606:
68:
56:
317:
497:
742:
2986:
40:
440:
701:
201:
478:
However, Peter D. Roopnarine criticized
Bonhommeau's approach in 2014, arguing that humans are apex predators and that the HTL was based on terrestrial farming where indeed humans have a low trophic level, mainly eating producers (crop plants at level 1) or primary consumers (herbivores at level 2),
523:
period, around 500 million years ago. Extinct species cannot be directly determined to be apex predators as their behavior cannot be observed, and clues to ecological relationships, such as bite marks on bones or shells, do not form a complete picture. However, indirect evidence such as the absence
718:
sometimes relies on apex predators to attract business. Tour operators may in consequence decide to intervene in ecosystems, for example by providing food to attract predators to areas that can conveniently be visited. This in turn can have effects on predator population and therefore on the wider
458:
are apex predators. For instance, Sylvain
Bonhommeau and colleagues argued in 2013 that across the global food web, a fractional human trophic level (HTL) can be calculated as the mean trophic level of every species in the human diet, weighted by the proportion that that species forms in the diet.
487:
In 2021, Miki Ben-Dor and colleagues compared human biology to that of animals at various trophic levels. Using metrics as diverse as tool use and acidity of the stomach, they concluded that humans evolved as apex predators, diversifying their diets in response to the disappearance of most of the
332:
Because apex predators have powerful effects on other predators, herbivores, and plants, they can be important in nature conservation. Humans have hunted many apex predators close to extinction, but in some parts of the world, these predators are now returning. They are increasingly threatened by
271:
Apex predators can have profound effects on ecosystems, as the consequences of both controlling prey density and restricting smaller predators, and may be capable of self-regulation. They are central to the functioning of ecosystems, the regulation of disease, and the maintenance of biodiversity.
416:
wolf kills, especially during the autumn as they prepared to hibernate once again. The grizzly bear gives birth during hibernation, so the increased food supply is expected to produce an increase in the number of cubs observed. Dozens of other species, including eagles, ravens,
2731:
wolves, bears and lynx roamed the land. ... Humans chopped down the trees to make space for farms, and hunted the large animals to extinction, leaving plant-eaters to decimate the country's flora. Britain is now one of the few countries in the world that doesn't have top
812:
from trophic levels as they are (often much) smaller than their hosts, and individual species with multiple hosts at different life-cycle stages would occupy multiple levels. Otherwise they would often be at the top level, above apex
224:
and populations of other predators, both in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Non-native predatory fish, for instance, have sometimes devastated formerly dominant predators. A lake manipulation study found that when the non-native
789:. Conservationists such as Paul Lister propose instead to allow wolves and bears to hunt their prey in a "managed environment" on large fenced reserves; however, this undermines the objective of rewilding.
483:
system near South Africa. In these systems, humans mainly eat predatory fish and have a fractional trophic level of 4.65 and 4.5, respectively, which in
Roopnarine's view makes those humans apex predators.
308:, occurs in terrestrial and marine ecosystems; for instance, in North America, the ranges of all apex carnivores have contracted whereas those of 60% of mesopredators have grown in the past two centuries.
1195:
Trewby, Iain D.; Young, Richard; McDonald, Robbie A.; Wilson, Gavin J.; Davison, John; Walker, Neil; Robertson, Andrew; Doncaster, C. Patrick; Delahay, Richard J. (April 2014). Criscuolo, François (ed.).
79:(killer whale, top) is known to be one as well. Despite coexisting the majority of the time, confrontations may occur in stressed environments when both species compete for limited resources.
2760:
2682:
Macdonald, Catherine; Gallagher, Austin J.; Barnett, Adam; Brunnschweiler, Juerg; Shiffman, David S.; Hammerschlag, Neil (2017). "Conservation potential of apex predator tourism".
1688:
Prugh, Laura R.; Stoner, Chantal J.; Epps, Clinton W.; Bean, William T.; Ripple, William J.; Laliberte, Andrea S.; Brashares, Justin S. (2009). "The Rise of the
Mesopredator".
479:
which as expected places humans at a level slightly above 2. Roopnarine instead calculated the position of humans in two marine ecosystems, a
Caribbean coral reef and the
2477:
1530:"Anthropogenic extinction of top carnivores and interspecific animal behaviour: implications of the rapid decoupling of a web involving wolves, bears, moose and ravens"
2532:
304:
of 4.7, by hunting has caused an increase in the population of the large squid, with trophic level over 4 (carnivores that eat other carnivores). This effect, called
171:
to hunt game animals, birds, and fish respectively. More recently, humans have started interacting with apex predators in new ways. These include interactions via
4111:
3364:
1723:
Estes, James A.; Terborgh, John; Brashares, Justin S.; Power, Mary E.; Berger, Joel; Bond, William J.; et al. (2011). "Trophic
Downgrading of Planet Earth".
345:
to hunt its prey, typically seals, but climate change is shrinking the sea ice of the Arctic, forcing polar bears to fast on land for increasingly long periods.
1529:
992:
4255:
1637:
4325:
1113:
Leat, Eliza H. K.; Bourgeon, Sophie; Eze, Jude I.; Muir, Derek C.G.; Williamson, Mary; Bustnes, Jan O.; Furness, Robert W.; BorgĂĄ, Katrine (2013-02-15).
2558:
Rudstam, Lars G.; VanDeValk, Anthony J. (February 2004). "Cormorant
Predation and the Population Dynamics of Walleye and Yellow Perch in Oneida Lake".
2393:
296:. The removal of top-level predators, often through human agency, can cause or disrupt trophic cascades. For example, a reduction in the population of
2149:
1950:
1067:
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249:, for food such as insects, small mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and the eggs of ground-nesting birds. Removal of badgers (in a trial investigating
2751:
530:
was an aquatic apex predator, in the
Cambrian. Its mouthparts are clearly predatory, and there were no larger animals in the seas at that time.
4335:
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1155:
1880:
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2615:
2516:
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1909:
970:
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253:) caused hedgehog densities to more than double. Predators that exert top-down control on organisms in their community are often considered
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3617:
2812:
1784:
Silliman, Brian R.; Hughes, Brent B.; Gaskins, Leo C.; He, Qiang; Tinker, M. Tim; Read, Andrew; Nifong, James; Stepp, Rick (2018).
1400:
Croll, D. A.; Maron, J. L.; et al. (March 2005). "Introduced predators transform subarctic islands from grassland to tundra".
605:
1858:
782:
736:
400:, and scores of other species. In addition to their effect on prey species, the wolves' presence also affected one of the park's
180:
2536:
4360:
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1092:
2485:
1115:"Perfluoroalkyl substances in eggs and plasma of an avian top predator, great skua (Stercorarius skua), in the north Atlantic"
4618:
31:
4745:
4390:
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3350:
349:
67:
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is controversial, but its effects are not well established by empirical evidence. Other affected apex predators include
4580:
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822:
However, humans had a network trophic level (NTL) of 4.27 in the coral reef system, compared to an NTL of 4.8 for the
785:
movement. The reintroduction of large predators is controversial, in part because of concern among farmers for their
2640:"Don't bite the hand that feeds: assessing ecological impacts of provisioning ecotourism on an apex marine predator"
1636:
Soulé, Michael E.; Bolger, Douglas T.; Alberts, Allison C.; Wright, John; Sorice, Marina; Hill, Scott (March 1988).
