1185:
category 3 and 4. In terms of good research practice, an equidistant presentation by the researcher is important; otherwise a bias in the analysis may result. For example, a four-point Likert item with categories "Poor", "Average", "Good", and "Very Good" is unlikely to have all equidistant categories since there is only one category that can receive a below-average rating. This would arguably bias any result in favor of a positive outcome. On the other hand, even if a researcher presents what he or she believes are equidistant categories, it may not be interpreted as such by the respondent.
1090:, measuring either positive or negative response to a statement. Sometimes an even-point scale is used, where the middle option of "neither agree nor disagree" is not available. This is sometimes called a "forced choice" method, since the neutral option is removed. The neutral option can be seen as an easy option to take when a respondent is unsure, and so whether it is a true neutral option is questionable. A 1987 study found negligible differences between the use of "undecided" and "neutral" as the middle option in a five-point Likert scale.
47:
1063:"balance". Symmetry means that they contain equal numbers of positive and negative positions whose respective distances apart are bilaterally symmetric about the "neutral"/zero value (whether or not that value is presented as a candidate). Balance means that the distance between each candidate value is the same, allowing for quantitative comparisons such as averaging to be valid across items containing more than two candidate values.
1040:
1108:). This effect may appear early in a test due to an expectation that questions which the subject has stronger views on may follow, such that on earlier questions one "leaves room" for stronger responses later in the test. This expectation creates bias that is especially pernicious in that its effects are not uniform throughout the test and cannot be corrected for through simple across-the-board normalization;
1197:, if well presented it may nevertheless approximate an interval-level measurement. This can be beneficial since, if it was treated just as an ordinal scale, then some valuable information could be lost if the 'distance' between Likert items were not available for consideration. The important idea here is that the appropriate type of analysis is dependent on how the Likert scale has been presented.
843:
987:
1181:
range from 2 to 10 – with 3, 5, or, 7 being the most common. Further, this progressive structure of the scale is such that each successive Likert item is treated as indicating a 'better' response than the preceding value. (This may differ in cases where reverse ordering of the Likert scale is needed).
1279:
An important part of data analysis and presentation is the visualization (or plotting) of data. The subject of plotting Likert (and other) rating data is discussed at length in two papers by
Robbins and Heiberger. In the first they recommend the use of what they call diverging stacked bar charts and
952:
Likert distinguished between a scale proper, which emerges from collective responses to a set of items (usually eight or more), and the format in which responses are scored along a range. Technically speaking, a Likert scale refers only to the former. The difference between these two concepts has to
1339:
Research by
Labovitz and Traylor provide evidence that, even with rather large distortions of perceived distances between scale points, Likert-type items perform closely to scales that are perceived as equal intervals. So these items and other equal-appearing scales in questionnaires are robust to
960:
A scale can be created as the simple sum or average of questionnaire responses over the set of individual items (questions). In so doing, Likert scaling assumes distances between each choice (answer option) are equal. Many researchers employ a set of such items that are highly correlated (that show
1151:
Designing a scale with balanced keying (an equal number of positive and negative statements and, especially, an equal number of positive and negative statements regarding each position or issue in question) can obviate the problem of acquiescence bias, since acquiescence on positively keyed items
1180:
can be determined). The value assigned to each Likert item is simply determined by the researcher designing the survey, who makes the decision based on a desired level of detail. However, by convention Likert items tend to be assigned progressive positive integer values. Likert scales typically
1164:
Whether individual Likert items can be considered as interval-level data, or whether they should be treated as ordered-categorical data is the subject of considerable disagreement in the literature, with strong convictions on what are the most applicable methods. This disagreement can be traced
1184:
The second, and possibly more important point, is whether the "distance" between each successive item category is equivalent, which is inferred traditionally. For example, in the above five-point Likert item, the inference is that the 'distance' between category 1 and 2 is the same as between
1200:
Notions of central tendency are often applicable at the item level – that is responses often show a quasi-normal distribution. The validity of such measures depends on the underlying interval nature of the scale. If interval nature is assumed for a comparison of two groups, the paired samples
1062:
A Likert item is simply a statement that the respondent is asked to evaluate by giving it a quantitative value on any kind of subjective or objective dimension, with level of agreement/disagreement being the dimension most commonly used. Well-designed Likert items exhibit both "symmetry" and
1192:
of categories about a midpoint with clearly defined linguistic qualifiers. In such symmetric scaling, equidistant attributes will typically be more clearly observed or, at least, inferred. It is when a Likert scale is symmetric and equidistant that it will behave more like an interval-level
965:) but also that together will capture the full domain under study (which requires less-than perfect correlations). Others hold to a standard by which "All items are assumed to be replications of each other or in other words items are considered to be parallel instruments". By contrast,
1059:(e.g., a horizontal line, on which the subject indicates a response by circling or checking tick-marks), an individual item is itself sometimes erroneously referred to as being or having a scale, with this error creating pervasive confusion in the literature and parlance of the field.
