:
333:
329:
325:
321:
317:
312:
310:
306:
301:
297:
293:
289:
284:
282:
281:
276:
273:
269:
263:
261:
257:
253:
249:
248:damage to DNA
245:
241:
237:
233:
225:
221:
217:
212:
205:
203:
201:
195:
193:
189:
188:schizophrenia
185:
181:
177:
174:, especially
173:
169:
168:birth defects
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
132:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
75:
71:
67:
57:
46:
37:
19:
5780:
5721:22 September
5719:. Retrieved
5713:Cole, Gary.
5708:
5698:22 September
5696:. Retrieved
5690:
5680:
5655:
5649:
5643:
5633:
5632:
5602:
5598:
5588:
5563:
5559:
5553:
5526:
5522:
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5481:
5475:
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5434:
5425:
5421:
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5382:
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5341:
5331:
5306:
5302:
5296:
5271:
5267:
5261:
5220:
5216:
5210:
5200:
5193:
5152:
5148:
5142:
5117:, retrieved
5102:
5095:
5062:
5058:
5052:
5027:
5023:
5017:
4974:
4970:
4959:
4916:
4912:
4902:
4867:
4863:
4852:
4842:22 September
4840:. Retrieved
4830:
4818:. Retrieved
4808:
4775:
4771:
4765:
4724:
4720:
4713:
4701:. Retrieved
4696:
4687:
4675:
4640:
4636:
4626:
4601:
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4591:
4564:
4560:
4550:
4517:
4513:
4507:
4477:(1): 38â59.
4474:
4470:
4464:
4439:
4435:
4429:
4404:
4400:
4374:
4370:
4364:
4350:(1): 65â80.
4347:
4343:
4337:
4328:
4319:
4307:
4289:Living Color
4288:
4232:
4228:
4218:
4204:(1): 26â32.
4201:
4195:
4189:
4164:
4160:
4154:
4127:
4123:
4067:
4061:
4054:
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4009:
3964:
3960:
3950:
3925:
3919:
3912:
3890:(1): 17â25.
3887:
3883:
3877:
3844:
3838:
3794:
3790:
3777:
3724:
3720:
3709:
3676:
3672:
3661:
3651:20 September
3649:. Retrieved
3645:
3636:
3593:
3589:
3579:
3567:. Retrieved
3564:ScienceDaily
3563:
3554:
3503:
3499:
3488:
3463:
3459:
3448:
3405:
3401:
3390:
3342:(1): 11895.
3339:
3335:
3324:
3273:
3269:
3258:
3207:
3203:
3192:
3147:
3144:PLOS Biology
3143:
3132:
3081:
3077:
3066:
3021:
3017:
3007:
2972:
2969:Biology Open
2968:
2958:
2951:ScienceDaily
2944:
2934:
2881:
2877:
2867:
2827:(1): 83â96.
2824:
2820:
2809:
2766:
2762:
2752:
2709:
2705:
2677:. Retrieved
2672:
2614:
2610:
2599:
2590:
2552:
2548:
2537:
2486:
2482:
2471:
2438:
2434:
2427:
2382:
2378:
2367:
2324:
2318:
2276:
2272:
2221:
2217:
2159:
2153:
2147:
2120:
2114:
2104:
2077:
2071:
2062:
2022:
2018:
2008:
1999:
1959:
1956:PLOS Biology
1955:
1944:
1936:the original
1926:
1889:
1885:
1875:
1858:
1854:
1808:
1804:
1794:
1759:
1755:
1745:
1700:
1696:
1686:
1676:22 September
1674:. Retrieved
1669:
1644:. Retrieved
1640:the original
1630:
1623:
1615:
1604:
1599:
1579:
1572:
1547:
1543:
1533:
1511:(1): 22â26.
1508:
1504:
1494:
1475:
1471:
1461:
1449:. Retrieved
1445:the original
1440:
1414:, retrieved
1392:
1341:. Retrieved
1331:
1254:
1234:spinal canal
1226:spina bifida
1222:miscarriages
1207:
1188:
1165:, including
1159:cathelicidin
1143:osteoporosis
1135:
1131:
1123:
1110:
1085:Types III-IV
1082:
1055:
1031:
992:
988:
947:
944:Biochemistry
935:
927:Central Asia
903:
899:
894:
892:
879:
876:
843:
841:
822:
818:
800:
753:
734:
693:
662:
632:
626:
615:
594:
588:
577:
573:
571:
566:
562:
558:
548:
536:
524:
509:
497:
491:
487:
483:
481:
472:
457:
453:
451:
447:
442:
417:
401:
397:
387:
385:population.
