686:
127:
316:
605:
134:
148:
20:
245:
525:, which were likely caused by low blood oxygen levels in those asphyxiated by carbon dioxide. Nearby vegetation was largely unaffected, except any growing immediately adjacent to the lake. There, vegetation was damaged or destroyed by a 24 m (79 ft) high tsunami caused by the violent eruption.
657:
While the lake could be degassed in a manner similar to Lake Monoun and Lake Nyos, due to the size of Lake Kivu and the volume of gas it contains, such an operation would be expensive, running into the millions of dollars. A scheme initiated in 2010 to use methane trapped in the lake as a fuel source
190:
surged over the surrounding hills, despite there being no rain nor tributaries flowing into the lake to account for the rise in water level. The ensuing flood destroyed fields and vineyards before eventually pouring into the sea. This event is thought to have been caused by volcanic gases, trapped in
564:
comes out of solution and forms bubbles. The natural buoyancy of the bubbles draws the water up the pipe at high velocity resulting in a fountain at the surface. The degassifying water acts like a pump, drawing more water into the bottom of the pipe, and creating a self-sustaining flow. This is the
417:
can be potential triggers. Limnic eruptions can also be caused by gradual gas saturation at specific depths triggering spontaneous gas development. Regardless of cause, the trigger pushes gas-saturated water higher in the lake, where the reduced pressure is insufficient to keep gas in solution. The
471:
516:
At Lake Nyos, the gas cloud descended into a nearby village where it settled, killing nearly everyone; casualties as far as 25 km (16 mi) were reported. A change in skin color on some bodies led scientists to hypothesize the gas cloud may have contained dissolved acid such as
559:
enters the bottom of the pipe and rises to the top. The lower pressure at the surface allows the gas to come out of solution. Only a small amount of water must be mechanically pumped initially through the pipe to start the flow. As saturated water rises, the
649:
dissociation and a rising surface temperature. Research investigating historical and present-day temperatures show Lake Kivu's surface temperature is increasing by about 0.12 °C per decade. Lake Kivu is in close proximity to potential triggers:
568:
Each pipe has a limited pumping capacity and several would be required for both Lake Monoun and Lake Nyos to degas a significant fraction of the deep lake water and render the lakes safe. The deep lake waters are slightly acidic due to the dissolved
237:. Sediment samples taken from the lake showed an event caused living creatures in the lake to go extinct around every 1,000 years, and caused nearby vegetation to be swept back into the lake. Limnic eruptions can be detected and quantified on a CO
457:
to remain dissolved. It is estimated only one meromictic lake exists for every 1,000 holomictic lakes. Finally, a lake must be very deep in order to have sufficiently pressurized water that can dissolve large amounts of
588:
levels, removing approximately the same amount of gas that naturally enters at the lake bed. In
January 2003, an 18-month project was approved to fully degas Lake Monoun, and the lake has since been rendered safe.
331:
was the primary component in the two observed cases, Lake Nyos and Lake Monoun. In Lake Kivu's case, scientists, including lake physicist Alfred Johny Wüest, were also concerned about the concentrations of
1530:
1222:
Gusiakov, V.K. (2014). "Tsunami impact on the
African continent: historical cases and hazard evaluation". In Ismail-Zadeh, A.; Urrutia Fucugauchi, J.; Kijko, A.; Takeuchi, K.; Zaliapin, I. (eds.).
1127:
401:
Once a lake is saturated, it is very unstable and it gives off a smell of rotten eggs and gunpowder, but a trigger is needed to set off an eruption. In the case of the 1986 Lake Nyos eruption,
539:
Efforts are underway to develop a solution for removing the gas from these lakes and to prevent a build-up which could lead to another catastrophe. A team led by French scientist
2166:
555:
to degas the waters of these lakes in a controlled manner. The team positioned a pipe vertically in the lake with its upper end above the water surface. Water saturated with CO
422:
from the resulting bubbles lifts the water even higher, releasing yet more bubbles. This process forms a column of gas, at which point the water at the bottom is pulled up by
1065:
896:
Kling, George W.; Clark, Michael A.; Wagner, Glen N.; Compton, Harry R.; Humphrey, Alan M.; Devine, Joseph D.; Evans, William C.; Lockwood, John P.; et al. (1987).
