676:
AAVE in schools by teachers not only insults the students that speak AAVE, but those insults also put the individuals who taught these students how to speak, such as their family members, in a subordinate position. In turn, this further reinforces stratification of social groups in a linguistic and social context. In schools around the world that teach
English, speaking "proper" English is emphasized, even if other varieties are equally valid and able to communicate the same ideas. In a school in Mumbai, India, there is a large emphasis placed on speaking "good English." Thus, proficiency is not determined by ability to convey ideas, but rather the grammatical adherence of the speaker to the rules used in the "standard" English variety, and speaking English that way. This not only perpetuates the idea of a "correct" way of speaking in the classroom, but this subordination extends well outside of the classroom.
926:-speakers noticed that certain features of their Spanish were evaluated negatively by local speakers. Spanish varieties spoken in Latin American countries have linguistic differences from the way many locals in Madrid speak. Their use of Latin American Spanish is associated with "symbolic and monetary capital (such as social class and ethnicity)." The study asserted that "To be accepted, therefore, the speakers have to "correct" these "errors" and "adapt" to the local variety of Spanish, which is considered the model to follow. In other words, to be acknowledged as full participants in their respective communities, these participants have to sound like locals." Thus, social class plays a role in determining prestige, impacting the way that Latin American Spanish is acknowledged.
1192:. Language convergence is when two languages have been exposed for a long period of time and they begin to have more properties in common. Language shift is when a speaker shifts from speaking a lower prestige dialect to a higher prestige dialect. Language death can happen in many ways, one of which is when speakers of a language die off, and there are no new generations learning to speak this language. The intensity of the contact between the two languages and their relative prestige levels influence the degree to which a language experiences lexical borrowing and changes to the
1074:
a particular way and enjoy covert prestige in the
African American speech community. The study pointed out that "mainstream uses of AAVE 'slang' are especially prevalent in social circles that desire to create and project a heterosexual masculinity," and included examples of a Korean-American student using AAVE to gain recognition/acceptance in the African American speech community. This underscores that the relative status of language varies according to audience.
454:(also known as Standard Arabic) is a more prestigious form. Prestige varieties do not exhibit features, grammatically speaking, which prove them superior in terms of logic, efficacy or aesthetics. With certain exceptions, they are the language varieties of the prestigious social classes. Therefore, the prestige variety of a given language community or nation-state has symbolic significance and may act as an instrument of political power.
36:
3314:
535:
276:
226:
1425:
286:
646:
possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists: there is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothic and the Celtic, though blended with a very different idiom, had the same origin with the
Sanskrit.
1031:
settings, usage of this variety can result in negative connotations. Due to this, practitioners are often perceived as having minimal academic prowess or being lowly educated. They can also be associated with poverty or low economic means. These inherent stigmas and biases impede the AAVE speaker from academic, social, and economic success.
668:, notes that he "can't think of any situations in the United States where low-prestige groups have high-prestige language systems". Wolfram further emphasizes this in his PBS documentary "Do You Speak American?", and explains how there is a very clear hierarchy in which "modern American English" is at the top, and
1053:
with a specific—and non-prestigious—group of people, or to signal to other speakers their identification with that group. The idea of covert prestige was first introduced by
William Labov, who noticed that even speakers who used non-standard dialects often believed that their own dialect was "bad" or
675:
The education system is one of the primary agents in emphasizing a "standard" way of speaking. For example, Wolfram's documentary also shows how speakers of AAVE are often corrected by teachers, since it has linguistic features that are different from what has been deemed the "standard." Criticism of
437:
Prestige varieties are those that are regarded mostly highly within a society. As such, the standard language, the form promoted by authorities—usually governmental or from those in power—and considered "correct" or otherwise superior, is often the prestige variety. However, there are many exceptions
1073:
In a study by Elaine Chun, it was noted that even though the use of
African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) is not viewed as the standard in many American schools, and thus is often corrected by teachers, there are some instances where non-African Americans use AAVE to construct their identity in
600:
The prestige accorded to the churchmen, lawyers and scholars who used Latin was transferred to the language itself. Latin was held to be noble and beautiful, not just the thoughts expressed in it or the people who used it. What is called 'beauty' in a language is more accurately seen as a reflection
588:
Different languages and dialects are accorded prestige based upon factors, including "rich literary heritage, high degree of language modernization, considerable international standing, or the prestige of its speakers". These, and other attributes and factors contribute to how the language is viewed
508:
of language is inherently better than any other, for every language serves its purpose of allowing its users to communicate. This is because every variety of a language is systematic and rule governed. These rules do not contain a hierarchy, thus certain varieties—linguistically—are not placed above
375:
The presence of prestige dialects is a result of the relationship between the prestige of a group of people and the language that they use. Generally, the language or variety that is regarded as more prestigious in that community is the one used by the more prestigious group. The level of prestige a
1222:
situation, the creole that results is typically largely based on the prestige language; as noted above, linguists have observed that the low-prestige language usually provides the phonology while the high-prestige language provides the lexicon and grammatical structure. Over time, continued contact
773:
will more closely resemble that of their neighbors across the border than the standard languages of their respective home countries. Even so, speakers near the border would describe themselves as speaking a variety of their respective standard languages, and the evolution of these dialects tends to
1124:
societies by John Angle and
Sharlene Hesse-Biber showed that the poorer men were more likely to speak the prestige language than were poorer women, even though women were more particularly "drawn to the language of the rich." One explanation put forth for this is that poorer men are more likely to
1105:
prestigious dialect than that which they actually spoke. According to this interpretation then, "women's use of prestige features simply conforms to the ordinary sociolinguistic order, while men deviate from what is expected." Elizabeth Gordon, in her study of New
Zealand, suggested instead that
465:
is related to the prestige of the languages spoken in the community. In general, "greater prestige tends to be attached to the notion of the standard, since it can function in higher domains, and has a written form." While there are some counterexamples, such as Arabic, "prestigious and standard
1030:
Another prime example of covert prestige is within popular culture. The pervasiveness of hip hop music and its usage of AAVE has coined many widely used terms. Usage of AAVE has created a certain social capital, or clout, in certain social contexts. Contrastingly, in educational or hierarchical
379:
Social class has a correlation with the language that is considered more prestigious, and studies in different communities have shown that sometimes members of a lower social class attempt to emulate the language of individuals in higher social classes to avoid how their distinct language would
645:
The
Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and in the forms of grammar, than could
712:
The debate was extremely controversial, with beliefs stemming from the same beliefs that govern morality, religion, and ethics. Similar to the beliefs that govern these areas, the debate on
Ebonics was believed to be inflexible. The discussion "surfaced foundational beliefs about language and
708:
controversy of 1996. Illustrating the pervasiveness of public views on socio-educational issues in relation to language diversity, the
Oakland, California school board came to a resolution recognizing Ebonics within public education. This proposition recognized Ebonics as a language system in
395:
The prevailing view among contemporary linguists is that, regardless of perceptions that a dialect or language is "better" or "worse" than its counterparts, when dialects and languages are assessed "on purely linguistic grounds, all languages—and all dialects—have equal merit".
701:, and Jasmine's father have American accents, but several other characters do not. Associating the American accent with sympathetic or prestigious characters in children's TV shows/movies can have negative implications, contributing to the formation of stereotypes and biases.