761:, allowing herbivores such as deer to multiply unchecked except by hunting. In 2015, plans were made to reintroduce
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3202:
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providing the opportunity to study the effects of an increase of a top predator on an existing predator-prey system
989:
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4173:
4168:
3559:
3331:
361:
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4816:
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574:
301:
1343:
Stier, A. C.; Samhouri, J. F.; Novak, M.; Marshall, K. N.; Ward, E. J.; Holt, R. D.; Levin, P. S. (May 2016).
1257:"Linking Keystone Species and Functional Groups: A New Operational Definition of the Keystone Species Concept"
467:, with 50% meat and fish, 50% plants). These values are comparable to those of non-apex predators such as the
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1946:
1934:
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would be exactly 4 if the fish's prey were pure herbivores, higher if the prey were themselves carnivorous.
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3980:
3768:
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1740:
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Pace, M. L.; Cole, J. J.; et al. (December 1999). "Trophic cascades revealed in diverse ecosystems".
385:
114:. Food chains are often far shorter on land, usually limited to being secondary consumers – for example,
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2805:
2022:
Bonhommeau, S.; Dubroca, L.; Le Pape, O.; Barde, J.; Kaplan, D. M.; Chassot, E.; Nieblas, A.-E. (2013).
1455:"Effects of preferential primary consumer fishing on lower trophic level herbivores in the Line Islands"
568:
446:
sometimes live by hunting other animals for food and materials such as fur, sinew, and bone, as in this
393:
316:
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1600:
1411:
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1315:
1209:
923:
912:"Africa's apex predator, the lion, is limited by interference and exploitive competition with humans"
872:
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127:
48:
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55:
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4443:
4428:
4375:
4208:
4143:
4025:
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3326:
3180:
2459:
1638:"Reconstructed Dynamics of Rapid Extinctions of Chaparral-Requiring Birds in Urban Habitat Islands"
1465:
1454:
422:
250:
221:
123:
122:(primary consumers), which eat plants (primary producers). The apex predator concept is applied in
60:
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Dogs have been used in hunting for many centuries, as in this 14th century French depiction of a
401:
4355:
2638:
Hammerschlag, Neil; Gallagher, Austin J.; Wester, Julia; Luo, Jiangang; Ault, Jerald S. (2012).
1902:
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are theorized to have been apex predators, based on their size, morphology, and dietary needs.
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2004:
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72:
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1994:
1984:
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107:
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4015:
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1862:
996:
974:
293:
266:
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1302:
Wallach, Arian D.; Izhaki, Ido; Toms, Judith D.; Ripple, William J.; Shanas, Uri (2015).
2695:
2655:
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2039:
1801:
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1604:
1415:
1360:
1319:
1213:
927:
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741:
233:, the suppressed native apex predator, diversified its prey selection and increased its
39:
4856:
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4193:
4000:
3990:
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2120:
2085:
2058:
2023:
1999:
1972:
1855:
1664:
1557:
1377:
1344:
1232:
1197:
1040:
1013:
823:
774:
645:
632:, for 40,000 years; this collaboration may have helped modern humans to outcompete the
334:
2318:"First direct evidence of a vertebrate three-level trophic chain in the fossil record"
1506:
17:
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3700:
3426:
3381:
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2639:
1613:
1588:
1580:
1088:
953:
836:
778:
757:, all the large native predators like the wolf, bear, wolverine and lynx have become
754:
545:
434:
373:
372:, the wolves' primary prey, became less abundant and changed their behavior, freeing
234:
111:
2302:
1709:
1439:
711:
subjects, but their ecosystems may be affected by the food provided to attract them.
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4851:
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4423:
4306:
4271:
4148:
3647:
3298:
3175:
3063:
2884:
2874:
2784:
2398:
2214:"Neovenatorid theropods are apex predators in the Late Cretaceous of North America"
1770:
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143:
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1989:
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3027:
3017:
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2854:
936:
720:
704:
637:
409:
297:
176:
1156:"Rapid food web recovery in response to removal of an introduced apex predator"
826:
in the same system. Therefore, humans were not the topmost apex predator there.
700:
4871:
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4413:
4053:
4005:
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3920:
3826:
3743:
3687:
3564:
3514:
3283:
3139:
3134:
3124:
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2899:
2889:
2422:
The invaders : how humans and their dogs drove
Neanderthals to extinction
1810:
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563:
539:
338:
277:
230:
205:
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131:
100:
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945:
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63:
is the largest living reptile and the dominant predator throughout its range.
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3012:
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2110:
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1701:
1423:
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805:
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610:
514:
413:
353:
285:
273:
168:
119:
115:
2351:
2333:
2247:
2189:
Callaway, Ewen (2011). "Cambrian super-predators grew large in arms race".
2172:
2129:
2067:
2008:
1819:
1762:
1622:
1566:
1548:
1514:
1431:
1386:
1368:
1241:
1140:
1049:
2198:
1345:"Ecosystem context and historical contingency in apex predator recoveries"
660:
was used to drive fish into nets. Several breeds of dog have been used to
628:
Humans hunted with apex predators in the form of wolves, and in turn with
4831:
4760:
4291:
3798:
3710:
3657:
3612:
3114:
3002:
1673:
895:
724:
675:
594:
589:
534:
520:
506:
242:
217:
138:
96:
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have also been documented as scavenging from wolf kills within the park.
137:
Apex predators have a long evolutionary history, dating at least to the
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4628:
4498:
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4120:
4068:
3728:
3373:
3254:
2940:
2920:
2844:
2587:
2294:
2238:
2213:
2163:
2144:
770:
766:
641:
623:
558:
553:
468:
464:
460:
389:
342:
292:. Such wide-ranging effects on lower levels of an ecosystem are termed
281:
200:
1328:
1303:
1281:
459:
This analysis gives an average HTL of 2.21, varying between 2.04 (for
3259:
3249:
2790:
1131:
1114:
910:
Kristoffer T. Everatt; Jennifer F. Moore; Graham I.H. Kerley (2019).
671:
584:, showing that the shark had lived at a trophic level of at least 4.
447:
418:
377:
289:
238:
159:
have for many centuries interacted with apex predators including the
2579:
1589:"Cascading top-down effects of changing oceanic predator abundances"
1174:
1154:
Lepak, Jesse M.; Kraft, Clifford E.; Weidel, Brian C. (March 2006).
450:
hunt in the Arctic, but humans' status as apex predators is debated.
2262:
2509:
Gun Dog Breeds, A Guide to
Spaniels, Retrievers, and Pointing Dogs
740:
699:
667:
604:
495:
455:
443:
438:
397:
381:
315:
199:
156:
66:
54:
38:
2394:"How hunting with wolves helped humans outsmart the Neanderthals"
2145:"The evolution of the human trophic level during the Pleistocene"
1971:
Dobson, Andy P.; Wilmers, Christopher C; Getz, Wayne M. (2005).