1361:
1391:
736:
580:
In
January 2001, a single pipe was installed by the French-Cameroonian team on Lake Nyos, and two more pipes were installed in 2011 with funding support from the
1507:
115:
casualties led scientists to classify limnic eruptions as a distinct type of disaster event, even though they can be indirectly linked to volcanic eruptions.
1039:
1508:"The volcanic risk - How hazardous is the gas accumulation in Lake Kivu? Arguments for a risk assesment in light of the Nyiragongo Volcano eruption of 2002"
1330:
861:
Sigurdsson, H.; Devine, J.D.; Tchua, F.M.; Presser, F.M.; Pringle, M.K.W.; Evans, W.C. (1987). "Origin of the lethal gas burst from Lake Monoun, Cameroun".
1741:
840:
Ohba, Takeshi, et al. “A Depression
Containing CO2-Enriched Water at the Bottom of Lake Monoun, Cameroon, and Implications for the 1984 Limnic Eruption.”
584:. A pipe was installed at Lake Monoun in 2003 and two more were added in 2006. These three pipes are thought to be sufficient to prevent an increase in CO
1121:
642:
yet; if the water were to become heavily saturated, a limnic eruption would pose a great risk to human and animal life, potentially killing millions.
2159:
1563:
577:
from the pipes could settle on the surface of the lake forming a thin layer of unbreathable air and thus potentially causing problems for wildlife.
1658:
Lorke, Andreas; Tietze, Klaus; Halbwachs, Michel; Wüest, Alfred (2004). "Response of Lake Kivu stratification to lava inflow and climate warming".
1754:
1201:
1231:
1422:
1008:
2152:
581:
126:
820:
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for the DRC government, which impedes both studies and any subsequent mitigating actions. Lake Kivu has not reached a high level of CO
623:, but is also located in a far more densely populated area, with over two million people living along its shores. The part within the
161:
1714:
814:
1608:
1616:"Development and sensitivity analysis of a model for assessing stratification and safety of Lake Nyos during artificial degassing"
2329:
624:
226:
1061:
1734:
645:
Two significant changes in Lake Kivu's physical state have brought attention to a possible limnic eruption: the high rates of
778:
1251:
1603:
1353:
666:
degassing. During the procedure for extracting the flammable methane gas used to fuel power stations on the shore, some CO
521:, though this hypothesis is disputed. Many victims were found with blisters on their skin, thought to have been caused by
1089:"An overview of the structure, hazards, and methods of investigation of Nyos-type lakes from the geochemical perspective"
2103:
1383:
733:
654:(an active volcano which erupted in January 2002 and May 2021), an active earthquake zone, and other active volcanoes.
2334:
2175:
1838:
191:
sediment at the bottom of the lake and gradually building up until suddenly releasing, causing the water to overflow.
573:
which causes corrosion to the pipes and electronics, necessitating ongoing maintenance. There is some concern that CO
2339:
1727:
174:
gas) behind limnic eruptions, it is difficult to determine to what extent eruptions have occurred in the past. The
1593:
1322:
1031:
1123:
Paleoenvironmental and paleoclimatic studies on the sediments of Lake Vähä-Pitkusta and observations of meromixis
2221:
941:
674:. It is unclear whether enough gas will be removed to eliminate the danger of a limnic eruption at Lake Kivu.
2319:
671:
430:
in a runaway process. This eruption discharges the gas into the air and can displace enough water to form a
394:
decreases, with depth. A small increase in water temperature can lead to the release of a large amount of CO
1555:
565:
same process which leads to a natural eruption, but in this case it is controlled by the size of the pipe.
441:
source must exist; regions with volcanic activity are most at risk. Second, the vast majority of lakes are
194:
In recent history, this phenomenon has been observed twice. The first recorded limnic eruption occurred in
1675:
1506:
Schmid, Martin; Tietze, Klaus; Halbwachs, Michel; Lorke, Andreas; McGinnis, Daniel; Wüest, Alfred (2002).