841:
wrote that "the importance of language as a mirror of culture can be demonstrated by dialect differences in American English". Thus the relation between the way speakers use a language and their social status is a long recognized tool in sociolinguistics.
1353:
In diglossic societies, the prestigious language tends to conservatively resist change over time while the low-prestige language, the local vernacular, undergoes normal language change. For instance, Latin, the high prestige language of
1148:
Far more common is for the two languages to have an unequal power relationship, as is the case of many colonial language contact situations. Languages that have a higher status in relation to a certain group often manifest themselves in
380:
otherwise construct their identity. The relationship between language and identity construction as a result of prestige influences the language used by different individuals, depending on which groups they do belong or want to belong.
391:
urban areas, in which there are likely to be speakers of different languages and/or dialects interacting often. The result of language contact depends on the power relationship between the languages of the groups that are in contact.
516:
or variety which is considered prestigious in one context will not carry the same status in another. The relative status of language varies according to audience, situation and other contextual elements such as geographic location.
592:"Language is intertwined with culture," therefore there is often a strong correlation between the prestige of a group of people and the prestige accorded to the language they speak, as linguist Laurie Bauer's description of
908:. Remarkably, the speech differences between Hindus and Muslims "are of the same order as those between individual touchable castes and certainly much less important than the variation between touchables and untouchables".
777:
That they are classified as such reflects the fact that "language differences are not only marks of differential group membership, but also powerful triggers of group attitudes". Such fuzziness has resulted in the
1257:
Some instances of contact between languages with different prestige levels have resulted in diglossia, a phenomenon in which a community uses a high prestige language or dialect in certain situations, usually for
372:, which may not be distinctive enough to constitute a separate dialect. The concept of prestige provides one explanation for the phenomenon of variation in form among speakers of a language or languages.
1054:"inferior". Labov realized that there must be some underlying reason for their use of the dialect, which he identified as a signal of group identity. One example is a 1998 study on the use of word-final
1358:
for many centuries, underwent minimal change while the everyday low prestige spoken languages evolved significantly. If, however, the two languages are spoken freely, the prestige language may undergo
679:
Many films and TV shows (especially children's TV shows) use different language varieties for different characters, which constructs their identity in particular ways. For example, the protagonists of
709:
attempts for the city to receive public funding for bilingual situations. Heavy debate arose amongst members of congress, newscasters, and other commentators with relatively no linguistics knowledge.
976:
at all. Another trend Labov noticed was that at all three of the stores, but Macy's in particular, when prompted to say "fourth floor" a second time, employees were much more likely to pronounce the
1153:. One example is in English, which features many French words, as a result of the historical prestige of French. Another potential result of such contact relationships includes the creation of a
915:
of the prestige away from the regional standard, as higher prestige groups sought to differentiate themselves from lower prestige groups. He concluded that in determining speech patterns in this
1133:
When different language varieties come into contact, a variety of relationships can form between the two, all typically influenced by prestige. When they have equal power or prestige, they form
376:
group has can also influence whether the language that they speak is considered its own language or a dialect (implying that it does not have enough prestige to be considered its own language).
1023:
at all. The difference between this study and the "fourth floor" study was the fact that speakers were closely monitoring their speech, not speaking spontaneously, and were thus careful to add
786:." That is, speakers of some language variety with political and social power are viewed as having a distinct language, while "'dialect' is a term that suggests lower-class or rural speech".
1243:(the most "conservative" creole). An example of decreolization described by Hock and Joseph is African American Vernacular English (AAVE), in which older, more conservative versions preserve
1089:
of prestige in the Arabic language, after which she concluded that in Baghdadi Arabic, women are more conscious of prestige than are men. Other areas in which this has been observed include
650:
It started a moment in time in which Sanskrit was considered the oldest language in the world, followed by other languages increasing their prestige by claiming to be as close to a presumed
2606:
987:, "with the loss of Britain's imperial status 'r'-less British speech ceased to be regarded as 'prestige speech'". In 1966, when Labov performed his study, pronouncing words like
3236:
Wang, Limei; Ladegaard, Hans J. (2008). "Language Attitudes and Gender in China: Perceptions and Reported Use of Putonghua and Cantonese in the Southern Province of Guangdong".
1003:
employees, once made conscious of having to pronounce "fourth floor", altering their pronunciation in order to match that of the high prestige dialect. The prestige given to
1101:. As explanation, Trudgill suggests that for men, there is covert prestige associated with speaking the working-class dialect. In fact, he observed men claiming to speak a
1049:
prestige among working-class men for the very reason that they are considered incorrect". These situations occur when the speaker wants to gain recognition, acceptance, or
829:
causes for differences in dialects. Very often, the "public prestige dialect of the elite in a stratified community differs from the dialect(s) of the non-elite strata (
687:, while minor characters or antagonists are more likely to speak with other accents. This is true even when characters would not logically speak English, as in the film
809:, where language differences "constitute barriers to but do not wholly block communication", but are considered distinct languages because they are spoken in different
983:
Labov attributed his findings to the perceived prestige of each dialect. He noted that New York City's "dropped 'r' has its origins in posh British speech", but after
2935:
1393:
developed different forms in countries such as Italy, France, Portugal, Spain, Catalonia, as well as other Roman Catholic nations, notably in pronunciation – see
545:
783:
1165:. In the case of pidgins and creoles, it is usually noted that the low prestige language provides the phonology while the high prestige language provides the
1015:-pronunciation was a prestigious trait, many of the lower-class speakers in another Labov study—in which speakers were asked to read from word lists—added
352:
are language or dialect families which are generally considered by a society to be the most "correct" or otherwise superior. In many cases, they are the
315:
2882:
1070:
to demonstrate what they saw as working-class behavioral traits, such as 'hard-working' and 'casual,' thus creating a specific identity for themselves.
1463:
411:
prestige. Overt prestige is related to standard and "formal" language features, and expresses power and status; covert prestige is related more to
911:
Gumperz also observed that the lower prestige groups sought to imitate the higher prestige speech patterns and that over time, it had caused the
3341:
1045:
Non-standard dialects are usually considered low-prestige, but in some situations dialects "stigmatized by the education system still enjoy a
3295:
3276:
3103:
3053:
3034:
2949:
2785:
2560:
2541:
2509:
1125:
have the means of acquiring a second language than poorer women as a result of having "greater exposure" and "greater economic motivation."
964:(low)—and studied how their employees pronounced the phrase "fourth floor". His results demonstrated that the employees at Saks pronounced
512:
The terms and conditions of prestige assigned to a language variety are subject to change depending on speaker, situation and context. A
705:
669:
1120:
Though women use prestige dialects more than men, the same gender preference for prestige languages does not seem to exist. A study of
3346:
2812:
2711:
2490:
1875:
589:
as being of high prestige, leaving a language or dialect with few or none of these attributes to be considered to be of low prestige.
504:, since it equates "nonstandard" or "substandard" language with "nonstandard or substandard human beings." Linguists believe that no
3366:
3124:
2475:
Bauer, Laurie (1998). "Myth 16: You Shouldn't Say 'It is Me' because 'Me' is Accusative". In Laurie Bauer and Peter Trudgill (ed.).
1771:
575:
3351:
1369:
557:
57:
2409:
Abu-Haidar, Farida (December 1989). "Are Iraqi Women More Prestige Conscious than Men? Sex Differentiation in Baghdadi Arabic".