1124:
Disagree with sentences as presented out of a defensive desire to avoid making erroneous statements and/or avoid negative consequences that respondents may fear will result from their answers being used against them, especially if misinterpreted and/or taken out of
1356:
that the statements reflect increasing levels of an attitude or trait, as intended. For example, application of the model often indicates that the neutral category does not represent a level of attitude or trait between the disagree and agree categories.
1271:(CBA) can be used to create an objective standard for Likert scales in domains where no generally accepted or objective standard exists. Consensus-based assessment (CBA) can be used to refine or even validate generally accepted standards.
956:
When responding to a Likert item, respondents specify their level of agreement or disagreement on a symmetric agree-disagree scale for a series of statements. Thus, the range captures the intensity of their feelings for a given item.
1266:
model, preserving the ordering of responses without the assumption of an interval scale. The use of an ordered probit model can prevent errors that arise when treating ordered ratings as interval-level measurements.
1160:
After the questionnaire is completed, each item may be analyzed separately or in some cases item responses may be summed to create a score for a group of items. Hence, Likert scales are often called summative scales.
1292:. But this can only be the case if the intervals between the scale points correspond to empirical observations in a metric sense. Reips and Funke (2008) show that this criterion is much better met by a
1212:
Responses to several Likert questions may be summed providing that all questions use the same Likert scale and that the scale is a defensible approximation to an interval scale, in which case the
1733:
Carifio, James; Perla, Rocco (2007). "Ten Common
Misunderstandings, Misconceptions, Persistent Myths and Urban Legends about Likert Scales and Likert Response Formats and their Antidotes".
1172:
There are two primary considerations in this discussion. First, Likert scales are arbitrary. The value assigned to a Likert item has no objective numerical basis, either in terms of
1143:
Try to portray themselves or their organization in a light that they believe the examiner or society to consider less favorable/more unfavorable than their true beliefs (
1205:-test is not inappropriate. If non-parametric tests are to be performed the Pratt (1959) modification to the Wilcoxon signed-rank test is recommended over the standard
953:
do with the distinction Likert made between the underlying phenomenon being investigated and the means of capturing variation that points to the underlying phenomenon.
1117:), with this effect especially strong among children, people with developmental disabilities, elderly people, and individuals who are subjected to a culture of
1280:
compare them to other plotting styles. The second paper describes the use of the Likert function in the HH package for R, and gives many examples of its use.
426:
1490:
1134:
Try to portray themselves or their organization in a light that they believe the examiner or society to consider more favorable than their true beliefs (
1224:
can be applied. Typical cutoffs for thinking that this approximation will be acceptable is a minimum of four and preferably eight items in the sum.
1152:
will balance acquiescence on negatively keyed items, but defensive, central tendency, and social desirability biases are somewhat more problematic.
451:
2412:
2379:
2346:
1879:
1830:"Breaking free from the limitations of classical test theory: Developing and measuring information systems scales using item response theory"
1777:
1420:. Some have claimed that Likert's name "is among the most mispronounced in field", because many people pronounce the name of the scale as
1360:
Not every set of Likert scaled items can be used for Rasch measurement. The data has to be thoroughly checked to fulfill the strict formal
2493:
1296:. In fact, there may also appear phenomena which even question the ordinal scale level in Likert scales. For example, in a set of items
873:
470:
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1449:
1412:
1026:
919:
812:
802:
506:
466:
1340:
violations of the equal distance assumption many researchers believe are required for parametric statistical procedures and tests.
261:
561:
346:
97:
1348:
Likert scale data can, in principle, be used as a basis for obtaining interval level estimates on a continuum by applying the
1220:
data measuring a latent variable. If the summed responses fulfill these assumptions, parametric statistical tests such as the
1131:
Provide answers that they believe will be evaluated as indicating weakness or presence of impairment/pathology ("faking bad");
1472:
1008:
1793:
van Alphen, A.; Halfens, R.; Hasman, A.; Imbos, T. (1994). "Likert or Rasch? Nothing is more applicable than good theory".