1903:"The gray wolf – scavenger complex in Yellowstone National Park"
762:
746:
360:(one with a large effect on its ecosystem), was reintroduced to
321:
160:
76:
44:
4093:
3346:
2794:
208:
is an aerial apex predator, both preying on other seabirds and
2365:
Werdelin, Lars; McDonald, H. G.; Shaw, Christopher A. (2018).
1198:"Impacts of Removing Badgers on Localised Counts of Hedgehogs"
519:
Apex predators are thought to have existed since at least the
472:
369:
524:
of any discernible predator in an environment is suggestive.
2633:
2631:
2629:
2627:
2316:
Kriwet, J.; Witzmann, F.; Klug, S.; Heidtke, U. H.J (2008).
2024:"Eating up the world's food web and the human trophic level"
719:
ecosystem. As a result, provisioning of species such as the
2212:
Zanno, Lindsay E.; Makovicky, Peter J. (22 November 2013).
749:
is attractive to conservationists, but alarming to farmers.
488:
megafauna that had once been their primary source of food.
2287:
10.1666/0094-8373(2002)028<0527:DAMPC>2.0.CO;2
241:, an apex predator, preys upon and also competes with the
1786:"Are the ghosts of nature's past haunting ecology today?"
859:
Ordiz, Andrés; Bischof, Richard; Swenson, Jon E. (2013).
328:, affecting its prey's behaviour and the wider ecosystem.
2719:"The rewilding plan that would return Britain to nature"
861:"Saving large carnivores, but losing the apex predator?"
2322:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
1537:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
75:(bottom) is a known marine apex predator; however, the
1973:"Gray Wolves as Climate Change Buffers in Yellowstone"
587:
Among more recent fossils, the saber-tooth cats, like
51:
big cat and serves as an apex land predator in Africa.
2143:
Ben-Dor, Miki; Sirtoli, Raphael; Barkai, Ran (2021).
1453:
Egan, Logan Zane; TĂ©llez, JesĂşs Javier (June 2005).
593:, are considered to have been apex predators in the
183:
efforts, such as the proposed reintroduction of the
4769:
4669:
4594:
4467:
4404:
4264:
4132:
4034:
3913:
3840:
3797:
3719:
3686:
3583:
3495:
3389:
3153:
3077:
3056:
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2949:
2913:
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2828:
2750:
2453:
2261:Van Valkenburgh, Blaire; Molnar, Ralph E. (2002).
1163:Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences
2677:
2675:
2079:
2077:
2610:. University of New Hampshire Press. p. 9.
2371:. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 204.
2184:
2182:
2090:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2028:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1935:"Weaving a new web: wolves change an ecosystem"
463:, with a 96.7% plant-based diet) and 2.57 (for
412:, having fasted for months, the bears chose to
106:Apex predators are usually defined in terms of
2263:"Dinosaurian and Mammalian Predators Compared"
1836:. Polar Bear Specialist Group. 27 January 2009
4105:
3358:
2806:
2744:
2742:
2740:
8:
2787:: talk by Prof. James Estes (UC Santa Cruz)
4326:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
4112:
4098:
4090:
3365:
3351:
3343:
2834:
2813:
2799:
2791:
2785:The Ecological Function of Apex Predators
2663:
2341:
2237:
2162:
2150:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
2119:
2109:
2057:
2047:
1998:
1988:
1865:(2006-04-17), p. 2. Retrieved 2010-01-25.
1809:
1744:
1672:
1612:
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1376:
1327:
1280:
1231:
1221:
1130:
1039:
1029:
968:"Terri fights to halt croc eggs harvest."
935:
894:
884:
753:In some densely populated areas like the
745:The reintroduction of predators like the
4224:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations
3863:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
2607:The Devil's Cormorant: A Natural History
674:, which are apex predators, are used in
103:, without natural predators of its own.
4256:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model
1014:"Where are the parasites in food webs?"
851:
798:
110:, meaning that they occupy the highest
4064:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
1119:Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry
2535:. The Falconry Centre. Archived from
1953:from the original on 10 February 2010
678:, hunting birds or mammals. Tethered
578:), one of which had consumed a fish,
515:Predation § Evolutionary history
7:
4079:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
2752:"Bring on a few more apex predators"
4529:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
1854:Lister, Brad & McDaniel, Carl.
980:. 2007-06-11. Retrieved 2010-01-25.
376:from constant grazing and allowing
27:Predator at the top of a food chain
4282:Ecological effects of biodiversity
1908:. pp. 56, 90 and throughout.
1665:10.1111/j.1523-1739.1988.tb00337.x
1066:. Online Etymological Dictionary.
25:
3618:Generalist and specialist species
4341:Occupancy–abundance relationship
2984:
2665:10.1111/j.1365-2435.2012.01973.x
2466:from the original on 2022-01-11.
1901:Wilmers, Christopher C. (2004).
1834:"Climate impacts on polar bears"
1614:10.1111/j.1365-2656.2009.01531.x
737:Rewilding (conservation biology)
682:, also top predators, have been
640:, which have often been bred as
562:, was discovered containing two
454:Ecologists have debated whether
237:. As a terrestrial example, the
4361:Relative abundance distribution
4074:Plant defense against herbivory
3941:Competitive exclusion principle
3653:Mesopredator release hypothesis
2763:from the original on 2022-01-11
2368:Smilodon: The Iconic Sabertooth
1915:from the original on 2010-07-12
1883:from the original on 2009-06-06
1495:Trends in Ecology and Evolution
1475:from the original on 2010-07-12
1095:from the original on 2009-07-22
1070:from the original on 2009-07-01
1012:Sukhdeo, Michael V. K. (2012).
916:Global Ecology and Conservation
324:is both an apex predator and a
210:bullying them for their catches
3946:Consumer–resource interactions
2749:Lister, Paul (28 April 2015).
1933:Robbins, Jim (May–June 1998).
1875:Levy, Sharon (November 2002).
356:, both an apex predator and a
32:Apex predator (disambiguation)
1:
4792:Biological data visualization
4619:Environmental niche modelling
4346:Population viability analysis
2392:McKie, Robin (1 March 2015).
2084:Roopnarine, Peter D. (2014).
1507:10.1016/S0169-5347(99)01723-1
662:chase large prey such as deer
350:Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem
4277:Density-dependent inhibition
2704:10.1016/j.biocon.2017.07.013
2424:. Harvard University Press.
1990:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030092
1223:10.1371/journal.pone.0095477
886:10.1016/j.biocon.2013.09.024
505:was an apex predator in the
341:requires extensive areas of
141:period when animals such as
4746:Liebig's law of the minimum
4581:Resource selection function
3472:Metabolic theory of ecology
2086:"Humans are apex predators"
1856:"The wolves of Yellowstone"
1304:"What is an apex predator?"