1117:. Whatever the cause, women across many cultures seem more likely than men to modify their speech towards the prestige dialect.
665:
364:
is highly valued). In addition to dialects and languages, prestige is also applied to smaller linguistic features, such as the
1066:
men in the United States. The fraternity men used "-in" rather than "-ing," from which the author concluded that the men used
845:
In 1958, one of the earliest studies of the relationship between social differences and dialect differences was published by
308:
1413:
between 1200 and 1600, the vowel system in England became nearly unrecognizable to its European ecclesiastic counterparts.
1085:
observed that more working-class women spoke the standard dialect than men. Farida Abu-Haidar performed a similar study in
655:
1394:
651:
2969:
2778:
Language History, Language Change, and Language Relationship: An Introduction to Historical and Comparative Linguistics
1294:'s 1959 article "Diglossia" listed the following examples of diglossic societies: in the Middle East and North Africa,
2902:
1326:. In most African countries, a European language serves as the official, prestige language (Standard French, English,
1063:
638:
400:
175:
713:
language diversity and exposed an alternative, non-mainstream set of beliefs about language and language variation."
2624:
Gordon, Elizabeth (March 1997). "Sex, Speech, and Stereotypes: Why Women Use Prestige Speech Forms More than Men".
694:
689:
383:
Sociolinguistic prestige is especially visible in situations where two or more distinct languages are used, and in
3361:
2222:
1473:
301:
279:
258:
140:
48:
403:
or features will be considered more prestigious depends on audience and context. There are thus the concepts of
2087:"Language surveillance: Pressure to follow local models of speakerhood among Latin American students in Madrid"
1193:
794:
684:
369:
2223:"The Construction of White, Black, and Korean American Identities through African American Vernacular English"
1385:
The prestige language may also change under the influence of specific regional dialects in a process known as
2822:
Ibrahim, Muhammad H. (Spring 1986). "Standard and Prestige Language: A Problem in Arabic Sociolinguistics".
1438:
1278:, but uses a low prestige language or dialect for other situations, often in conversation in the home or in
912:
253:
229:
170:
124:
1227:, in which the creole begins to more closely resemble the prestige language. Decreolization thus creates a
735:
wrote that "sometimes two communities are said to have the same, or different, languages on the grounds of
3356:
1468:
1107:
923:
736:
451:
248:
190:
160:
2086:
1311:
1244:
1228:
1134:
505:
388:
349:
263:
185:
2931:
2665:
3156:
1390:
1367:
1181:
934:
361:
1343:
672:(AAVE) is at the bottom, because AAVE is seldom considered "standard" English in academic settings.
1327:
1291:
1040:
420:
243:
500:
believes that this belief in a standard language defends and rationalizes the preservation of the
285:
3253:
3224:
3080:
3010:
3002:
2869:
2831:
2743:
2690:
2649:
2641:
2593:
2463:
2434:
2426:
2120:
1920:
1845:
1458:
806:
497:
289:
180:
165:
3177:(1992). "Ausbau sociolinguistics and the perception of language status in contemporary Europe".
929:
One notable example of the relationship between dialect and social stratification in English is
609:, multiple languages were considered to be of high prestige at some time or another, including "
2446:
Angle, John; Hesse-Biber, Sharlene (April 1981). "Gender and Prestige Preference in Language".
919:, "the determining factor seems to be informal friendship contacts" rather than work contacts.
3291:
3272:
3120:
3099:
3049:
3030:
2945:
2808:
2781:
2707:
2556:
2537:
2505:
2486:
2242:
2112:
1912:
1871:
1777:
1767:
1453:
1410:
1299:
1248:
1214:
When two languages with an asymmetrical power relationship come into contact, such as through
1050:
953:
743:
698:
458:
432:
353:
109:
104:
2804:
2796:
1892:
3245:
3214:
3186:
3143:
3072:
2994:
2964:
2919:
2894:
2861:
2764:
2733:
2680:
2633:
2583:
2455:
2418:
2234:
2102:
2094:
1904:
1835:
1478:
1430:
1347:
1335:
1279:
1177:
945:
834:
802:
610:
490:
486:
462:
384:
345:
329:
80:
2955:
2482:
2476:
1443:
1386:
1339:
1319:
1295:
1287:
1158:
1078:
1008:
798:
754:
627:
518:
443:
439:
357:
114:
99:
2910:
Kloss, Heinz (1966). "Types of Multilingual Communities: A Discussion of Ten Variables".
35:
3198:
3190:
3174:
2923:
2768:
2530:
1448:
1331:
1323:
1224:
1189:
1185:
1082:
758:
606:
94:
3313:
1366:, an ancient prestige language that has incorporated the vernacular pronunciations of
704:
One of the primary examples of the debate of prestige within the media is the Oakland
3335:
3266:
3257:
3114:
3022:
3014:
2653:
2597:
2467:
2438:
2124:
1924:
1849:
949:
941:
930:
838:
830:
618:
614:
470:
365:
145:
3203:"Sex, Covert Prestige and Linguistic Change in the Urban British English of Norwich"
1760:
Smith, Graham; Law, Vivien; Wilson, Andrew; Bohr, Annette; Allworth, Edward (1998).
3134:
Preston, Dennis R. (1996). "Whaddayaknow? The Modes of Folk Linguistic Awareness".
2661:
2588:
2571:
1763:
Nation-Building in the Post-Soviet Borderlands: The Politics of National Identities
1315:
1303:
1162:
1000:
984:
846:
661:
501:
482:
466:
varieties coincide to the extent that the two terms can be used interchangeably."
17:
3318:
3147:
2738:
2721:
2685:
1868:
English with an Accent: Language, Ideology and Discrimination in the United States
1824:"Learning to Speak 'Good English': Notes from an English-Speaking Class in Mumbai"
3093:
3063:
McDavid, Raven (December 1946). "Dialect Geography and Social Science Problems".
1761:
833:
and other)". In fact, in an article which in part tried to motivate the study of
1283:
1138:
1090:
770:
631:
623:
478:
1908:
1424:
3219:
3202:
2998:
2637:
2422:
2238:
1893:"Language Ideology and Dialect: Understanding the Oakland Ebonics Controversy"
1420:
1359:
1271:
1263:
1110:
905:
901:
790:
732:
447:
412:
200:
3326:
3113:
O'Grady, William; Archibald, John; Aronoff, Mark; Rees-Miller, Janie (2001).
2755:
Haugen, Einar (1966b). "Semicommunication: The language gap in Scandinavia".
2246:
2116:
1916:
1840:
1823:
1798:
972:
less often, and at S. Klein, seventy-nine percent of the respondents said no
489:" belief that the most prestigious dialect is the single standard dialect of
2985:
Kroch, Anthony (April 1978). "Toward a Theory of Social Dialect Variation".
2959:
2898:
2883:"Men's Identities and Sociolinguistic Variation: The Case of Fraternity Men"
1781:
1307:
1259:
1235:(a version of the creole that is very similar to the prestige language), to
1209:
1142:
1121:
1094:
916:
893:
747:
356:
of the language, though there are exceptions, particularly in situations of
155:
2704:
Sacred Language, Ordinary People: Dilemmas of Culture and Politics in Egypt
2098:
1409:
being pronounced in Italy but in France, but after English underwent the
957:
521:
refers to relatively high value placed on a non-standard form of language.