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than air, it has a tendency to sink to the ground, simultaneously displacing breathable air, resulting in
747:
540:
2206:
1809:
1667:
1630:
1460:
909:
870:
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also dissolves more readily in cooler water, so very deep lakes can dissolve very large amounts of CO
379:
1680:
1197:
2229:
1615:
450:
1704:
470:
2298:
2278:
2239:
2234:
2211:
1693:
1646:
1414:
1000:
981:
933:
324:
207:
112:
2196:
849:
2273:
2257:
2191:
2118:
1828:
1762:
1488:
1300:
1227:
1179:
925:
810:
800:
714:
699:
518:
1614:
Schmid, Martin; Lorke, Andreas; Wüest, Alfred; Halbwachs, Michel; Tanyileke, Gregory (2003).
2288:
2201:
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2044:
1846:
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39:
751:
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446:
304:
1719:
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1634:
1464:
913:
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315:
70:, and other explosive events can serve as triggers for limnic eruptions as the rising CO
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1818:
1483:
1448:
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632:
522:
371:
43:
2313:
2113:
1911:
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985:
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50:) suddenly erupts from deep lake waters, forming a gas cloud capable of asphyxiating
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2025:
1858:
1823:
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1598:
691:
341:
175:
604:
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93:
A cool lake bottom indicating an absence of direct volcanic heat with lake waters
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2009:
1942:
1921:
1916:
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1709:
1247:
639:
544:
502:
391:
348:
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108:
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in the United States spontaneously degasses on a much smaller scale each fall.
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1804:
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253:
63:
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1991:
1986:
1981:
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620:
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609:
548:
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cloud forms above the lake and expands to the surrounding region. Because CO
475:
445:(their layers mix regularly), preventing a buildup of dissolved gases. Only
402:
359:
284:
222:
211:
55:
23:
1492:
1304:
929:
509:. As victims gasp for air, they actually accelerate asphyxia by inhaling CO
1183:
218:, killing around 1,700 people and 3,000 livestock, again by asphyxiation.
165:
Locations of the two recorded limnic eruptions in modern history, Cameroon
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1976:
1876:
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494:
419:
367:
292:
203:
195:
179:
51:
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Limnic eruptions are exceptionally rare for several reasons. First, a CO
344:
emitted from under the lake, or from decomposition of organic material.
74:
displaces water. Lakes in which such activity occurs are referred to as
2066:
2040:
2001:
1937:
1868:
1789:
646:
490:
431:
423:
333:
300:
264:
67:
19:
1295:
1278:
806:
704:
659:
552:
280:
272:
268:
260:
256:
230:
59:
897:
2183:
1897:
1851:
1526:
603:
469:
323:
For a lake to undergo a limnic eruption, the water must be nearly
314:
244:
243:
18:
1224:
Extreme
Natural Hazards, Disaster Risks and Societal Implications
501:
can make human bodily fluids highly acidic and potentially cause
241:
concentration scale by taking air samples of the affected region.
2034:
414:
410:
288:
276:
2148:
1723:
170:
Due to the largely invisible nature of the underlying cause (CO
774:
744:
1715:
Using
Science to Solve Problems: The Killer Lakes of Cameroon
347:
Before a lake becomes saturated, it behaves like an unopened
1556:"Rwanda harnesses volcanic gases from depths of Lake Kivu"
898:"The 1986 Lake Nyos Gas Disaster in Cameroon, West Africa"
405:
were the suspected triggers, but a volcanic eruption, an
267:, show evidence of a limnic eruption there in the early
1226:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 230.
319:
Diagram describing the occurrence of limnic eruption
82:. Some features of limnically active lakes include:
2266:
2248:
2220:
2182:
2096:
2059:
2018:
2000:
1969:
1962:
1930:
1896:
1889:
1867:
1837:
1803:
1770:
1761:
248:
Lake Monoun situated in the West Region of
Cameroon
96:An upper and lower thermal layer with differing CO
1415:"How dangerous is Africa's explosive Lake Kivu?"
1001:"How Dangerous is Africa's Explosive Lake Kivu?"