937:10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00758
781:in Scotland as part of the
4938:
4646:Niche apportionment models
4366:Relative species abundance
3570:Primary nutritional groups
3467:List of feeding behaviours
734:
693:
621:
512:
432:
264:
29:
4895:
4827:Ecosystem based fisheries
4439:Interspecific competition
4331:Minimum viable population
4189:Maximum sustainable yield
4174:Intraspecific competition
4169:Effective population size
4049:Anti-predator adaptations
3560:Photosynthetic efficiency
3332:Category:Eating behaviors
3307:
2982:
2604:King, Richard J. (2013).
2455:"The 7 categories of dog"
1811:10.1016/j.cub.2018.04.002
1593:Journal of Animal Ecology
1255:Davic, Robert D. (2003).
362:Yellowstone National Park
4817:Ecological stoichiometry
4782:Alternative stable state
2507:Fergus, Charles (2002).
1273:10.5751/ES-00502-0701r11
601:Interactions with humans
575:Cheliderpeton latirostre
352:were recorded after the
348:Dramatic changes in the
302:fractional trophic level
300:, apex predators with a
4661:Ontogenetic niche shift
4524:Ideal free distribution
4434:Ecological facilitation
4184:Malthusian growth model
4154:Consumer-resource model
4011:Paradox of the plankton
3976:Energy systems language
3696:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
3663:Optimal foraging theory
3638:Heterotrophic nutrition
3312:Antipredator adaptation
2684:Biological Conservation
2560:Ecological Applications
2111:10.1073/pnas.1323645111
2049:10.1073/pnas.1305827110
1947:Smithsonian Institution
1755:10.1126/science.1205106
1702:10.1525/bio.2009.59.9.9
1424:10.1126/science.1108485
1031:10.1186/1756-3305-5-239
1018:Parasites & Vectors
1002:. Retrieved 2010-01-25.
865:Biological Conservation
284:has been shown to turn
118:prey mostly upon large
4807:Ecological forecasting
4751:Marginal value theorem
4549:Landscape epidemiology
4484:Cross-boundary subsidy
4419:Biological interaction
3769:Microbial intelligence
3457:Green world hypothesis
2478:"Portuguese Water Dog"
2334:10.1098/rspb.2007.1170
1549:10.1098/rspb.1999.0917
1369:10.1126/sciadv.1501769
990:"Saltwater Crocodile."
750:
712:
614:
510:
451:
388:to flourish, creating
329:
276:islands, for example,
213:
80:
64:
52:
18:List Of Apex Predators
4812:Ecological humanities
4711:Ecological energetics
4656:Niche differentiation
4519:Habitat fragmentation
4287:Ecological extinction
4234:Small population size
3986:Feed conversion ratio
3966:Ecological succession
3898:San Francisco Estuary
3812:Ecological efficiency
3754:Microbial cooperation
2533:"History of Falconry"
2420:Shipman, Pat (2015).
2218:Nature Communications
2199:10.1038/news.2011.318
1528:Berger, Joel (1999).
1184:on 11 September 2008.
744:
735:Further information:
703:
694:Further information:
622:Further information:
608:
569:Archegosaurus decheni
513:Further information:
499:
442:
433:Further information:
319:
265:Further information:
220:affect prey species'
203:
70:
58:
42:
4837:Evolutionary ecology
4802:Ecological footprint
4797:Ecological economics
4721:Ecological threshold
4716:Ecological indicator
4586:Source–sink dynamics
4539:Land change modeling
4534:Insular biogeography
4386:Species distribution
4125:Modelling ecosystems
3784:Microbial metabolism
3623:Intraguild predation
3412:Biogeochemical cycle
3378:Modelling ecosystems
1645:Conservation Biology
1261:Conservation Ecology
658:Portuguese Water Dog
636:. Humans still hunt
537:dinosaurs including
492:Evolutionary history
306:mesopredator release
261:Effects on ecosystem
196:Effects on community
153:dominated the seas.
30:For other uses, see
4887:Theoretical ecology
4862:Natural environment
4726:Ecosystem diversity
4696:Ecological collapse
4686:Bateman's principle
4641:Limiting similarity
4554:Landscape limnology
4376:Species homogeneity
4214:Population modeling
4209:Population dynamics
4026:Trophic state index
3327:Carnivorous protist
3181:Intraguild predator
2757:The Daily Telegraph
2696:2017BCons.215..132M
2656:2012FuEco..26..567H
2572:2004EcoAp..14..149R
2511:. The Lyons Press.
2460:The Daily Telegraph
2279:2002Pbio...28..527V
2230:2013NatCo...4.2827Z
2102:2014PNAS..111E.796R
2040:2013PNAS..11020617B
2034:(51): 20617–20620.
1939:Smithsonian Zoogoer
1802:2018CBio...28.R532S
1737:2011Sci...333..301E
1657:1988ConBi...2...75S
1605:2009JAnEc..78..699B
1543:(1435): 2261–2267.
1466:Stanford University
1416:2005Sci...307.1959C
1410:(5717): 1959–1961.
1361:2016SciA....2E1769S
1320:2015Oikos.124.1453W
1214:2014PLoSO...995477T
1000:National Geographic
928:2019GEcoC..2000758E
877:2013BCons.168..128O
765:to the counties of
429:Human trophic level
337:. For example, the
272:When introduced to
251:bovine tuberculosis
222:population dynamics
175:, such as with the
124:wildlife management
61:saltwater crocodile
4898:Outline of ecology
4847:Industrial ecology
4842:Functional ecology
4706:Ecological deficit
4651:Niche construction
4614:Ecosystem engineer
4391:Species–area curve
4312:Introduced species
4127:: Other components
4059:Deimatic behaviour
3961:Ecological network
3893:North Pacific Gyre
3878:hydrothermal vents
3817:Ecological pyramid
3764:Microbial food web
3575:Primary production
3520:Foundation species
3322:Carnivorous fungus
2972:Sexual cannibalism
2957:Animal cannibalism
2822:Feeding behaviours
2644:Functional Ecology
2488:on 14 October 2018
2239:10.1038/ncomms3827
2164:10.1002/ajpa.24247
1861:2011-07-20 at the
995:2013-09-06 at the
973:2010-10-28 at the
966:Whiting, Frances.
808:generally exclude
751:
713:
684:used to catch fish
615:
511:
452:
402:vulnerable species
330:
214:
87:, also known as a
81:
65:
53:
4904:
4903:
4787:Balance of nature
4544:Landscape ecology
4429:Community ecology
4371:Species diversity
4307:Indicator species
4302:Gradient analysis
4179:Logistic function
4087:
4086:
4044:Animal coloration
4021:Trophic mutualism
3759:Microbial ecology
3550:Photoheterotrophs
3535:Myco-heterotrophy
3447:Ecosystem ecology
3432:Carrying capacity
3397:Abiotic component
3340:
3339:
3317:Carnivorous plant
3193:Aquatic predation
2980:
2979:
2962:Human cannibalism
2617:978-1-61168-225-0
2518:978-1-58574-618-7
2462:. 10 March 2017.
2431:978-0-674-73676-4
2378:978-1-4214-2556-6
2328:(1631): 181–186.