2666:"Dialect Differences and Social Stratification in a North Indian Village"
1483:
1363:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1150:
961:
850:
779:
728:
494:
337:
210:
195:
2835:
2107:
922:
An example of this was also observed in a study in Madrid, Spain, where
3228:
3084:
3006:
2852:
Kahane, Henry (September 1986). "A Typology of the Prestige Language".
2645:
2459:
2430:
1219:
1170:
1166:
1086:
866:
854:
810:
766:
722:
513:
474:
341:
150:
2873:
2747:
2694:
1799:"Do You Speak American. What Speech Do We Like Best? . Prestige | PBS"
1540:
739:, or lack thereof", but alone, this definition is often insufficient.
1355:
1267:
1215:
1197:
1154:
886:
878:
874:
870:
826:
822:
762:
680:
416:
205:
3249:
3076:
2523:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press – via ProQuest ebrary.
999:
was then considered an element of prestige speech. This resulted in
761:
are not mutually intelligible, the speech of people living near the
2865:
892:
Gumperz observed that the different castes were distinguished both
605:
This phenomenon is not limited to English-speaking populations. In
1275:
1114:
1098:
882:
862:
858:
593:
27:
Level of respect towards a language variety in a speech community
897:
1106:
women used higher prestige forms because of the association of
727:
Prestige influences whether a language variety is considered a
1145:, which shared elements with each other more or less equally.
528:
29:
2944:] (in Spanish). Madrid: Euphonía Ediciones. p. 416.
1362:
and begin to incorporate vernacular features. An example is
1766:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 273–275.
1223:
between the creole and the prestige language may result in
1176:
In addition to forming a new language, known as a creole,
477:
speak many different languages and come from a variety of
2085:
Rojo, Luisa Martín; Reiter, Rosina Márquez (2019-05-27).
544:
deal primarily with United States and do not represent a
3092:
Niedzielski, Nancy A.; Preston, Dennis Richard (2003).
553:
53:
1612:
1610:
742:
Different language varieties in an area exist along a
2607:"The Way We Live Now: 9-12-99: On Language; Dialects"
881:
at the bottom, and 90% of the overall population was
731:
or a dialect. In discussing definitions of language,
348:, relative to other languages or dialects. Prestige
336:
is the level of regard normally accorded a specific
1552:
2797:"Sociolinguistics and the ethnography of speaking"
2529:
2519:Eckert, Penelope; Rickford, John R., eds. (2002).
2091:International Journal of the Sociology of Language
1675:
3027:The Social Stratification of English in New York
2334:
2196:
1397:. Some of these differences were minor, such as
1350:) serve as everyday languages of communication.
1254:while newer, less conservative versions do not.
753:This continuum means that despite the fact that
1077:Likewise, in studies of the speech patterns in
774:mirror that of the standard languages as well.
643:
598:
2551:Fasold, Ralph W.; Connor-Linton, Jeff (2006).
1861:
1859:
1512:
1027:in an attempt to mimic a higher social class.
2776:Hock, Hans Henrich; Joseph, Brian D. (1996).
2295:
1525:
1523:
1521:
1011:observed in lower-class speech. Knowing that
784:A language is a dialect with an army and navy
542:The examples and perspective in this section
309:
8:
3179:International Journal of Applied Linguistics
3029:. Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press.
2504:. Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press.
821:While some differences between dialects are
2553:An Introduction to Language and Linguistics
2500:Chambers, Jack K.; Trudgill, Peter (1998).
750:often means a change in the local variety.
2392:
2380:
2357:
2271:
2056:
2054:
1565:
1563:
1561:
560:, or create a new section, as appropriate.
419:, and expresses solidarity, community and
316:
302:
76:
3218:
2737:
2684:
2587:
2555:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2172:
2160:
2137:
2106:
1961:
1839:
1687:
1464:Language planning and policy in Singapore
1200:, and overall structure of the language.
948:that catered to three clearly delineated
596:'s prestige exemplifies this phenomenon:
576:Learn how and when to remove this message
2369:
2330:
2328:
2259:
2208:
2149:
1949:
1569:
1239:(decreasingly similar versions), to the
968:most often, Macy's employees pronounced
450:aimed at international audiences, while
2346:
2072:
2060:
2045:
2033:
2021:
1997:
1985:
1973:
1651:
1628:
1616:
1597:
1595:
1593:
1494:
235:
218:
132:
86:
79:
3288:An Introduction to Contact Linguistics
2319:
2307:
2283:
1747:
1723:
1711:
427:Standard varieties and covert prestige
2184:
2009:
1937:
1793:
1791:
1735:
1699:
1663:
1640:
1601:
1584:
1501:
849:, who studied the speech patterns in
7:
1580:
1578:
944:. Labov went to three New York City
637:Similarly, when British philologist
3268:An Introduction to Sociolinguistics
2521:Style and Sociolinguistic Variation
1529:
1270:, for religious ceremonies, and on
670:African American Vernacular English
3191:10.1111/j.1473-4192.1992.tb00031.x
2924:10.1111/j.1475-682X.1966.tb00621.x
2769:10.1111/j.1475-682X.1966.tb00630.x
2536:. Cambridge, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
2481:. London: Penguin Books. pp.
2227:Journal of Linguistic Anthropology
1389:. For example, in medieval times,
25:
1822:Malhotra, Shrishti (2018-12-06).
658:, both in Europe and South Asia.
3312:
3119:. Boston: Bedford St. Martin's.
2801:Social Anthropology and Language
2532:The Sociolinguistics of Language
1423:
664:, a professor of linguistics at
601:of the prestige of its speakers.
533:
284:
275:
274:
225:
224:
34:
3157:"The Academy: Talking the Tawk"
1828:Contemporary Education Dialogue
1553:Fasold & Connor-Linton 2006
1180:can result in changes, such as
666:North Carolina State University
399:Additionally, which varieties,
3155:Seabrook, David (2005-11-14).
2803:. London: Routledge. pp.
2720:Haugen, Einar (August 1966a).
2589:10.1080/00437956.1959.11659702
1897:Journal of English Linguistics
1676:Niedzielski & Preston 2003
1019:to words that did not have an
493:that all people should speak.
1:
3342:Language varieties and styles
3317:The dictionary definition of
3148:10.1080/09658416.1996.9959890
3098:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
2739:10.1525/aa.1966.68.4.02a00040
2686:10.1525/aa.1958.60.4.02a00050
2570:Ferguson, Charles A. (1959).
861:. In all, the village has 31
853:, a small, highly stratified
683:animated films tend to speak
656:Proto-Indo-European mythology
2605:Fox, Margalit (1999-09-12).
2402:General and cited references
2335:Angle & Hesse-Biber 1981
2197:Chambers & Trudgill 1998
1866:Lippi-Green, Rosina (2001).
1395:Latin regional pronunciation
693:, where the title character
652:Proto-Indo-European language
626:; and the 17th-18th century
3046:A Social History of English
2887:Journal of Sociolinguistics
2881:Kiesling, Scott F. (1998).
2824:Anthropological Linguistics
2722:"Dialect, Language, Nation"
1891:Wolfram, Walt (June 1998).
1515:, pp. 2–4, 24, 260–263
900:, with each caste having a
622:and as the language of the
556:, discuss the issue on the
47:to comply with Knowledge's
3383:
3265:Wardhaugh, Ronald (2006).