382:as bubbles of gas, which rise to the surface. CO
1323:"How did Lake Nyos suddenly kill 1,700 people?"
362:in the water. In both lakes and soft drinks, CO
863:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
233:, and contains massive amounts of dissolved CO
2160:
1735:
1062:"The Power Plant That Could Prevent Disaster"
474:Bovine killed by the 1986 limnic eruption at
8:
271:. Among the victims are perfectly preserved
802:The Physical Geography of the Mediterranean
2167:
2153:
2145:
1966:
1893:
1767:
1742:
1728:
1720:
850:https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2022.766791.
619:is not only about 1,700 times larger than
214:in 1986, releasing over 80 million m of CO
1679:
1482:
1472:
1294:
1272:
1270:
1268:
1173:
1104:
975:
103:Proximity to areas with volcanic activity
1279:"Battle to degas deadly lakes continues"
964:"The danger lurking in an African lake"
726:
374:. When the pressure is released, the CO
26:, the site of a limnic eruption in 1986
1333:from the original on 21 September 2013
1316:
1314:
1248:"BBC Cameroons "killer lake" degassed"
1198:"BBC Horizon programme "Killer Lakes""
823:from the original on 22 September 2023
366:dissolves much more readily at higher
206:and death of 37 people living nearby.
1609:Cracking the Killer Lakes of Cameroon
1442:
1440:
1042:from the original on January 23, 2023
1030:Rosen, Jonathon W. (April 16, 2015).
781:from the original on 18 February 2014
7:
1710:BBC Cameroons "killer lake" degassed
1589:Page of the team degassing Lake Nyos
1425:from the original on 11 October 2022
1394:from the original on 8 November 2019
999:Jones, Nicola (September 23, 2021).
582:United Nations Development Programme
1594:Lake's silent killer to be disarmed
1126:(Doctoral Thesis). Yliopistopaino.
1011:from the original on March 21, 2023
481:Once an eruption occurs, a large CO
133:
225:, rests on the border between the
14:
1566:from the original on 11 June 2016
1068:from the original on 28 July 2021
670:is removed in a process known as
147:
1354:"Lake to lose its silent killer"
1352:Nicola Jones (1 February 2003).
844:, vol. 10, May 2022, p. 766791.
684:
625:Democratic Republic of the Congo
227:Democratic Republic of the Congo
146:
132:
125:
1536:from the original on 2022-10-11
1364:from the original on 2011-09-17
1254:from the original on 2013-09-21
1204:from the original on 2020-02-05
1130:from the original on 2021-06-06
944:from the original on 2022-06-05
734:Volcanic Lakes and Gas Releases
1032:"Lake Kivu's Great Gas Gamble"
799:Woodward, Jamie (7 May 2009),
390:since pressure increases, and
221:A third lake, the much larger
1:
1449:"Recent Warming of Lake Kivu"
1382:Otto, Laura (28 April 2017).
1321:Nasr, Susan (24 March 2009).
773:, Internet Classics Archive (
2104:Potentially hazardous object
1554:Rice, Xan (16 August 2010).
1474:10.1371/journal.pone.0109084
922:10.1126/science.236.4798.169
883:10.1016/0377-0273(87)90002-3
745:Cascades Volcano Observatory
592:There is some evidence that
2176:Types of volcanic eruptions
1421:. Springer Nature Limited.
805:, Oxford University Press (
658:to generate electricity in
208:A second, deadlier eruption
2356:
1660:Limnology and Oceanography
1384:"When Lake Michigan burps"
1166:10.1136/bmj.299.6697.513-a
842:Frontiers in Earth Science
535:Lake Nyos § Degassing
532:
1690:10.4319/lo.2004.49.3.0778
1643:10.1007/s10236-003-0032-0
977:10.1146/knowable-100720-1
662:has led to a degree of CO
90:-saturated incoming water
38:, is a very rare type of
1390:. Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
1106:10.4081/jlimnol.2014.836
754:, Vancouver, Washington.
210:happened at neighboring
16:Type of natural disaster
2330:Volcanic eruption types
1447:Katsev, Sergei (2014).