1731:(6040): 301–306.
1329:10.1111/oik.01977
1314:(11): 1453–1461.
581:Acanthodes bronni
73:great white shark
16:(Redirected from
4929:
4604:Ecological niche
4576:selection theory
4396:Umbrella species
4381:Species richness
4317:Invasive species
4297:Flagship species
4204:Population cycle
4199:Overexploitation
4164:Ecological yield
4114:
4107:
4100:
4091:
3996:Mesotrophic soil
3936:Climax community
3868:Marine food webs
3807:Biomagnification
3608:Chemoorganotroph
3462:Keystone species
3422:Biotic component
3367:
3360:
3353:
3344:
3186:Pursuit predator
2988:
2967:Self-cannibalism
2835:
2815:
2808:
2801:
2792:
2773:
2772:
2770:
2768:
2754:
2746:
2735:
2734:
2728:
2726:
2714:
2708:
2707:
2679:
2670:
2669:
2667:
2635:
2622:
2621:
2601:
2595:
2594:
2555:
2549:
2548:
2546:
2544:
2529:
2523:
2522:
2504:
2498:
2497:
2495:
2493:
2484:. Archived from
2474:
2468:
2467:
2457:
2450:
2444:
2443:
2417:
2411:
2410:
2408:
2406:
2389:
2383:
2382:
2362:
2356:
2355:
2345:
2313:
2307:
2306:
2258:
2252:
2251:
2241:
2209:
2203:
2202:
2186:
2177:
2176:
2166:
2140:
2134:
2133:
2123:
2113:
2081:
2072:
2071:
2061:
2051:
2019:
2013:
2012:
2002:
1992:
1968:
1962:
1961:
1959:
1958:
1930:
1924:
1923:
1921:
1920:
1914:
1907:
1898:
1892:
1891:
1889:
1888:
1872:
1866:
1852:
1846:
1845:
1843:
1841:
1830:
1824:
1823:
1813:
1796:(9): R532–R537.
1781:
1775:
1774:
1748:
1720:
1714:
1713:
1685:
1679:
1678:
1676:
1642:
1633:
1627:
1626:
1616:
1577:
1571:
1570:
1560:
1534:
1525:
1519:
1518:
1490:
1484:
1483:
1481:
1480:
1474:
1459:
1450:
1444:
1443:
1397:
1391:
1390:
1380:
1349:Science Advances
1340:
1334:
1333:
1331:
1299:
1293:
1292:
1290:
1289:
1284:
1252:
1246:
1245:
1235:
1225:
1192:
1186:
1185:
1183:
1177:. Archived from
1160:
1151:
1145:
1144:
1134:
1132:10.1002/etc.2101
1110:
1104:
1103:
1101:
1100:
1085:
1079:
1078:
1076:
1075:
1060:
1054:
1053:
1043:
1033:
1009:
1003:
987:
981:
964:
958:
957:
939:
907:
901:
900:
898:
888:
856:
840:
833:
827:
820:
814:
803:
777:in England, and
559:Triodus sessilis
408:: emerging from
358:keystone species
326:keystone species
294:trophic cascades
255:keystone species
191:Ecological roles
108:trophic dynamics
99:at the top of a
21:
4937:
4936:
4932:
4931:
4930:
4928:
4927:
4926:
4907:
4906:
4905:
4900:
4891:
4877:Systems ecology
4765:
4736:Extinction debt
4701:Ecological debt
4691:Bioluminescence
4672:
4665:
4634:marine habitats
4609:Ecological trap
4590:
4470:
4463:
4406:
4400:
4356:Rapoport's rule
4351:Priority effect
4292:Endemic species
4260:
4219:Population size
4135:
4128:
4118:
4088:
4083:
4036:
4030:
4016:Trophic cascade
3926:Bioaccumulation
3909:
3836:
3793:
3715:
3682:
3579:
3491:
3452:Ecosystem model
3385:
3371:
3341:
3336:
3303:
3294:Surplus killing
3166:Ambush predator
3149:
3073:
3052:
2989:
2976:
2945:
2909:
2824:
2819:
2781:
2776:
2766:
2764:
2748:
2747:
2738:
2724:
2722:
2716:
2715:
2711:
2681:
2680:
2673:
2637:
2636:
2625:
2618:
2603:
2602:
2598:
2580:10.1890/03-5010
2557:
2556:
2552:
2542:
2540:
2531:
2530:
2526:
2519:
2506:
2505:
2501:
2491:
2489:
2482:The Kennel Club
2476:
2475:
2471:
2452:
2451:
2447:
2432:
2419:
2418:
2414:
2404:
2402:
2391:
2390:
2386:
2379:
2364:
2363:
2359:
2315:
2314:
2310:
2260:
2259:
2255:
2211:
2210:
2206:
2188:
2187:
2180:
2142:
2141:
2137:
2083:
2082:
2075:
2021:
2020:
2016:
1970:
1969:
1965:
1956:
1954:
1932:
1931:
1927:
1918:
1916:
1912:
1905:
1900:
1899:
1895:
1886:
1884:
1874:
1873:
1869:
1863:Wayback Machine
1853:
1849:
1839:
1837:
1832:
1831:
1827:
1790:Current Biology
1783:
1782:
1778:
1746:10.1.1.701.8043
1722:
1721:
1717:
1687:
1686:
1682:
1640:
1635:
1634:
1630:
1579:
1578:
1574:
1532:
1527:
1526:
1522:
1501:(12): 483–488.
1492:
1491:
1487:
1478:
1476:
1472:
1462:Stanford at Sea
1457:
1452:
1451:
1447:
1399:
1398:
1394:
1355:(5): e1501769.
1342:
1341:
1337:
1301:
1300:
1296:
1287:
1285:
1254:
1253:
1249:
1194:
1193:
1189:
1181:
1175:10.1139/f05-248
1158:
1153:
1152:
1148:
1112:
1111:
1107:
1098:
1096:
1089:"apex predator"
1087:
1086:
1082:
1073:
1071:
1062:
1061:
1057:
1011:
1010:
1006:
997:Wayback Machine
988:
984:
975:Wayback Machine
965:
961:
909:
908:
904:
858:
857:
853:
849:
844:
843:
834:
830:
821:
817:
804:
800:
795:
739:
733:
727:and crocodiles.