2845:Egyptian Arabic Phrasebook
2799:. In Edwin Ardener (ed.).
1909:10.1177/007542429802600203
1870:. Routledge; 2nd Edition.
1513:Eckert & Rickford 2002
1330:), while local languages (
1207:
1038:
1035:Gender and covert prestige
935:variable pronunciation of
825:in nature, there are also
720:
430:
3347:Linguistic discrimination
3220:10.1017/S0047404500000488
2999:10.1017/S0047404500005315
2638:10.1017/S0047404500019400
2423:10.1017/S0047404500013865
2296:Wang & Ladegaard 2008
2239:10.1525/jlin.2001.11.1.52
1474:List of prestige dialects
885:, with the remaining 10%
685:Standard American English
259:Sociocultural linguistics
3367:Sociological terminology
3286:Winford, Donald (2003).
3271:. Blackwell Publishing.
3116:Contemporary Linguistics
2942:Language and Nationalism
2702:Haeri, Niloofar (2003),
2221:Chun, Elaine W. (2001).
1841:10.1177/0973184918802878
1007:was also evident in the
60:may contain suggestions.
45:may need to be rewritten
3352:Linguistics terminology
2899:10.1111/1467-9481.00031
2843:Jenkins, Siona (2001),
2726:American Anthropologist
2673:American Anthropologist
1439:Conservative (language)
793:example of this is the
254:Linguistic anthropology
171:Phono-semantic matching
3327:Do You Speak American?
2706:, Palgrave Macmillan,
2528:Fasold, Ralph (1990).
2393:Hock & Joseph 1996
2381:Hock & Joseph 1996
2358:Hock & Joseph 1996
2099:10.1515/ijsl-2019-2019
1469:Linguistic imperialism
1374:and for word-initial
924:Latin American Spanish
795:Scandinavian languages
737:mutual intelligibility
648:
603:
469:In countries like the
438:to this rule, such as
370:grammatical constructs
249:Historical linguistics
191:Linguistic description
161:Homophonic translation
3048:. London: Routledge.
2937:Lengua y Nacionalismo
2780:. Walter de Gruyter.
1312:Swiss Standard German
1208:Further information:
1171:grammatical structure
1039:Further information:
933:'s 1966 study of the
721:Further information:
423:more than authority.
368:or usage of words or
264:Sociology of language
3044:Leith, Dick (1997).
2912:Sociological Inquiry
2795:Hymes, Dell (1971).
2757:Sociological Inquiry
1391:Ecclesiastical Latin
1182:language convergence
1137:, as exemplified by
697:, his love interest
554:improve this section
362:non-standard dialect
3207:Language in Society
2987:Language in Society
2626:Language in Society
2411:Language in Society
1541:O'Grady et al. 2001
1292:Charles A. Ferguson
1268:university campuses
1041:Language and gender
654:or linked to other
389:socially stratified
244:Applied linguistics
18:Linguistic prestige
3238:Language Awareness
3136:Language Awareness
2972:on 3 November 2019
2611:The New York Times
2460:10.1007/BF00288072
1738:, pp. 132–137
1714:, pp. 322–328
1702:, pp. 143–144
1459:Language attrition
1310:; in Switzerland,
1300:vernacular Arabics
1231:, ranging from an
1204:Language structure
904:specific to their
717:Language attitudes
498:Rosina Lippi-Green
446:is widely used in
290:Linguistics portal
186:Language varieties
181:Discourse analysis
166:Macaronic language
3297:978-0-631-21251-5
3278:978-1-4051-3559-7
3105:978-3-11-017554-7
3055:978-0-415-16456-6
3036:978-0-521-82122-3
2951:978-84-936668-8-0
2787:978-3-11-014785-8
2562:978-0-521-84768-1
2543:978-0-631-13825-9
2511:978-0-521-59646-6
1454:Dialect levelling
1411:Great Vowel Shift
1360:vernacularization
1249:completive marker
1113:with lower-class
946:department stores
744:dialect continuum
586:
585:
578:
459:standard language
433:Standard language
326:
325:
110:Language planning
105:Language ideology
75:
74:
49:quality standards
16:(Redirected from
3374:
3362:Sociolinguistics
3316:
3301:
3282:
3261:
3232:
3222:
3201:(October 1972).
3194:
3170:
3168:
3167:
3151:
3130:
3109:
3095:Folk Linguistics
3088:
3059:
3040:
3018:
2981:
2979:
2977:
2968:. Archived from
2967:
2932:Kordić, Snježana
2927:
2906:
2901:. Archived from
2877:
2848:
2839:
2818:
2791:
2772:
2751:
2741:
2716:
2698:
2688:
2670:
2657:
2620:
2618:
2617:
2601:
2591:
2566:
2547:
2535:
2524:
2515:
2496:
2471:
2442:
2396:
2390:
2384:
2378:
2372:
2367:
2361:
2355:
2349:
2344:
2338:
2332:
2323:
2317:
2311:
2305:
2299:
2293:
2287:
2281:
2275:
2269:
2263:
2257:
2251:
2250:
2218:
2212:
2206:
2200:
2194:
2188:
2182:
2176:
2170:
2164:
2158:
2152:
2147:
2141:
2135:
2129:
2128:
2110:
2082:
2076:
2070:
2064:
2058:
2049:
2043:
2037:
2031:
2025:
2019:
2013:
2007:
2001:
1995:
1989:
1983:
1977:
1971:
1965:
1959:
1953:
1947:
1941:
1940:, pp. 47–92
1935:
1929:
1928:
1888:
1882:
1881:
1863:
1854:
1853:
1843:
1819:
1813:
1812:
1810:
1809:
1795:
1786:
1785:
1757:
1751:
1745:
1739:
1733:
1727:
1721:
1715:
1709:
1703:
1697:
1691:
1685:
1679:
1673:
1667:
1661:
1655:
1654:, pp. 40–74
1649:
1643:
1638:
1632:
1626:
1620:
1614:
1605:
1599:
1588:
1582:
1573:
1567:
1556:
1550:
1544:
1538:
1532:
1527:
1516:
1510:
1504:
1499:
1479:Raciolinguistics
1433:
1431:Languages portal
1428:
1427:
1373:
1348:Nigerian English
1318:; and in Haiti,
1229:creole continuum
1178:language contact
1129:Language contact
835:sociolinguistics
581:
574:
570:
567:
561:
537:
536:
529:
463:speech community
457:The notion of a
346:speech community
330:sociolinguistics
318:
311:
304:
288:
278:
277:
228:
227:
81:Sociolinguistics
77:
70:
67:
61:
38:
30:
21:
3382:
3381:
3377:
3376:
3375:
3373:
3372:
3371:
3332:
3331:
3309:
3304:
3298:
3285:
3279:
3264:
3250:10.2167/la425.0
3235:
3199:Trudgill, Peter
3197:
3175:Trudgill, Peter
3173:
3165:
3163:
3154:
3133:
3127:
3112:
3106:
3091:
3077:10.2307/2571555
3062:
3056:
3043:
3037:
3021:
2984:
2975:
2973:
2963:
2952:
2930:
2909:
2880:
2851:
2847:, Lonely Planet
2842:
2821:
2815:
2794:
2788:
2775:
2754:
2719:
2714:
2701:
2668:
2664:(August 1958).