543:began experimenting at
76:limnically active lakes
1277:Jones, Nicola (2010).
1087:Tassi, Franco (2014).
613:
478:
320:
249:
119:Historical occurrences
107:Investigations of the
27:
2267:Other classifications
1036:MIT Technology Review
629:active armed conflict
607:
473:
426:, and it too loses CO
318:
247:
62:. Scientists believe
22:
1150:"Lake Nyos disaster"
1120:Hakala, Anu (2005).
1093:Journal of Limnology
162:class=notpageimage|
1672:2004LimOc..49..778L
1635:2003OcDyn..53..288S
1604:Degassing Lake Nyos
1465:2014PLoSO...9j9084K
1148:Freeth, SJ (1989).
962:Wenz, John (2020).
914:1987Sci...236..169K
875:1987JVGR...31....1S
608:Satellite image of
340:may originate from
182:reports that in 406
42:in which dissolved
2335:Geological hazards
1755:list by death toll
1515:Acta Vulcanologica
846:DOI.org (Crossref)
750:2007-01-07 at the
739:2013-12-24 at the
672:catalyst scrubbing
614:
479:
321:
250:
34:, also known as a
28:
2340:Natural disasters
2307:
2306:
2142:
2141:
2119:Geomagnetic storm
2092:
2091:
1958:
1957:
1885:
1884:
1829:Soil liquefaction
1751:Natural disasters
1327:HowStuffWorks.com
1233:978-1-107-03386-3
968:Knowable Magazine
715:Tsunamis in lakes
700:Cold-water geyser
519:hydrogen chloride
202:in 1984, causing
68:volcanic activity
2347:
2169:
2162:
2155:
2146:
2051:Tropical cyclone
2045:Tornado outbreak
1967:
1894:
1847:Pyroclastic flow
1839:Volcano eruption
1768:
1744:
1737:
1730:
1721:
1701:
1683:
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1599:Lake Nyos (1986)
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1296:10.1038/4661033a
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1016:
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989:
979:
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908:(4798): 169–75.
893:
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858:
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838:
832:
831:
830:
828:
796:
790:
789:
788:
786:
770:Life of Camillus
761:
755:
731:
710:Natural disaster
694:
689:
688:
687:
652:Mount Nyiragongo
541:Michel Halbwachs
447:meromictic lakes
185:
150:
149:
136:
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129:
40:natural disaster
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2222:Phreatomagmatic
2216:
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2143:
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2088:
2055:
2019:Cyclonic storms
2014:
1996:
1954:
1950:Limnic eruption
1926:
1900:
1881:
1869:Natural erosion
1863:
1833:
1807:
1799:
1757:
1748:
1681:10.1.1.487.7647
1657:
1618:
1613:
1585:
1580:
1579:
1569:
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1553:
1552:
1548:
1539:
1537:
1533:
1521:(1–2): 15–122.
1510:
1505:
1504:
1500:
1459:(10): e109084.
1446:
1445:
1438:
1428:
1426:
1413:Jones, Nicola.
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1064:. 24 May 2016.
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752:Wayback Machine
741:Wayback Machine
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602:
600:Lake Kivu risks
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531:
523:pressure ulcers
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32:limnic eruption
17:
12:
11:
5:
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2320:Carbon dioxide
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2109:Impact event
2097:Astronomical
2031:Thunderstorm
2026:Bomb cyclone
1949:
1890:Hydrological
1859:Volcanic ash
1824:Seismic risk
1772:Mass wasting
1663:
1659:
1626:
1622:
1568:. Retrieved
1560:The Guardian
1559:
1549:
1538:. Retrieved
1518:
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1427:. Retrieved
1418:
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1396:. Retrieved
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1358:newscientist
1357:
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769:
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692:Lakes portal
656:
644:
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591:
579:
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515:
480:
466:Consequences
436:
400:
346:
342:volcanic gas
327:with gas. CO
322:
297:insectivores
259:deposits of
251:
220:
204:asphyxiation
193:
169:
106:
79:
75:
35:
31:
29:
2207:Strombolian
2124:Solar flare
2010:Megadrought
1970:Temperature
1943:Megatsunami
1922:Storm surge
1917:Flash flood
1795:Debris flow
1705:Lake Monoun
1570:12 December
1398:28 February
1388:UWMResearch
1046:January 23,
1015:January 23,
545:Lake Monoun
415:rain storms
392:temperature
372:Henry's law
349:carbonated
305:paleotheres
200:Lake Monoun
188:Lake Albano
140:Lake Monoun
109:Lake Monoun
100:saturations
64:earthquakes
2314:Categories
2230:Subglacial
1805:Earthquake
1763:Geological
1629:(3): 288.