366:
362:
360:
355:
342:
338:
336:
331:
327:
319:
315:
313:
304:
299:
295:
287:
285:
278:
275:polymorphism
271:
267:
264:
236:UV radiation
229:
196:
133:
121:North Africa
113:Central Asia
97:UV radiation
84:
83:
81:
68:(Top left),
18:Lighter skin
5797:(IIIâIVâV.)
5787:Beige/Olive
5783:(IâIIâIII.)
5635:prehormone.
4703:11 December
3506:(1): 3336.
3408:(1): 8912.
2489:(1): 8912.
1646:10 December
1451:10 December
1292:High yellow
1203:skin cancer
1183:anencephaly
1145:, numerous
1078:skin cancer
1007:capillaries
1001:associated
999:haemoglobin
984:pheomelanin
980:melanosomes
972:melanocytes
837:capillaries
782:, like the
745:Scandinavia
712:Afghanistan
669:vertebrates
555:Ain' Ghazal
533:Middle-East
514:, an early
438:Niger-Congo
246:and direct
176:skin cancer
140:melanosomes
5888:Light skin
5882:Categories
5715:"Wrinkles"
5428:: 819â825.
4820:10 October
4249:1871/22170
3431:2262/76623
3276:(1): 442.
2945:Penn Today
2679:4 December
1892:(5): 554.
1343:24 January
1323:References
1287:Olive skin
1163:infections
1114:sunbathing
1097:DNA damage
1058:lentigines
1011:arterioles
964:human skin
953:amino acid
931:South Asia
700:indigenous
691:) people.
673:vitamin D3
516:Bronze Age
484:rs16891982
410:Ethiopians
320:rs16891982
292:haplotypes
256:vitamin D3
164:DNA damage
85:Light skin
66:Norwegians
5274:: 67â90.
5044:0893-5785
4991:0737-4038
4933:1476-5438
4421:145636646
4407:: 36â61.
4181:129136655
3751:1091-6490
3693:1879-0445
3596:: 15694.
3528:2041-1723
3480:1476-4687
3440:2041-1723
3364:2045-2322
3298:2041-1723
3232:0027-8424
3166:1545-7885
3106:1476-4687
2908:1091-6490
2841:1537-6605
2783:1460-2083
2726:1095-9203
2569:0036-8075
2511:2041-1723
2455:0003-4800
2401:1553-7404
2341:2160-1836
2293:0084-6570
2248:220335539
2176:1040-8363
1978:1545-7885
1886:Nutrients
1719:0363-6119
1282:Dark skin
1266:menopause
1126:vitamin D
1101:dark skin
1093:epidermis
1042:phenotype
1038:freckling
1021:(usually
976:epidermis
960:Eumelanin
923:West Asia
884:Near East
825:frostbite
665:vitamin D
574:rs1426654
527:Etruscans
414:Tanzanian
347:West Asia
272:rs1426654
240:eumelanin
206:Evolution
148:vitamin D
144:dark skin
136:eumelanin
109:West Asia
105:East Asia
93:eumelanin
5672:18021918
5629:33500553
5580:16388960
5545:15955111
5504:15020192
5467:11897551
5364:11511313
5323:11936268
5288:14616056
5245:12851335
5128:citation
5087:43355316
5079:14510981
5009:23666210
4951:25370040
4894:22726845
4800:43290419
4792:17446367
4749:16357253
4667:18083106
4542:22703861
4534:12573076
4499:36144428
4456:85732039
4265:15728496
4257:17941903
4210:10850004
4146:17182896
4100:10087710
4092:17962522
4038:16357253
3991:17254541
3942:17637484
3904:16766240
3869:10896812
3819:41818974
3769:29895688
3701:29107554
3628:28556824
3546:30127404
3382:38806487
3373:11133411
3316:29382937
3250:38408241
3241:10927518
3184:29315301
3124:26595274
3058:33443182
2999:33495209
2926:30530665
2859:22726845
2801:33438000
2744:29025994
2673:UCL News
2651:24927591
2592:studies.
2587:29025994
2555:(6365).