2660:
2623:
2615:
2613:
2604:
2569:
2563:
2550:
2544:
2527:
2518:
2512:
2499:
2493:
2474:
2445:
2408:
2404:
2399:
2391:
2387:
2379:
2375:
2368:
2364:
2356:
2352:
2345:
2341:
2333:
2326:
2318:
2314:
2306:
2302:
2294:
2290:
2282:
2278:
2272:Abu-Haidar 1989
2270:
2266:
2258:
2254:
2220:
2219:
2215:
2207:
2203:
2195:
2191:
2183:
2179:
2171:
2167:
2159:
2155:
2148:
2144:
2136:
2132:
2084:
2083:
2079:
2071:
2067:
2059:
2052:
2044:
2040:
2032:
2028:
2020:
2016:
2008:
2004:
1996:
1992:
1984:
1980:
1972:
1968:
1960:
1956:
1948:
1944:
1936:
1932:
1890:
1889:
1885:
1878:
1865:
1864:
1857:
1821:
1820:
1816:
1807:
1805:
1797:
1796:
1789:
1774:
1759:
1758:
1754:
1746:
1742:
1734:
1730:
1722:
1718:
1710:
1706:
1698:
1694:
1686:
1682:
1674:
1670:
1662:
1658:
1650:
1646:
1639:
1635:
1627:
1623:
1615:
1608:
1600:
1591:
1583:
1576:
1568:
1559:
1551:
1547:
1539:
1535:
1528:
1519:
1511:
1507:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1444:Cultural cringe
1429:
1422:
1419:
1387:regionalization
1320:Standard French
1296:Standard Arabic
1288:popular culture
1212:
1206:
1131:
1079:British English
1043:
1037:
1009:hypercorrection
873:at the top, to
865:, ranging from
819:
755:standard German
725:
719:
582:
571:
565:
562:
551:
538:
534:
527:
519:Covert prestige
487:folk linguistic
452:Literary Arabic
444:Egyptian Arabic
435:
429:
358:covert prestige
322:
115:Multilingualism
100:Language change
71:
65:
62:
52:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3380:
3378:
3370:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3334:
3333:
3330:
3329:
3324:
3308:
3307:External links
3305:
3303:
3302:
3296:
3283:
3277:
3262:
3233:
3213:(2): 175–195.
3195:
3185:(2): 167–177.
3171:
3161:The New Yorker
3152:
3131:
3125:
3110:
3104:
3089:
3071:(2): 168–172.
3060:
3054:
3041:
3035:
3023:Labov, William
3019:
2982:
2950:
2928:
2918:(2): 135–145.
2907:
2905:on 2017-10-11.
2878:
2866:10.2307/415474
2860:(3): 495–508.
2849:
2840:
2830:(1): 115–126.
2819:
2814:978-0422737005
2813:
2792:
2786:
2773:
2763:(2): 280–297.
2752:
2732:(4): 922–935.
2717:
2713:978-0312238971
2712:
2699:
2679:(4): 668–682.
2675:. New Series.
2658:
2621:
2602:
2582:(2): 325–340.
2567:
2561:
2548:
2542:
2525:
2516:
2510:
2497:
2492:978-0140260236
2491:
2478:Language Myths
2472:
2454:(4): 449–461.
2443:
2417:(4): 471–481.
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2397:
2385:
2373:
2362:
2350:
2339:
2324:
2312:
2300:
2288:
2276:
2264:
2252:
2213:
2201:
2189:
2177:
2173:Wardhaugh 2006
2165:
2161:Wardhaugh 2006
2153:
2142:
2138:Wardhaugh 2006
2130:
2093:(257): 17–48.
2077:
2065:
2050:
2038:
2026:
2014:
2002:
1990:
1978:
1966:
1962:Wardhaugh 2006
1954:
1942:
1930:
1903:(2): 108–121.
1883:
1877:978-0415559119
1876:
1855:
1814:
1787:
1772:
1752:
1740:
1728:
1716:
1704:
1692:
1688:Wardhaugh 2006
1680:
1668:
1656:
1644:
1633:
1621:
1606:
1589:
1574:
1557:
1545:
1533:
1517:
1505:
1493:
1491:
1488:
1487:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1471:
1466:
1461:
1456:
1451:
1449:Decreolization
1446:
1441:
1435:
1434:
1418:
1415:
1344:Ivorian French
1342:) or creoles (
1324:Haitian Creole
1225:decreolization
1205:
1202:
1190:language death
1186:language shift
1157:or eventually
1151:word borrowing
1130:
1127:
1083:Peter Trudgill
1062:among college
1036:
1033:
960:(middle), and
894:phonologically
818:
815:
759:standard Dutch
748:geographically
718:
715:
607:Western Europe
584:
583:
548:of the subject
546:worldwide view
541:
539:
532:
526:
523:
485:, there is a "
431:Main article:
428:
425:
421:group identity
324:
323:
321:
320:
313:
306:
298:
295:
294:
293:
292:
282:
269:
268:
267:
266:
261:
256:
251:
246:
238:
237:
236:Related fields
233:
232:
230:Sociolinguists
221:
220:
216:
215:
214:
213:
208:
203:
198:
193:
188:
183:
178:
173:
168:
163:
158:
153:
148:
143:
135:
134:
133:Areas of study
130:
129:
128:
127:
122:
117:
112:
107:
102:
97:
95:Code-switching
89:
88:
84:
83:
73:
72:
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3379:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3357:Social status
3355:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3339:
3337:
3328:
3325:
3323:at Wiktionary
3322:
3321:
3315:
3311:
3310:
3306:
3299:
3293:
3289:
3284:
3280:
3274:
3270:
3269:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3212:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3162:
3158:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3132:
3128:
3126:9780312247386
3122:
3118:
3117:
3111:
3107:
3101:
3097:
3096:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3065:Social Forces
3061:
3057:
3051:
3047:
3042:
3038:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2983:
2971:
2966:
2965:CROSBI 694545
2961:
2957:
2953:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2938:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2850:
2846:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2820:
2816:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2793:
2789:
2783:
2779:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2718:
2715:
2709:
2705:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2667:
2663:
2662:Gumperz, John
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2622:
2612:
2608:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2590:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2568:
2564:
2558:
2554:
2549:
2545:
2539:
2534:
2533:
2526:
2522:
2517:
2513:
2507:
2503:
2498:
2494:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2479:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2407:
2406:
2401:
2395:, p. 341
2394:
2389:
2386:
2383:, p. 340
2382:
2377:
2374:
2371:
2370:Ferguson 1959
2366:
2363:
2360:, p. 443
2359:
2354:
2351:
2348:
2343:
2340:
2337:, p. 449
2336:
2331:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2316:
2313:
2310:, p. 117
2309:
2304:
2301:
2297:
2292:
2289:
2285:
2280:
2277:
2274:, p. 471
2273:
2268:
2265:
2262:, p. 179
2261:
2260:Trudgill 1972
2256:
2253:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2217:
2214:
2210:
2209:Kiesling 1998
2205:
2202:
2198:
2193:
2190:
2186:
2181:
2178:
2175:, p. 167
2174:
2169:
2166:
2163:, p. 165
2162:
2157:
2154:
2151:
2150:Seabrook 2005
2146:
2143:
2140:, p. 164
2139:
2134:
2131:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2081:
2078:
2075:, p. 681
2074:
2069:
2066:
2063:, p. 676
2062:
2057:
2055:
2051:
2048:, p. 675
2047:
2042:
2039:
2036:, p. 670
2035:
2030:
2027:
2024:, p. 168
2023:
2018:
2015:
2011:
2006:
2003:
2000:, p. 281
1999:
1994:
1991:
1988:, p. 924
1987:
1982:
1979:
1976:, p. 297
1975:
1970:
1967:
1963:
1958:
1955:
1952:, p. 169
1951:
1950:Trudgill 1992
1946:
1943:
1939:
1934:
1931:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1887:
1884:
1879:
1873:
1869:
1862:
1860:
1856:
1851:
1847:
1842:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1818:
1815:
1804:
1800:
1794:
1792:
1788:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1773:0-521-59045-0
1769:
1765:
1764:
1756:
1753:
1750:, p. 495
1749:
1744:
1741:
1737:
1732:
1729:
1726:, p. 498
1725:
1720:
1717:
1713:
1708:
1705:
1701:
1696:
1693:
1690:, p. 335
1689:
1684:
1681:
1677:
1672:
1669:
1665:
1660:
1657:
1653:
1648:
1645:
1642:
1637:
1634:
1631:, p. 205
1630:
1625:
1622:
1619:, p. 115
1618:
1613:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1598:
1596:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1581:
1579:
1575:
1572:, p. 194
1571:
1570:Trudgill 1972
1566:
1564:
1562:
1558:
1555:, p. 387
1554:
1549:
1546:
1542:
1537:
1534:
1531:
1526:
1524:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1509:
1506:
1503:
1498:
1495:
1489:
1485:
1482:
1480:
1477:
1475:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1465:
1462:
1460:
1457:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1442:
1440:
1437:
1436:
1432:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1414:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1383:
1381:
1377:
1371:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1351:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1302:; in Greece,
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1255:
1253:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1221:
1217:
1211:
1203:
1201:
1199:
1196:, phonology,
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1174:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1146:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1128:
1126:
1123:
1118:
1116:
1112:
1109:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1075:
1071:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1052:
1048:
1042:
1034:
1032:
1028:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
986:
981:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
950:socioeconomic
947:
943:
942:New York City
939:
938:
932:
931:William Labov
927:
925:
920:
918:
914:
909:
907:
903:
899:
895:
890:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
848:
843:
840:
839:Raven McDavid
836:
832:
831:working class
828:
824:
816:
814:
812:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
787:
785:
781:
775:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
751:
749:
746:, and moving
745:
740:
738:
734:
730:
724:
716:
714:
710:
707:
702:
700:
696:
692:
691:
686:
682:
677:
673:
671:
667:
663:
659:
657:
653:
647:
642:
640:
639:William Jones
635:
633:
632:court culture
629:
625:
621:
620:
619:lingua franca
616:
615:Mediterranean
612:
608:
602:
597:
595:
590:
580:
577:
569:
566:February 2023
559:
555:
549:
547:
540:
531:
530:
524:
522:
520:
515:
510:
507:
503:
499:
496:
492:
488:
484:
483:ethnic groups
480:
476:
472:
471:United States
467:
464:
460:
455:
453:
449:
445:
441:
434:
426:
424:
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
397:
393:
390:
386:
381:
377:
373:
371:
367:
366:pronunciation
363:
359:
355:
354:standard form
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
319:
314:
312:
307:
305:
300:
299:
297:
296:
291:
287:
283:
281:
273:
272:
271:
270:
265:
262:
260:
257:
255:
252:
250:
247:
245:
242:
241:
240:
239:
234:
231:
223:
222:
217:
212:
209:
207:
204:
202:
199:
197:
194:
192:
189:
187:
184:
182:
179:
177:
174:
172:
169:
167:
164:
162:
159:
157:
154:
152:
149:
147:
146:Bilingual pun
144:
142:
139:
138:
137:
136:
131:
126:
123:
121:
118:
116:
113:
111:
108:
106:
103:
101:
98:
96:
93:
92:
91:
90:
85:
82:
78:
69:
59:
55:
50:
46:
43:This article
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
3319:
3287:
3267:
3244:(1): 57–77.
3241:
3237:
3210:
3206:
3182:
3178:
3164:. Retrieved
3160:
3139:
3135:
3115:
3094:
3068:
3064:
3045:
3026:
2993:(1): 17–36.
2990:
2986:
2974:. Retrieved
2970:the original
2941:
2936:
2915:
2911:
2903:the original
2890:
2886:
2857:
2853:
2844:
2827:
2823:
2800:
2777:
2760:
2756:
2729:
2725:
2703:
2676:
2672:
2632:(1): 47–63.
2629:
2625:
2614:. Retrieved
2610:
2579:
2575:
2552:
2531:
2520:
2502:Dialectology
2501:
2477:
2451:
2447:
2414:
2410:
2388:
2376:
2365:
2353:
2347:Winford 2003
2342:
2322:, p. 48
2315:
2303:
2298:, p. 57
2291:
2286:, p. 47
2279:
2267:
2255:
2233:(1): 52–64.
2230:
2226:
2216:
2211:, p. 94
2204:
2199:, p. 85
2192:
2187:, p. 96
2180:
2168:
2156:
2145:
2133:
2108:10486/713438
2090:
2080:
2073:Gumperz 1958
2068:
2061:Gumperz 1958
2046:Gumperz 1958
2041:
2034:Gumperz 1958
2029:
2022:McDavid 1946
2017:
2012:, p. 17
2005:
1998:Haugen 1966b
1993:
1986:Haugen 1966a
1981:
1974:Haugen 1966b
1969:
1964:, p. 31
1957:
1945:
1933:
1900:
1896:
1886:
1867:
1831:
1827:
1817:
1806:. Retrieved
1802:
1762:
1755:
1743:
1731:
1719:
1707:
1695:
1683:
1678:, p. 44
1671:
1659:
1652:Preston 1996
1647:
1636:
1629:Jenkins 2001
1624:
1617:Ibrahim 1986
1604:, p. 85
1587:, p. 58
1548:
1543:, p. 7.
1536:
1508:
1497:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1384:
1379:
1375:
1352:
1316:Swiss German
1304:Katharevousa
1284:comic strips
1256:
1251:
1247:such as the
1216:colonization
1213:
1175:
1163:nativization
1147:
1132:
1119:
1102:
1076:
1072:
1067:
1059:
1055:
1046:
1044:
1029:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1004:
1001:middle-class
996:
992:
988:
985:World War II
982:
977:
973:
969:
965:
936:
928:
921:
910:
891:
847:John Gumperz
844:
820:
817:Social class
797:, including
788:
776:
752:
741:
726:
711:
703:
688:
678:
674:
662:Walt Wolfram
660:
649:
644:
636:
617:
604:
599:
591:
587:
572:
563:
543:
511:
502:social order
468:
456:
436:
408:
404:
398:
394:
382:
378:
374:
333:
327:
119:
87:Key concepts
63:
54:You can help
44:
2572:"Diglossia"
2320:Gordon 1997
2308:Fasold 1990
2284:Gordon 1997
1834:: 141–151.