698:
692:
626:
620:
603:
517:
494:
437:
431:
421:, coyotes, and
314:
280:' predation of
269:
267:Trophic cascade
263:
227:smallmouth bass
198:
193:
47:is the world's
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4935:
4933:
4925:
4924:
4922:Apex predators
4919:
4909:
4908:
4902:
4901:
4896:
4893:
4892:
4890:
4889:
4884:
4879:
4874:
4869:
4864:
4859:
4857:Microecosystem
4854:
4849:
4844:
4839:
4834:
4829:
4824:
4819:
4814:
4809:
4804:
4799:
4794:
4789:
4784:
4779:
4773:
4771:
4767:
4766:
4764:
4763:
4758:
4756:Thorson's rule
4753:
4748:
4743:
4738:
4733:
4728:
4723:
4718:
4713:
4708:
4703:
4698:
4693:
4688:
4683:
4681:Assembly rules
4677:
4675:
4667:
4666:
4664:
4663:
4658:
4653:
4648:
4643:
4638:
4637:
4636:
4626:
4621:
4616:
4611:
4606:
4600:
4598:
4592:
4591:
4589:
4588:
4583:
4578:
4566:
4564:Patch dynamics
4561:
4559:Metapopulation
4556:
4551:
4546:
4541:
4536:
4531:
4526:
4521:
4516:
4511:
4506:
4501:
4496:
4491:
4486:
4481:
4475:
4473:
4465:
4464:
4462:
4461:
4456:
4454:Storage effect
4451:
4446:
4441:
4436:
4431:
4426:
4421:
4416:
4410:
4408:
4402:
4401:
4399:
4398:
4393:
4388:
4383:
4378:
4373:
4368:
4363:
4358:
4353:
4348:
4343:
4338:
4336:Neutral theory
4333:
4328:
4323:
4321:Native species
4314:
4309:
4304:
4299:
4294:
4289:
4284:
4279:
4274:
4268:
4266:
4262:
4261:
4259:
4258:
4253:
4252:
4251:
4246:
4236:
4231:
4226:
4221:
4216:
4211:
4206:
4201:
4196:
4194:Overpopulation
4191:
4186:
4181:
4176:
4171:
4166:
4161:
4156:
4151:
4146:
4140:
4138:
4130:
4129:
4119:
4117:
4116:
4109:
4102:
4094:
4085:
4084:
4082:
4081:
4076:
4071:
4066:
4061:
4056:
4051:
4046:
4040:
4038:
4032:
4031:
4029:
4028:
4023:
4018:
4013:
4008:
4003:
4001:Nutrient cycle
3998:
3993:
3991:Feeding frenzy
3988:
3983:
3978:
3973:
3971:Energy quality
3968:
3963:
3958:
3953:
3948:
3943:
3938:
3933:
3931:Cascade effect
3928:
3923:
3917:
3915:
3911:
3910:
3908:
3907:
3906:
3905:
3900:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3865:
3860:
3855:
3850:
3844:
3842:
3838:
3837:
3835:
3834:
3829:
3824:
3819:
3814:
3809:
3803:
3801:
3795:
3794:
3792:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3774:Microbial loop
3771:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3751:
3746:
3741:
3739:Lithoautotroph
3736:
3731:
3725:
3723:
3721:Microorganisms
3717:
3716:
3714:
3713:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3692:
3690:
3684:
3683:
3681:
3680:
3678:Prey switching
3675:
3670:
3665:
3660:
3655:
3650:
3645:
3640:
3635:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3600:
3595:
3589:
3587:
3581:
3580:
3578:
3577:
3572:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3555:Photosynthesis
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3532:
3527:
3522:
3517:
3512:
3510:Chemosynthesis
3507:
3501:
3499:
3493:
3492:
3490:
3489:
3484:
3479:
3474:
3469:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3402:Abiotic stress
3399:
3393:
3391:
3387:
3386:
3372:
3370:
3369:
3362:
3355:
3347:
3338:
3337:
3335:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3308:
3305:
3304:
3302:
3301:
3296:
3291:
3286:
3281:
3276:
3271:
3269:Hypercarnivore
3266:
3265:
3264:
3263:
3262:
3252:
3245:Cattle feeding
3242:
3237:
3236:
3235:
3230:
3228:Feeding frenzy
3225:
3220:
3215:
3213:Suction feeder
3210:
3205:
3200:
3190:
3189:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3168:
3157:
3155:
3151:
3150:
3148:
3147:
3142:
3137:
3132:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3092:
3087:
3081:
3079:
3075:
3074:
3072:
3071:
3066:
3060:
3058:
3054:
3053:
3051:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3023:Seed predation
3020:
3015:
3010:
3005:
2999:
2997:
2991:
2990:
2983:
2981:
2978:
2977:
2975:
2974:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2953:
2951:
2947:
2946:
2944:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2917:
2915:
2911:
2910:
2908:
2907:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2841:
2839:
2832:
2826:
2825:
2820:
2818:
2817:
2810:
2803:
2795:
2789:
2788:
2780:
2779:External links
2777:
2775:
2774:
2736:
2709:
2671:
2650:(3): 567–576.
2623:
2616:
2596:
2566:(1): 149–163.
2550:
2539:on 29 May 2016
2524:
2517:
2499:
2469:
2445:
2430:
2412:
2384:
2377:
2357:
2308:
2273:(4): 527–543.
2253:
2204:
2178:
2135:
2073:
2014:
1963:
1925:
1893:
1867:
1847:
1825:
1776:
1715:
1696:(9): 779–791.
1680:
1628:
1599:(4): 699–714.
1581:Baum, Julia K.
1572:
1520:
1485:
1445:
1392:
1335:
1294:
1247:
1187:
1169:(3): 569–575.
1146:
1125:(3): 569–576.