1128:
Provide answers that they believe will be evaluated as indicating strength or lack of weakness/dysfunction ("faking good");
1896:
1004:
827:
481:
146:
112:
2498:
1542:
939:. It is the most widely used approach to scaling responses in survey research, such that the term (or more fully the
790:
116:
66:
1524:
1372:, so, if you are prepared to accept the raw scores as valid, then you can also accept the Rasch measures as valid.
1268:
807:
305:
997:
1252:
1206:
797:
633:
366:
236:
102:
1352:, when data can be obtained that fit this model. In addition, the polytomous Rasch model permits testing of the
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61:
56:
46:
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174:
161:
2224:"Interval level measurement with visual analogue scales in Internet-based research: VAS Generator"
2166:
2300:
2204:
2027:
1981:
1931:
1512:
1104:), especially out of a desire to avoid being perceived as having extremist views (an instance of
859:
501:
496:
416:
371:
321:
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271:
131:
108:
1871:
1864:
1769:
1762:
1527: – Design of a questionnaire to gather statistically useful information about a given topic
767:
1243:
are common statistical procedures used after this transformation. Non-parametric tests such as
2408:
2404:
2375:
2371:
2342:
2245:
2019:
1973:
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1113:
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126:
1557: – measurement scale designed to measure a person's subjective perception of, and affect
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2145:
2137:
2125:
2079:
2011:
1965:
1923:
1844:
1802:
1742:
1592:
1499: – Single, ordinal psychometric scale, allowing original observations to be reproduced.
1423:
1386:
1244:
1232:
1099:
1055:
s. Because many Likert scales pair each constituent Likert item with its own instance of a
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731:
675:
531:
486:
441:
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326:
241:
206:
156:
2002:
Norman, Geoff (2010). "Likert scales, levels of measurement and the "laws" of statistics".
1563:
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739:
667:
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544:
516:
461:
421:
186:
136:
1711:
Derrick, B; White, P (2017). "Comparing Two
Samples from an Individual Likert Question".
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847:
763:
755:
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659:
246:
92:
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2070:
Pratt, J. (1959). "Remarks on zeros and ties in the
Wilcoxon signed rank procedures".
2482:
2397:
2364:
1969:
1935:
1669:
1569:
1518:
1496:
1475: – Scale measuring a person's willingness to engage with various types of people
1380:
1165:
back, in many respects, to the extent to which Likert items are interpreted as being
936:
932:
928:
735:
723:
707:
703:
629:
141:
87:
2208:
2128:(2018). "Analyzing ordinal data with metric models: What could possibly go wrong?".
1985:
1647:
1039:
2272:. The Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Atlanta, GA.
2083:
2031:
1536:
1530:
1507:
1240:
945:
727:
679:
2264:
2189:"Design of Diverging Stacked Bar Charts for Likert Scales and Other Applications"
1093:
Likert scales may be subject to distortion from several causes. Respondents may:
1829:
1548:
1369:
986:
743:
715:
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571:
526:
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231:
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1043:
An example questionnaire about a website design, with answers as a Likert scale
2015:
1927:
1746:
1466:
1353:
842:
276:
196:
121:
17:
1950:
1848:
2472:
1914:
Armstrong, Robert (1987). "The midpoint on a Five-Point Likert-Type Scale".
1493: – Standardized psychometric measure of psychopathology and personality
695:
651:
38:
2249:
2023:
1977:
2200:
1814:
1140:, the intersubjective version of objective "faking good" discussed above);
2240:
2223:
1828:
Rusch, Thomas; Lowry, Paul B.; Mair, Patrick; Treiblmaier, Horst (2017).
1502:
1288:
The five response categories are often believed to represent an interval
1147:, the intersubjective version of objective "faking bad" discussed above).
2283:
Labovitz, S. (1967). "Some observations on measurement and statistics".
1227:
To model binary Likert responses directly, they may be represented in a
2304:
1066:
The format of a typical five-level Likert item, for example, could be:
1011: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
82:
2150:
1539: – Wwebsite for users to rate people, content, or other things.
1484:
2296:
2188:
1551: – Cognitive heuristic of searching for an acceptable decision
1361:
1038:
2266:
Paired
Comparison Intransitivity: Useful Information or Nuisance?
2195:. Vol. 57. American Statistical Association. pp. 1–32.
2454:"Correlation scatter-plot matrix for ordered-categorical data"
2318:
Traylor, Mark (October 1983). "Ordinal and interval scaling".
1607:
1438:
1401:
1262:
Alternatively, Likert scale responses can be analyzed with an
980:
908:
1231:
form by summing agree and disagree responses separately. The
931:
scale named after its inventor, American social psychologist
2362:
Meyers, Lawrence S.; Guarino, Anthony; Gamst, Glenn (2005).