1803:www.pbs.org
1748:Kahane 1986
1724:Kahane 1986
1712:Kordić 2014
1666:, p. 8
1290:. Linguist
1139:Old English
1091:New Zealand
771:Netherlands
641:published:
624:Renaissance
442:, in which
3336:Categories
3166:2013-06-14
2616:2009-03-23
2185:Leith 1997
2010:Kroch 1978
1938:Hymes 1971
1808:2020-10-09
1736:Bauer 1998
1700:Kloss 1966
1664:Leith 1997
1641:Haeri 2003
1602:Labov 2006
1585:Labov 2006
1502:Kroch 1978
1328:Portuguese
1272:television
1264:literature
1260:newspapers
1194:morphology
1111:immorality
1064:fraternity
1051:solidarity
906:subculture
902:vocabulary
733:Dell Hymes
448:mass media
415:and often
413:vernacular
201:Pragmatics
66:April 2023
3290:. Wiley.
3258:145146740
3142:: 40–74.
3015:143516854
2976:7 October
2960:16814702W
2893:: 69–99.
2654:145780489
2598:239352211
2468:143847747
2448:Sex Roles
2439:145776668
2247:1548-1395
2125:164806265
2117:0165-2516
1925:144554543
1917:0075-4242
1850:158825454
1490:Citations
1308:Dhimotiki
1286:, and in
1237:mesolects
1210:Diglossia
1135:adstratum
1122:diglossic
1095:Guangdong
917:community
913:evolution
898:lexically
811:countries
807:Norwegian
791:canonical
558:talk page
509:another.
401:registers
360:(where a
350:varieties
344:within a
156:Diglossia
125:Variation
58:talk page
3320:prestige
3025:(2006).
2934:(2014).
2854:Language
2836:30027950
1782:37755070
1530:Fox 1999
1484:Vergonha
1417:See also
1364:Sanskrit
1274:and the
1245:features
1241:basilect
1233:acrolect
1218:or in a
1161:through
962:S. Klein
956:(high),
867:Brahmins
851:Khalapur
823:regional
780:aphorism
769:and the
765:between
729:language
552:You may
495:Linguist
479:national
475:citizens
473:, where
338:language
334:prestige
280:Category
211:Soramimi
196:Loanword
176:Register
120:Prestige
3229:4166683
3085:2571555
3007:4166972
2646:4168749
2483:132–137
2431:4168077
1401:before
1336:Bambara
1280:letters
1220:refugee
1167:lexicon
1087:Baghdad
1058:versus
952:groups—
879:Bhangis
875:Chamars
871:Rajputs
855:village
803:Swedish
767:Germany
723:Dialect
706:ebonics
699:Jasmine
695:Aladdin
690:Aladdin
630:of the
613:as the
611:Italian
514:dialect
506:variety
491:English
385:diverse
342:dialect
151:Dialect
3294:
3275:
3256:
3227:
3123:
3102:
3083:
3052:
3033:
3013:
3005:
2958:
2948:
2874:415474
2872:
2834:
2811:
2784:
2748:670407
2746:
2710:
2695:665673
2693:
2652:
2644:
2596:
2559:
2540:
2508:
2489:
2466:
2437:
2429:
2245:
2123:
2115:
1923:
1915:
1874:
1848:
1780:
1770:
1356:Europe
1340:Yoruba
1198:syntax
1159:creole
1155:pidgin
1108:sexual
1047:covert
958:Macy's
887:Muslim
863:castes
827:social
805:, and
799:Danish
763:border
681:Disney
628:French
525:Causes
440:Arabic
417:patois
409:covert
219:People
206:Pidgin
141:Accent
56:. The
3254:S2CID
3225:JSTOR
3081:JSTOR
3011:S2CID
3003:JSTOR
2940:[
2870:JSTOR
2832:JSTOR
2805:47–92
2744:JSTOR
2691:JSTOR
2669:(PDF)
2650:S2CID
2642:JSTOR
2594:S2CID
2464:S2CID
2435:S2CID
2427:JSTOR
2121:S2CID
1921:S2CID
1846:S2CID
1372:]
1368:[
1332:Wolof
1276:radio
1266:, on
1262:, in
1143:Norse
1115:women
1099:China
995:with
993:guard
883:Hindu
859:India
594:Latin
461:in a
405:overt
3292:ISBN
3273:ISBN
3121:ISBN
3100:ISBN
3050:ISBN
3031:ISBN
2978:2019
2946:ISBN
2809:ISBN
2782:ISBN
2708:ISBN
2576:Word
2557:ISBN
2538:ISBN
2506:ISBN
2487:ISBN
2243:ISSN
2113:ISSN
1913:ISSN
1872:ISBN
1778:OCLC
1768:ISBN
1405:and
1378:and
1322:and
1314:and
1306:and
1298:and
1252:done
1169:and
1141:and
1103:less
1093:and
1056:-ing
991:and
954:Saks
896:and
877:and
869:and
757:and
481:and
407:and
3246:doi
3215:doi
3187:doi
3144:doi
3073:doi
2995:doi
2920:doi
2895:doi
2862:doi
2765:doi
2734:doi
2681:doi
2634:doi
2584:doi
2456:doi
2419:doi
2235:doi
2103:hdl
2095:doi
1905:doi
1836:doi
1188:or
1097:in
1068:-in
1060:-in
989:car
940:in
857:in
634:".
340:or
328:In
3338::
3252:.
3242:17
3240:.
3223:.
3209:.
3205:.
3181:.
3159:.
3138:.
3079:.
3069:25
3067:.
3009:.
3001:.
2989:.
2962:.
2956:OL
2954:.
2916:36
2914:.
2889:.
2885:.
2868:.
2858:62
2856:.
2828:28
2826:.
2807:.
2761:36
2759:.
2742:.
2730:68
2728:.
2724:.
2689:.
2677:60
2671:.
2648:.
2640:.
2630:26
2628:.
2609:.
2592:.
2580:15
2578:.
2574:.
2485:.
2462:.
2450:.
2433:.
2425:.
2415:18
2413:.
2327:^
2241:.
2231:11
2229:.
2225:.
2119:.
2111:.
2101:.
2089:.
2053:^
1919:.
1911:.
1901:26
1899:.
1895:.
1858:^
1844:.
1832:16
1830:.
1826:.
1801:.
1790:^
1776:.
1609:^
1592:^
1577:^
1560:^
1520:^
1382:.
1380:v-
1376:y-
1370:tʃ
1346:,
1338:,
1334:,
1282:,
1184:,
1173:.
1081:,
1017:-r
980:.
889:.
837:,
813:.
801:,
789:A
387:,
332:,
3300:.
3281:.
3260:.
3248::
3231:.
3217::
3211:1
3193:.
3189::
3183:2
3169:.
3150:.
3146::
3140:5
3129:.
3108:.
3087:.
3075::
3058:.
3039:.
3017:.
2997::
2991:7
2980:.
2926:.
2922::
2897::
2891:2
2876:.
2864::
2838:.
2817:.
2790:.
2771:.
2767::
2750:.
2736::
2697:.
2683::
2656:.
2636::
2619:.
2600:.
2586::
2565:.
2546:.
2514:.
2495:.
2470:.
2458::
2452:7
2441:.
2421::
2249:.
2237::
2127:.
2105::
2097::
1927:.
1907::
1880:.
1852:.
1838::
1811:.
1784:.
1407:e
1403:i
1399:c
1025:r
1021:r
1013:r
1005:r
997:r
978:r
974:r
970:r
966:r
937:r
782:"
579:)
573:(
568:)
564:(
550:.
317:e
310:t
303:v
68:)
64:(
51:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.