1105:
1080:
1055:
1004:
982:
959:
902:
850:
848:
845:
842:
841:
828:
824:blacktip shark
815:
797:
796:
794:
791:
775:Northumberland
732:
729:
691:
688:
619:
616:
602:
599:
493:
490:
430:
427:
374:riparian zones
335:climate change
313:
310:
262:
259:
197:
194:
192:
189:
179:, and through
112:trophic levels
49:second-largest
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4934:
4923:
4920:
4918:
4915:
4914:
4912:
4899:
4894:
4888:
4885:
4883:
4882:Urban ecology
4880:
4878:
4875:
4873:
4870:
4868:
4865:
4863:
4860:
4858:
4855:
4853:
4850:
4848:
4845:
4843:
4840:
4838:
4835:
4833:
4830:
4828:
4825:
4823:
4820:
4818:
4815:
4813:
4810:
4808:
4805:
4803:
4800:
4798:
4795:
4793:
4790:
4788:
4785:
4783:
4780:
4778:
4775:
4774:
4772:
4768:
4762:
4759:
4757:
4754:
4752:
4749:
4747:
4744:
4742:
4741:Kleiber's law
4739:
4737:
4734:
4732:
4729:
4727:
4724:
4722:
4719:
4717:
4714:
4712:
4709:
4707:
4704:
4702:
4699:
4697:
4694:
4692:
4689:
4687:
4684:
4682:
4679:
4678:
4676:
4674:
4668:
4662:
4659:
4657:
4654:
4652:
4649:
4647:
4644:
4642:
4639:
4635:
4632:
4631:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4610:
4607:
4605:
4602:
4601:
4599:
4597:
4593:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4575:
4571:
4567:
4565:
4562:
4560:
4557:
4555:
4552:
4550:
4547:
4545:
4542:
4540:
4537:
4535:
4532:
4530:
4527:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4514:Foster's rule
4512:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4497:
4495:
4492:
4490:
4487:
4485:
4482:
4480:
4477:
4476:
4474:
4472:
4466:
4460:
4457:
4455:
4452:
4450:
4447:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4437:
4435:
4432:
4430:
4427:
4425:
4422:
4420:
4417:
4415:
4412:
4411:
4409:
4403:
4397:
4394:
4392:
4389:
4387:
4384:
4382:
4379:
4377:
4374:
4372:
4369:
4367:
4364:
4362:
4359:
4357:
4354:
4352:
4349:
4347:
4344:
4342:
4339:
4337:
4334:
4332:
4329:
4327:
4324:
4322:
4318:
4315:
4313:
4310:
4308:
4305:
4303:
4300:
4298:
4295:
4293:
4290:
4288:
4285:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4269:
4267:
4263:
4257:
4254:
4250:
4247:
4245:
4242:
4241:
4240:
4237:
4235:
4232:
4230:
4227:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4172:
4170:
4167:
4165:
4162:
4160:
4157:
4155:
4152:
4150:
4147:
4145:
4142:
4141:
4139:
4137:
4131:
4126:
4122:
4115:
4110:
4108:
4103:
4101:
4096:
4095:
4092:
4080:
4077:
4075:
4072:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4055:
4052:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4042:
4041:
4039:
4033:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4014:
4012:
4009:
4007:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3992:
3989:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3949:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3918:
3916:
3912:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3871:
3870:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3845:
3843:
3839:
3833:
3832:Trophic level
3830:
3828:
3825:
3823:
3820:
3818:
3815:
3813:
3810:
3808:
3805:
3804:
3802:
3800:
3796:
3790:
3789:Phage ecology
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3779:Microbial mat
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3747:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3734:Bacteriophage
3732:
3730:
3727:
3726:
3724:
3722:
3718:
3712:
3709:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3701:Decomposition
3699:
3697:
3694:
3693:
3691:
3689:
3685:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3648:Mesopredators
3646:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3593:Apex predator
3591:
3590:
3588:
3586:
3582:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3502:
3500:
3498:
3494:
3488:
3485:
3483:
3480:
3478:
3475:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3427:Biotic stress
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3394:
3392:
3388:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3368:
3363:
3361:
3356:
3354:
3349:
3348:
3345:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3309:
3306:
3300:
3297:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3287:
3285:
3282:
3280:
3279:Mesocarnivore
3277:
3275:
3274:Hypocarnivore
3272:
3270:
3267:
3261:
3258:
3257:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3247:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3234:
3233:Filter feeder
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3223:Bottom feeder
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3195:
3194:
3191:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3171:Apex predator
3169:
3167:
3164:
3163:
3162:
3159:
3158:
3156:
3152:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3138:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3082:
3080:
3076:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3061:
3059:
3055:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
3000:
2998:
2996:
2992:
2987:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2960:
2958:
2955:
2954:
2952:
2950:cannibalistic
2948:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2936:Breastfeeding
2934:
2932:
2931:Placentophagy
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2918:
2916:
2912:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2850:Egg predation
2848:
2846:
2843:
2842:
2840:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2816:
2811:
2809:
2804:
2802:
2797:
2796:
2793:
2786:
2783:
2782:
2778:
2762:
2758:
2753:
2745:
2743:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2720:
2717:Jones, Lucy.
2713:
2710:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2678:
2676:
2672:
2666:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2634:
2632:
2630:
2628:
2624:
2619:
2613:
2609:
2608:
2600:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2554:
2551:
2538:
2534:
2528:
2525:
2520:
2514:
2510:
2503:
2500:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2473:
2470:
2465:
2461:
2456:
2449:
2446:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2427:
2423:
2416:
2413:
2401:
2400:
2395:
2388:
2385:
2380:
2374:
2370:
2369:
2361:
2358:
2353:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2312:
2309:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2257:
2254:
2249:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2208:
2205:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2185:
2183:
2179:
2174:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2151:
2146:
2139:
2136:
2131:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2080:
2078:
2074:
2069:
2065:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2018:
2015:
2010:
2006:
2001:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1967:
1964:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1929:
1926:
1911:
1904:
1897:
1894:
1882:
1878:
1871:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1857:
1851:
1848:
1835:
1829:
1826:
1821:
1817:
1812:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1780:
1777:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1747:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1719:
1716:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1684:
1681:
1675:
1674:2027.42/74761
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1639:
1632:
1629:
1624:
1620:
1615:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1576:
1573:
1568:
1564:
1559:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1531:
1524:
1521:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1489:
1486:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1456:
1449:
1446:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1404:
1396:
1393:
1388:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1339:
1336:
1330:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1298:
1295:
1283:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1251:
1248:
1243:
1239:
1234:
1229:
1224:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1208:(4): e95477.
1207:
1203:
1199:
1191:
1188:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1157:
1150:
1147:
1142:
1138:
1133:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1109:
1106:
1094:
1090:
1084:
1081:
1069:
1065:
1059:
1056:
1051:
1047:
1042:
1037:
1032:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1008:
1005:
1001:
998:
994:
991:
986:
983:
979:
978:Australia Zoo
976:
972:
969:
963:
960:
955:
951:
947:
943:
938:
933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
906:
903:
897:
896:11250/2492589
892:
887:
882:
878:
874:
870:
866:
862:
855:
852:
846:
838:
837:trophic level
832:
829:
825:
819:
816:
811:
807:
802:
799:
792:
790:
788:
784:
780:
779:Aberdeenshire
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
755:British Isles
748:
743:
738:
730:
728:
726:
722:
717:
710:
706:
702:
697:
689:
687:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
663:
659:
655:
654:retrieve prey
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
631:
630:domestic dogs
625:
617:
612:
607:
600:
598:
596:
592:
591:
585:
583:
582:
577:
576:
571:
570:
565:
561:
560:
555:
550:
548:
547:
546:Tyrannosaurus
542:
541:
536:
531:
529:
528:
522:
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445:
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436:
435:Trophic level
428:
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420:
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375:
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367:
364:in 1995 as a
363:
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236:
235:trophic level
232:
229:was removed,
228:
223:
219:
211:
207:
202:
195:
190:
188:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
165:birds of prey
162:
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145:
140:
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133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
104:
102:
98:
94:
93:superpredator
90:
86:
85:apex predator
78:
74:
69:
62:
57:
50:
46:
41:
37:
33:
19:
4867:Regime shift
4852:Macroecology
4573:
4569:
4509:Edge effects
4479:Biogeography
4424:Commensalism
4272:Biodiversity
4149:Allee effect
3888:kelp forests
3841:Example webs
3706:Detritivores
3592:
3545:Organotrophs
3525:Kinetotrophs
3477:Productivity
3299:Trophallaxis
3203:Pivot feeder
3198:Lunge feeder
3176:Egg predator
3170:
3064:Phagocytosis
2914:reproductive
2885:Myrmecophagy
2875:Molluscivore
2765:. Retrieved
2756:
2730:
2723:. Retrieved
2712:
2687:
2683:
2647:
2643:
2606:
2599:
2591:
2563:
2559:
2553:
2541:. Retrieved
2537:the original
2527:
2508:
2502:
2490:. Retrieved
2486:the original
2472:
2448:
2421:
2415:
2403:. Retrieved
2399:The Guardian
2397:
2387:
2367:
2360:
2325:
2321:
2311:
2270:
2267:Paleobiology
2266:
2256:
2221:
2217:
2207:
2190:
2154:
2148:
2138:
2093:
2089:
2031:
2027:
2017:
1980:
1977:PLOS Biology
1976:
1966:
1955:. Retrieved
1942:
1938:
1928:
1917:. Retrieved
1896:
1885:. Retrieved
1870:
1850:
1838:. Retrieved
1828:
1793:
1789:
1779:
1728:
1724:
1718:
1693:
1689:
1683:
1651:(1): 75–92.