1648:"What is a Likert Scale? and How Do You Pronounce 'Likert?'"
1572: – Method by which voters make a choice between options
2263:
Johanson, George A.; Gips, Crystal J. (April 12–16, 1993).
1870:(Second ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education. pp.
1768:(Second ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education. pp.
1601:
1432:
1395:
902:
2399:
Work
Motivation: History, Theory, Research, And Practice
2366:
2046:"Likert Scale Explanation - With an Interactive Example"
1672:(1932). "A Technique for the Measurement of Attitudes".
2176:. American Statistical Association. pp. 1058–1066.
1259:. are often used in the analysis of Likert scale data.
973:) as information to be incorporated in scaling items.
1619:
1604:
1566: – First formal technique to measure an attitude
1521: – Series of questions for gathering information
1450:
1435:
1413:
1398:
1121:
that encourages and incentivizes eagerness to please;
920:
905:
2403:. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications. p.
1610:
1598:
1559:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
1441:
1429:
1404:
1392:
911:
899:
2174:
JSM Proceedings, Section on Survey
Research Methods
1713:
International
Journal of Mathematics and Statistics
1595:
1426:
1389:
949:, although there are other types of rating scales.
896:
1863:
1761:
1383:, the developer of the scale, pronounced his name
1308:rated with a Likert scale circular relations like
1515: – Psychometric scale used in questionnaires
1193:measurement. So while a Likert scale is indeed
2341:. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. p. 174.
2072:Journal of the American Statistical Association
1533: – Type of informational measurement scale
1487: – Scale and method in clinical psychology
1368:for the Rasch measures, a deliberate choice by
1997:
1995:
1364:of the model. However, the raw scores are the
1188:A good Likert scale, as above, will present a
2222:Reips, Ulf-Dietrich; Funke, Frederik (2008).
1706:
1704:
1702:
867:
8:
2438:Research Methods Knowledge Base, 2nd Edition
2103:Learning Technology Dissemination Initiative
2432:Trochim, William M. K. (October 20, 2006).
1895:Allen, Elaine; Seaman, Christopher (2007).
874:
860:
45:
29:
2239:
2187:Heiberger, R. M.; Robbins, N. B. (2014).
2167:"Plotting Likert and Other Rating Scales"
2165:Robbins, N. B.; Heiberger, R. M. (2011).
2149:
2130:Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
1728:
1726:
1097:Avoid using extreme response categories (
1027:Learn how and when to remove this message
969:treats the difficulty of each item (the
2473:Likert scales: Dispelling the confusion
1638:
1582:
1481: – Plot used in psychodrama groups
1275:Visual presentation of Likert-type data
37:
2320:Journal of the Market Research Society
2004:Advances in Health Sciences Education
943:) is often used interchangeably with
935:, which is commonly used in research
7:
2099:"So You Want to Use a Likert Scale?"
1951:"Likert Scales: How to (Ab)use Them"
1862:Burns, Alvin; Burns, Ronald (2008).
1760:Burns, Alvin; Burns, Ronald (2008).
1646:Wuensch, Karl L. (October 4, 2005).
1111:Agree with statements as presented (
1009:adding citations to reliable sources
1807:10.1046/j.1365-2648.1994.20010196.x
1469: – Scale of perceived exertion
1051:is the sum of responses on several
1693:Summated Rating Scale Construction
25:
1897:"Likert Scales and Data Analyses"
1545: – Self-report questionnaire
1970:10.1111/j.1365-2929.2004.02012.x
1591:
1422:
1385:
1216:allows treatment of the data as
985:
892:
841:
2193:Journal of Statistical Software
996:needs additional citations for
427:Peace, war, and social conflict
2097:Mogey, Nora (March 25, 1999).
2084:10.1080/01621459.1959.10501526
1473:Bogardus social distance scale
1332:can appear. This violates the
27:Psychometric measurement scale
1:
2370:. Sage Publications. p.
2339:The Basics of Social Research
1837:Information & Management
1086:Likert scaling is a bipolar
1916:Perceptual and Motor Skills
1795:Journal of Advanced Nursing
1543:Rosenberg self-esteem scale
2515:
2494:Questionnaire construction
2452:Galili, Tal (2010-04-07).