2529:26567969
2463:17044855
2419:24244186
2359:24048645
2240:32621306
2192:57808076
2184:18568854
2139:17209171
2059:33443182
1996:29315301
1918:29710859
1867:11126724
1835:22552074
1786:33500553
1737:31314544
1564:31943387
1525:25573440
1307:Red hair
1276:See also
1262:wrinkles
1230:backbone
1195:sunburns
1034:red hair
968:UV light
956:tyrosine
764:reindeer
729:Assyrian
657:Mongolia
426:Cushitic
392:and the
379:carriers
371:Anatolia
200:latitude
156:sunlight
70:Russians
5830:Caboclo
5803:(VâVI.)
5692:Reuters
5620:8505257
5407:2004316
5253:6156245
5225:Bibcode
5185:4223552
5177:5787098
5157:Bibcode
5119:6 April
5000:3708501
4942:4351897
4885:3397267
4772:Science
4757:2245002
4729:Bibcode
4721:Science
4658:2900316
4618:9786336
4583:9453695
4491:3059317
4383:6056270
4356:1126703
4072:Bibcode
4063:Science
4046:2245002
4018:Bibcode
4010:Science
3982:2698590
3849:Bibcode
3811:6119494
3760:6042094
3729:Bibcode
3715:2018).
3619:5459999
3598:Bibcode
3537:6102297
3508:Bibcode
3410:Bibcode
3396:2015).
3344:Bibcode
3307:5789860
3278:Bibcode
3212:Bibcode
3175:5760011
3115:4918750
3086:Bibcode
3049:7817156
3026:Bibcode
2990:7888712
2917:6310813
2886:Bibcode
2850:3397267
2792:8117430
2735:5759959
2706:Science
2642:4078858
2619:Bibcode
2578:5759959
2549:Science
2520:4660371
2491:Bibcode
2410:3820762
2350:3815065
2050:7817156
2027:Bibcode
1987:5760011
1909:5986434
1813:Bibcode
1777:8505257
1728:6766707
1608:"white"
1191:melanin
1139:rickets
1089:tanning
949:Melanin
938:Wolayta
905:SLC24A5
796:blubber
792:seafood
788:Eskimos
749:Siberia
738:of the
685:type II
681:embryos
677:calcium
633:SLC24A5
618:Guanche
595:SLC24A5
578:SLC24A5
576:in the
563:SLC24A5
546:(LGM).
492:SLC24A5
488:SLC45A2
458:SLC24A5
434:Nilotic
422:Semitic
418:SLC24A5
402:SLC24A5
367:SLC45A2
363:SLC24A5
356:SLC24A5
343:SLC45A2
339:SLC24A5
328:SLC45A2
324:melanin
318:of the
288:SLC24A5
280:SLC24A5
192:evolved
180:tropics
172:cancers
152:equator
117:Siberia
74:Koreans
5844:Bronze
5775:Albino
5670:
5627:
5617:
5599:Nature
5578:
5543:
5502:
5465:
5405:
5384:Cancer
5362:
5321:
5286:
5251:
5243:
5183:
5175:
5149:Nature
5110:
5085:
5077:
5042:
5007:
4997:
4989:
4949:
4939:
4931:
4892:
4882:
4798:
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4747:
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4616:
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4540:
4532:
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4489:
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4419:
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4354:
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4044:
4036:
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3979:
3940:
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3867:
3817:
3809:
3791:Lancet
3767:
3757:
3749:
3699:
3691:
3626:
3616:
3569:27 May
3544:
3534:
3526:
3478:
3460:Nature
3438:
3380:
3370:
3362:
3314:
3304:
3296:
3248:
3238:
3230:
3182:
3172:
3164:
3122:
3112:
3104:
3078:Nature
3056:
3046:
2997:
2987:
2924:
2914:
2906:
2857:
2847:
2839:
2799:
2789:
2781:
2742:
2732:
2724:
2649:
2639:
2585:
2575:
2567:
2527:
2517:
2509:
2461:
2453:
2417:
2407:
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2357:
2347:
2339:
2291:
2246:
2238:
2190:
2182:
2174:
2137:
2092:
2057:
2047:
1994:
1984:
1976:
1916:
1906:
1865:
1833:
1805:Nature
1784:
1774:
1756:Nature
1735:
1725:
1717:
1587:
1562:
1523:
1416:1 June
1407:
1258:dermis
1224:, and
1147:cancer
1036:, and
995:dermis
917:, the
911:Europe
888:Africa
861:clinal
776:lichen
731:woman.