1562:. London.
1540:2022-10-11
1429:11 October
1368:2009-08-20
1258:2013-09-20
1208:2007-02-14
1134:2021-06-06
948:2019-07-03
827:23 October
785:4 February
721:References
640:saturation
533:See also:
451:stratified
443:holomictic
409:, or even
407:earthquake
403:landslides
352:soft drink
285:crocodiles
254:Messel pit
178:historian
2299:Subaerial
2279:Explosive
2240:Surtseyan
2235:Submarine
2212:Vulcanian
2134:Hypernova
2129:Supernova
2077:Firestorm
1992:Heat wave
1987:Ice storm
1982:Cold wave
1785:Avalanche
1780:Landslide
1698:140538251
1676:CiteSeerX
1651:129370770
986:225118318
621:Lake Nyos
617:Lake Kivu
610:Lake Kivu
549:Lake Nyos
529:Degassing
507:poisoning
476:Lake Nyos
360:dissolved
325:saturated
293:anteaters
223:Lake Kivu
212:Lake Nyos
154:Lake Nyos
113:Lake Nyos
56:livestock
24:Lake Nyos
2274:Effusive
2258:Phreatic
2250:Phreatic
2192:Hawaiian
2184:Magmatic
2084:ARkStorm
2072:Wildfire
1977:Blizzard
1877:Sinkhole
1564:Archived
1531:Archived
1493:25295730
1453:PLOS ONE
1423:Archived
1392:Archived
1362:Archived
1337:18 April
1331:Archived
1305:20739980
1252:Archived
1202:Archived
1128:Archived
1066:Archived
1040:Archived
1009:Archived
942:Archived
938:40896330
930:17789781
821:archived
779:archived
765:Plutarch
748:Archived
737:Archived
678:See also
631:and low
495:asphyxia
420:buoyancy
380:solution
368:pressure
354:: the CO
301:primates
299:, early
196:Cameroon
180:Plutarch
52:wildlife
2289:Lateral
2202:Plinian
2067:Derecho
2041:Tornado
2002:Drought
1938:Tsunami
1790:Mudflow
1668:Bibcode
1631:Bibcode
1484:4189960
1461:Bibcode
1184:2507040
1175:1837334
1072:28 July
910:Bibcode
902:Science
871:Bibcode
647:methane
612:in 2003
553:siphons
432:tsunami
424:suction
370:due to
334:methane
281:turtles
273:insects
265:Germany
2294:Limnic
2197:Peléan
1696:
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1419:Nature
1303:
1283:Nature
1230:
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807:Oxford
705:Mazuku
660:Rwanda
491:denser
311:Causes
303:, and
269:Eocene
261:Messel
257:fossil
231:Rwanda
184:
60:humans
58:, and
2325:Lakes
2284:Flank
2060:Other
1931:Other
1898:Flood
1852:Lahar
1694:S2CID
1647:S2CID
1619:(PDF)
1534:(PDF)
1511:(PDF)
1099:(1).
982:S2CID
934:S2CID
743:USGS/
289:birds
277:frogs
176:Roman
2035:Hail
1903:List
1810:List
1572:2016
1489:PMID
1431:2022
1400:2020
1339:2013
1301:PMID
1228:ISBN
1180:PMID
1074:2021
1048:2023
1017:2023
926:PMID
829:2015
811:ISBN
787:2014
547:and
497:. CO
449:are
413:and
411:wind
336:. CO
252:The
229:and
186:BC,
111:and
1686:doi
1639:doi
1523:doi
1479:PMC
1469:doi
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1162:doi
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