2142:10.1016/j.jesp.2018.08.009
1735:Journal of Social Sciences
1650:. East Carolina University
1589:Commonly mispronounced as
1525:Questionnaire construction
1269:Consensus-based assessment
1076:Neither agree nor disagree
98:Human environmental impact
2228:Behavior Research Methods
2016:10.1007/s10459-010-9222-y
1928:10.2466/pms.1987.64.2.359
1747:10.3844/jssp.2007.106.116
1253:Wilcoxon signed-rank test
1207:Wilcoxon signed-rank test
2395:Latham, Gary P. (2006).
2337:Babbie, Earl R. (2005).
2105:. Heriot-Watt University
1949:Jamieson, Susan (2004).
1866:Basic Marketing Research
1849:10.1016/j.im.2016.06.005
1764:Basic Marketing Research
1691:Spector, Paul E (1992).
1513:Phrase completion scales
1137:social desirability bias
1106:social desirability bias
192:Structural functionalism
1336:for the ordinal scale.
1176:or scale (from which a
212:Symbolic interactionism
107:Industrial revolutions
1674:Archives of Psychology
1350:polytomous Rasch model
1044:
202:Social constructionism
2201:10.18637/jss.v057.i05
1555:Semantic differential
1366:sufficient statistics
1334:axiom of transitivity
1294:visual analogue scale
1214:central limit theorem
1057:visual analogue scale
1042:
577:Conversation analysis
152:Social stratification
2241:10.3758/BRM.40.3.699
1479:Diamond of opposites
1290:level of measurement
1284:Level of measurement
1222:analysis of variance
1156:Scoring and analysis
1119:institutionalization
1005:improve this article
963:internal consistency
1257:Kruskal–Wallis test
162:Social cycle theory
33:Part of a series on
2499:Survey methodology
2471:Uebersax, John S.
1045:
967:modern test theory
848:Society portal
471:History of science
452:Race and ethnicity
132:Social environment
2458:R-statistics blog
2414:978-0-7619-2018-2
2381:978-1-4129-0412-4
2348:978-0-534-63036-2
1964:(12): 1217–1218.
1958:Medical Education
1903:. pp. 64–65.
1881:978-0-13-205958-9
1779:978-0-13-205958-9
1249:Mann–Whitney test
1114:acquiescence bias
1070:Strongly disagree
1037:
1036:
1029:
941:Likert-type scale
884:
883:
602:Social experiment
482:Social psychology
127:Social complexity
16:(Redirected from
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2434:"Likert Scaling"
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2078:(287): 655–667.
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1999:
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1328: >
1320: >
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1245:chi-squared test
1237:Cochran's Q test
1100:central tendency
1032:
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1021:
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989:
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597:Network analysis
487:Sociocybernetics
477:Social movements
207:Social darwinism
157:Social structure
49:
30:
21:
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2297:10.2307/2574595
2282:
2281:
2277:
2269:
2262:
2261:
2257:
2221:
2220:
2216:
2186:
2185:
2181:
2169:
2164:
2163:
2159:
2123:
2122:
2118:
2108:
2106:
2096:
2095:
2091:
2069:
2068:
2064:
2054:
2052:
2044:
2043:
2039:
2001:
2000:
1993:
1953:
1948:
1947:
1943:
1913:
1912:
1908:
1894:
1893:
1889:
1882:
1861:
1860:
1856:
1832:
1827:
1826:
1822:
1792:
1791:
1787:
1780:
1759:
1758:
1754:
1732:
1731:
1724:
1710:
1709:
1700:
1690:
1689:
1685:
1668:
1667:
1663:
1653:
1651:
1645:
1644:
1640:
1635:
1630:
1629:
1620:
1594:
1590:
1588:
1584:
1579:
1564:Thurstone scale
1558:
1463:
1451:
1425:
1421:
1414:
1388:
1384:
1378:
1346:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1286:
1277:
1204:
1178:distance metric
1158:
1033:
1022:
1016:
1013:
1002:
990:
979:
921:
895:
891:
880:
840:
833:
832:
793:
783:
782:
710:
636:
622:
620:Major theorists
612:
611:
547:
537:
536:
227:
217:
216:
187:Critical theory
182:Conflict theory
177:
167:
166:
137:Social equality
78:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2512:
2510:
2502:
2501:
2496:
2491:
2481:
2480:
2477:
2476:
2469:
2449:
2427:
2426:External links
2424:
2421:
2420:
2413:
2387:
2380:
2354:
2347:
2329:
2310:
2291:(2): 151–160.
2275:
2255:
2234:(3): 699–704.
2214:
2179:
2157:
2116:
2089:
2062:
2037:
2010:(5): 625–632.
1991:
1941:
1922:(2): 359–362.
1906:
1887:
1880:
1854:
1843:(2): 189–203.