689:type V
585:Africa
478:Europe
443:MFSD12
430:Omotic
412:, and
218:(with
216:Europe
184:mental
160:folate
119:, and
101:Europe
5854:Olive
5849:Black
5839:Pardo
5835:Brown
5825:White
5795:Pardo
5791:Brown
5249:S2CID
5181:S2CID
5083:S2CID
4796:S2CID
4753:S2CID
4538:S2CID
4495:S2CID
4452:S2CID
4417:S2CID
4261:S2CID
4177:S2CID
4096:S2CID
4042:S2CID
3815:S2CID
3787:(PDF)
2975:(2).
2244:S2CID
2188:S2CID
1672:. PBS
1478:(1).
1302:Blond
1151:colon
1027:anger
1003:blood
784:Inuit
454:A111T
398:KITLG
332:L374F
305:A111T
300:A111T
296:A111T
268:A111T
129:white
87:is a
5777:(I.)
5723:2018
5700:2018
5668:PMID
5625:PMID
5576:PMID
5541:PMID
5500:PMID
5463:PMID
5403:PMID
5360:PMID
5319:PMID
5284:PMID
5241:PMID
5173:PMID
5134:link
5121:2020
5108:ISBN
5075:PMID
5040:ISSN
5005:PMID
4987:ISSN
4947:PMID
4929:ISSN
4890:PMID
4844:2018
4822:2012
4788:PMID
4745:PMID
4705:2012
4663:PMID
4637:Cell
4614:PMID
4579:PMID
4530:PMID
4487:PMID
4379:PMID
4352:PMID
4293:ISBN
4253:PMID
4206:PMID
4142:PMID
4088:PMID
4034:PMID
3987:PMID
3938:PMID
3900:PMID
3865:PMID
3807:PMID
3765:PMID
3747:ISSN
3697:PMID
3689:ISSN
3653:2024
3624:PMID
3571:2024
3542:PMID
3524:ISSN
3476:ISSN
3436:ISSN
3378:PMID
3360:ISSN
3312:PMID
3294:ISSN
3246:PMID
3228:ISSN
3180:PMID
3162:ISSN
3120:PMID
3102:ISSN
3054:PMID
3018:PNAS
2995:PMID
2922:PMID
2904:ISSN
2855:PMID
2837:ISSN
2797:PMID
2779:ISSN
2740:PMID
2722:ISSN
2681:2021
2647:PMID
2583:PMID
2565:ISSN
2525:PMID
2507:ISSN
2459:PMID
2451:ISSN
2415:PMID
2397:ISSN
2355:PMID
2337:ISSN
2289:ISSN
2236:PMID
2180:PMID
2172:ISSN
2135:PMID
2090:ISBN
2055:PMID
2019:PNAS
1992:PMID
1974:ISSN
1914:PMID
1863:PMID
1831:PMID
1782:PMID
1733:PMID
1715:ISSN
1678:2018
1648:2012
1622:3.a
1585:ISBN
1560:PMID
1521:PMID
1453:2012
1418:2024
1405:ISBN
1345:2017
1248:and
1232:and
1153:and
1076:and
1068:and
929:and
900:ASIP
895:KITL
886:and
829:skin
768:herd
758:and
747:and
567:(GG)
510:The
452:The
424:and
365:and
341:and
316:F374
220:Asia
5660:doi
5615:PMC
5607:doi
5568:doi
5531:doi
5527:124
5492:doi
5488:195
5453:doi
5393:doi
5350:doi
5346:117
5311:doi
5276:doi
5233:doi
5221:994
5165:doi
5153:222
5067:doi
5063:149
5032:doi
4995:PMC
4979:doi
4937:PMC
4921:doi
4880:PMC
4872:doi
4780:doi
4776:316
4737:doi
4725:310
4653:PMC
4645:doi
4641:131
4606:doi
4602:107
4569:doi
4565:104
4522:doi
4479:doi
4444:doi
4409:doi
4245:hdl
4237:doi
4169:doi
4132:doi
4080:doi
4068:318
4026:doi
4014:310
3977:PMC
3969:doi
3965:460
3930:doi
3892:doi
3857:doi
3799:doi
3755:PMC
3737:doi
3725:115
3681:doi
3614:PMC
3606:doi
3532:PMC
3516:doi
3468:doi
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