1820:
1801:(1): 196–201.
1785:
1778:
1752:
1741:(3): 106–116.
1722:
1698:
1683:
1670:Likert, Rensis
1661:
1637:
1636:
1634:
1631:
1628:
1627:
1581:
1580:
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1329:
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1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
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1301:
1297:
1285:
1282:
1276:
1273:
1264:ordered probit
1202:
1174:measure theory
1157:
1154:
1149:
1148:
1141:
1132:
1129:
1126:
1122:
1109:
1088:scaling method
1084:
1083:
1082:Strongly agree
1080:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1035:
1034:
993:
991:
984:
978:
975:
937:questionnaires
882:
881:
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864:
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831:
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815:
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794:
789:
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638:
637:
623:
618:
617:
614:
613:
610:
609:
604:
599:
594:
589:
584:
579:
574:
569:
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314:
309:
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294:
289:
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269:
264:
259:
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247:Astrosociology
244:
239:
234:
228:
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215:
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209:
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105:
100:
95:
93:Human behavior
90:
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72:
71:
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69:
64:
59:
51:
50:
42:
41:
35:
34:
26:
24:
18:Likert scaling
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2511:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2489:Psychometrics
2487:
2486:
2484:
2474:
2470:
2459:
2455:
2450:
2439:
2435:
2430:
2429:
2425:
2416:
2410:
2406:
2401:
2400:
2391:
2388:
2383:
2377:
2373:
2368:
2367:
2358:
2355:
2350:
2344:
2340:
2333:
2330:
2326:(4): 297–303.
2325:
2321:
2314:
2311:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2285:Social Forces
2279:
2276:
2268:
2267:
2259:
2256:
2251:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2218:
2215:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2183:
2180:
2175:
2168:
2161:
2158:
2152:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2124:Liddell, T.;
2120:
2117:
2104:
2100:
2093:
2090:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2066:
2063:
2051:
2047:
2041:
2038:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
1998:
1996:
1992:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1952:
1945:
1942:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1910:
1907:
1902:
1898:
1891:
1888:
1883:
1877:
1873:
1868:
1867:
1858:
1855:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1831:
1824:
1821:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1789:
1786:
1781:
1775:
1771:
1766:
1765:
1756:
1753:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1729:
1727:
1723:
1718:
1714:
1707:
1705:
1703:
1699:
1694:
1687:
1684:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1665:
1662:
1649:
1642:
1639:
1632:
1625:
1624:
1615:
1586:
1583:
1576:
1571:
1570:Voting system
1568:
1565:
1562:
1556:
1553:
1550:
1547:
1544:
1541:
1538:
1535:
1532:
1529:
1526:
1523:
1520:
1519:Questionnaire
1517:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1498:
1497:Guttman scale
1495:
1492:
1489:
1486:
1483:
1480:
1477:
1474:
1471:
1468:
1465:
1464:
1460:
1458:
1456:
1455:
1446:
1419:
1418:
1409:
1382:
1381:Rensis Likert
1376:Pronunciation
1375:
1373:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1358:
1355:
1351:
1343:
1341:
1337:
1335:
1295:
1291:
1283:
1281:
1274:
1272:
1270:
1265:
1260:
1258:
1254:
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1238:
1234:
1230:
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1223:
1219:
1215:
1210:
1208:
1198:
1196:
1191:
1186:
1182:
1179:
1175:
1170:
1168:
1162:
1155:
1153:
1146:
1145:norm defiance
1142:
1139:
1138:
1133:
1130:
1127:
1123:
1120:
1116:
1115:
1110:
1107:
1103:
1101:
1096:
1095:
1094:
1091:
1089:
1081:
1078:
1075:
1072:
1069:
1068:
1067:
1064:
1060:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1041:
1031:
1028:
1020:
1010:
1006:
1000:
999:
994:This section
992:
988:
983:
982:
976:
974:
972:
968:
964:
958:
954:
950:
948:
947:
942:
938:
934:
933:Rensis Likert
930:
926:
925:
916:
889:
877:
872:
870:
865:
863:
858:
857:
855:
854:
849:
844:
839:
838:
837:
836:
829:
826:
824:
821:
819:
816:
814:
813:Organizations
811:
809:
806:
804:
801:
799:
796:
795:
792:
787:
786:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
762: ·
761:
758: ·
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
718: ·
717:
714:
711:
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
650: ·
649:
645:
642:
635:
631:
628:
625:
624:
621:
616:
615:
608:
605:
603:
600:
598:
595:
593:
590:
588:
585:
583:
580:
578:
575:
573:
570:
568:
567:Computational
565:
563:
560:
558:
555:
553:
550:
549:
546:
541:
540:
533:
530:
528:
525:
523:
520:
518:
515:
513:
510:
508:
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503:
500:
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488:
485:
483:
480:
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472:
468:
465:
463:
460:
458:
455:
453:
450:
448:
445:
443:
440:
438:
435:
433:
430:
428:
425:
423:
420:
418:
415:
413:
410:
408:
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403:
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388:
385:
383:
380:
378:
375:
373:
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368:
365:
363:
360:
358:
355:
353:
350:
348:
345:
343:
340:
338:
335:
333:
330:
328:
325:
323:
320:
318:
315:
313:
312:Environmental
310:
307:
303:
300:
298:
295:
293:
290:
288:
285:
283:
280:
278:
275:
273:
270:
268:
265:
263:
262:Consciousness
260:
258:
255:
253:
250:
248:
245:
243:
240:
238:
235:
233:
230:
229:
226:
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198:
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185:
183:
180:
179:
176:
171:
170:
163:
160:
158:
155:
153:
150:
148:
145:
143:
142:Social equity
140:
138:
135:
133:
130:
128:
125:
123:
120:
118:
114:
110:
106:
104:
101:
99:
96:
94:
91:
89:
88:Globalization
86:
84:
81:
80:
74:
73:
68:
65:
63:
60:
58:
55:
54:
53:
52:
48:
44:
43:
40:
36:
32:
31:
19:
2461:. Retrieved
2457:
2441:. Retrieved
2437:
2398:
2390:
2365:
2357:
2338:
2332:
2323:
2319:
2313:
2288:
2284:
2278:
2265:
2258:
2231:
2227:
2217:
2192:
2182:
2173:
2160:
2133:
2129:
2126:Kruschke, J.
2119:
2107:. Retrieved
2102:
2092:
2075:
2071:
2065:
2053:. Retrieved
2049:
2040:
2007:
2003:
1961:
1957:
1944:
1919:
1915:
1909:
1900:
1890:
1865:
1857:
1840:
1836:
1823:
1798:
1794:
1788:
1763:
1755:
1738:
1734:
1716:
1712:
1692:
1686:
1677:
1673:
1664:
1654:December 16,
1652:. Retrieved
1641:
1585:
1537:Rating sites
1531:Rating scale
1508:Mokken scale
1485:Discan scale
1379:
1359:
1347:
1338:
1287:
1278:
1261:
1241:McNemar test
1226:
1211:
1199:
1189:
1187:
1183:
1171:
1163:
1159:
1150:
1144:
1135:
1112:
1098:
1092:
1085:
1065:
1061:
1052:
1049:Likert scale
1048:
1046:
1023:
1014:
1003:Please help
998:verification
995:
959:
955:
951:
946:rating scale
944:
940:
929:psychometric
888:Likert scale
887:
885:
798:Bibliography
712:
640:
639:
626:
592:Mathematical
572:Ethnographic
552:Quantitative
237:Architecture
175:Perspectives
147:Social power
2463:November 7,
2136:: 328–348.
1549:Satisficing
1370:Georg Rasch
1344:Rasch model
1233:chi-squared
1053:Likert item
977:Composition
803:Terminology
772:Baudrillard
648:Tocqueville
562:Comparative
557:Qualitative
527:Victimology
357:Immigration
342:Generations
257:Criminology
2483:Categories
2151:2022/21970
2050:SurveyKing
1719:(3): 1–13.
1633:References
1467:Borg scale
1354:hypothesis
828:By country
582:Historical
507:Technology
447:Punishment
432:Philosophy
407:Mathematic
397:Literature
362:Industrial
352:Historical
277:Demography
197:Positivism
122:Popularity
77:Key themes
2443:April 30,
2109:April 30,
2055:13 August
1936:145705789
1017:June 2023
644:Martineau
587:Interview
512:Terrorism
492:Sociology
437:Political
377:Knowledge
297:Education
39:Sociology
2250:18697664
2209:61139330
2024:20146096
1986:42509064
1978:15566531
1503:Ipsative
1491:K-factor
1461:See also
1304:,
1300:,
1229:binomial
1218:interval
1190:symmetry
1125:context;
1073:Disagree
927:,) is a
823:Timeline
808:Journals
776:Bourdieu
768:Habermas
764:Luhmann
760:Foucault
704:Mannheim
684:Durkheim
457:Religion
417:Military
382:Language
367:Internet
322:Feminist
306:Jealousy
292:Economic
287:Disaster
282:Deviance
225:Branches
103:Identity
2475:. 2006.
2305:2574595
2032:6566608
1815:7930122
1695:. Sage.
1680:: 1–55.
1195:ordinal
1167:ordinal
780:Giddens
778:·
774:·
766:·
754:·
752:Goffman
748:Schoeck
734:·
726:·
702:·
700:Du Bois
698:·
690:·
686:·
678:·
672:Tönnies
670:·
656:Spencer
654:·
632:·
545:Methods
522:Utopian
467:Science
412:Medical
402:Marxist
392:Leisure
302:Emotion
267:Culture
83:Society
62:Outline
57:History
2411:
2378:
2345:
2303:
2248:
2207:
2030:
2022:
1984:
1976:
1934:
1878:
1813:
1776:
1362:axioms
1169:data.
818:People
756:Bauman
736:Nisbet
732:Merton
724:Gehlen
720:Adorno
713:1900s:
688:Addams
680:Simmel
676:Veblen
668:Pareto
660:Le Bon
641:1800s:
634:Sieyès
627:1700s:
607:Survey
532:Visual
442:Public
347:Health
337:Gender
327:Fiscal
317:Family
2301:JSTOR
2270:(PDF)
2205:S2CID
2170:(PDF)
2028:S2CID
1982:S2CID
1954:(PDF)
1932:S2CID
1833:(PDF)
1623:-kərt
1577:Notes
1454:-kərt
1255:, or
1239:, or
1079:Agree
961:high
791:Lists
740:Mills
716:Fromm
708:Elias
696:Weber
630:Comte
517:Urban
502:Sport
497:Space
462:Rural
422:Music
372:Jewry
272:Death
232:Aging
67:Index
2465:2017
2445:2009
2409:ISBN
2376:ISBN
2343:ISBN
2246:PMID
2111:2009
2057:2017
2020:PMID
1974:PMID
1876:ISBN
1811:PMID
1774:ISBN
1656:2023
1417:-ərt
1324:and
1102:bias
971:ICCs
924:-ərt
744:Bell
728:Aron
692:Mead
664:Ward
652:Marx
332:Food
252:Body
2293:doi
2236:doi
2197:doi
2146:hdl
2138:doi
2080:doi
2012:doi
1966:doi
1924:doi
1872:250
1845:doi
1803:doi
1770:245
1743:doi
1678:140
1415:LIK
1007:by
922:LIK
387:Law
242:Art
2485::
2456:.
2436:.
2407:.
2405:15
2374:.
2372:20
2324:25
2322:.
2299:.
2289:46
2287:.
2244:.
2232:40
2230:.
2226:.
2203:.
2191:.
2172:.
2144:.
2134:79
2132:.
2101:.
2076:54
2074:.
2048:.
2026:.
2018:.
2008:15
2006:.
1994:^
1980:.
1972:.
1962:38
1960:.
1956:.
1930:.
1920:64
1918:.
1899:.
1874:.
1841:54
1839:.
1835:.
1809:.
1799:20
1797:.
1772:.
1737:.
1725:^
1717:18
1715:.
1701:^
1676:.
1621:LY
1608:ər
1602:aɪ
1457:.
1452:LY
1439:ər
1433:aɪ
1402:ər
1316:,
1251:,
1247:,
1235:,
1209:.
1047:A
909:ər
886:A
770:·
750:·
746:·
742:·
738:·
730:·
722:·
706:·
694:·
682:·
674:·
666:·
662:·
658:·
646:·
115:/
111:/
2467:.
2447:.
2417:.
2384:.
2351:.
2307:.
2295::
2252:.
2238::
2211:.
2199::
2154:.
2148::
2140::
2113:.
2086:.
2082::
2059:.
2034:.
2014::
1988:.
1968::
1938:.
1926::
1884:.
1851:.
1847::
1817:.
1805::
1782:.
1749:.
1745::
1739:3
1658:.
1614:/
1611:t
1605:k
1599:l
1596:ˈ
1593:/
1445:/
1442:t
1436:k
1430:l
1427:ˈ
1424:/
1408:/
1405:t
1399:k
1396:ɪ
1393:l
1390:ˈ
1387:/
1330:A
1326:C
1322:C
1318:B
1314:B
1310:A
1306:C
1302:B
1298:A
1203:t
1030:)
1024:(
1019:)
1015:(
1001:.
915:/
912:t
906:k
903:ɪ
900:l
897:ˈ
894:/
890:(
875:e
868:t
861:v
473:)
469:(
308:)
304:(
117:5
113:4
109:3
20:)
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