1648:
1644:
1631:
1596:
1592:
1575:
1540:
1536:
1523:
1498:
1494:
1488:
1477:. Retrieved
1461:
1448:
1407:
1401:
1395:
1352:
1348:
1338:
1311:
1307:
1297:
1286:. Retrieved
1264:
1260:
1250:
1205:
1201:
1190:
1179:the original
1166:
1162:
1149:
1122:
1118:
1108:
1097:. Retrieved
1083:
1072:. Retrieved
1058:
1021:
1017:
1007:
999:
985:
977:
962:
919:
915:
905:
868:
864:
854:
831:
818:
801:
752:
714:
707:are popular
705:Tiger sharks
666:
664:and wolves.
634:Neanderthals
627:
588:
586:
579:
573:
567:
557:
551:
544:
538:
533:Carnivorous
532:
527:Anomalocaris
525:
518:
502:Anomalocaris
500:
486:
477:
453:
406:grizzly bear
366:conservation
347:
331:
312:Conservation
298:sperm whales
278:Arctic foxes
270:
247:mesopredator
215:
185:Iberian lynx
155:
150:Timorebestia
148:
144:Anomalocaris
142:
136:
128:conservation
105:
92:
89:top predator
88:
84:
82:
36:
4504:Disturbance
4407:interaction
4229:Recruitment
4159:Depensation
3951:Copiotrophs
3822:Energy flow
3744:Lithotrophy
3688:Decomposers
3668:Planktivore
3643:Insectivore
3633:Heterotroph
3598:Bacterivore
3565:Phototrophs
3515:Chemotrophs
3487:Restoration
3437:Competition
3120:Planktivore
3105:Detritivore
3100:Coprophagia
3090:Bacterivore
3085:Microbivory
3069:Myzocytosis
3028:Nectarivore
3018:Graminivore
2865:Lepidophagy
2860:Insectivore
2855:Hematophagy
2690:: 132–141.
2224:(1): 2827.
2096:(9): E796.
1840:9 September
1585:Worm, Boris
871:: 128–133.
721:tiger shark
423:black bears
410:hibernation
386:cottonwoods
177:tiger shark
4911:Categories
4872:Sexecology
4449:Parasitism
4414:Antibiosis
4249:Resistance
4244:Resilience
4134:Population
4054:Camouflage
4006:Oligotroph
3921:Ascendency
3883:intertidal
3873:cold seeps
3827:Food chain
3628:Herbivores
3603:Carnivores
3530:Mixotrophs
3505:Autotrophs
3384:components
3284:Parasitism
3218:Bait balls
3208:Ram feeder
3140:Plastivore
3135:Lithotroph
3125:Saprophagy
3048:Osteophagy
3038:Palynivore
2995:Herbivores
2926:Paedophagy
2900:Spongivore
2890:Ophiophagy
2830:Carnivores
2732:predators.
2492:14 October
2405:14 October
1983:(4): e92.
1957:2010-01-25
1919:2010-01-25
1887:2010-01-25
1877:"Top Dogs"
1690:BioScience
1479:2010-01-25
1288:2011-02-03
1282:10535/2966
1099:2010-01-25
1074:2010-01-25
1064:"predator"
1024:(1): 239.
922:: e00758.
847:References
813:predators.
806:Zoologists
759:extirpated
716:Ecotourism
709:ecotourism
696:Ecotourism
690:Ecotourism
680:cormorants
564:amphibians
540:Allosaurus
339:polar bear
231:lake trout
206:great skua
173:ecotourism
169:cormorants
132:ecotourism
120:herbivores
101:food chain
4917:Predation
4777:Allometry
4731:Emergence
4459:Symbiosis
4444:Mutualism
4239:Stability
4144:Abundance
3956:Dominance
3914:Processes
3903:tide pool
3799:Food webs
3673:Predation
3658:Omnivores
3585:Consumers
3540:Mycotroph
3497:Producers
3442:Ecosystem
3407:Behaviour
3289:Scavenger
3161:Predation
3130:Xenophagy
3110:Geophagia
3095:Fungivore
3043:Xylophagy
3033:Mellivory
3013:Frugivore
3008:Florivore
2905:Vermivore
2895:Piscivore
2880:Mucophagy
2870:Man-eater
2440:893897294
2157:: 27–56.
1741:CiteSeerX
954:202023472
946:2351-9894
810:parasites
787:livestock
783:rewilding
731:Rewilding
650:flush out
638:with dogs
368:measure.
354:gray wolf
288:into the
286:grassland
274:subarctic
218:predators
181:rewilding
4832:Endolith
4761:Xerosere
4673:networks
4489:Ecocline
4035:Defense,
3711:Detritus
3613:Foraging
3482:Resource
3240:Browsing
3115:Omnivore
3057:Cellular
3003:Folivore
2767:14 March
2761:Archived
2543:22 April
2464:Archived
2352:17971323
2303:85725299
2248:24264527
2173:33675083
2130:24497513
2068:24297882
2009:15757363
1951:Archived
1910:Archived
1881:Archived
1859:Archived
1820:29738721
1763:21764740
1710:40484905
1623:19298616
1587:(2009).
1567:10629976
1515:10542455
1470:Archived
1440:19305264
1432:15790855
1387:27386535
1242:24736454
1202:PLOS ONE
1141:23258709
1093:Archived
1068:Archived
1050:23092160
993:Archived
971:Archived
725:big cats
676:falconry
646:point to
642:gun dogs
595:Cenozoic
590:Smilodon
535:theropod
521:Cambrian
507:Cambrian
481:Benguela
414:scavenge
390:habitats
282:seabirds
243:hedgehog
139:Cambrian
97:predator
4822:Ecopath
4629:Habitat
4499:Ecotype
4494:Ecotone
4471:ecology
4469:Spatial
4405:Species
4265:Species
4136:ecology
4121:Ecology
4069:Mimicry
4037:counter
3981:f-ratio
3729:Archaea
3417:Biomass
3390:General
3382:Trophic
3374:Ecology
3255:Grazing
3154:Methods
2941:Weaning
2921:Oophagy
2845:Avivore
2692:Bibcode
2652:Bibcode
2588:4493527
2568:Bibcode
2343:2596183
2295:3595499
2275:Bibcode
2226:Bibcode
2121:3948303
2098:Bibcode
2059:3870703
2036:Bibcode
2000:1064850
1798:Bibcode
1771:7752940
1733:Bibcode
1725:Science
1653:Bibcode
1601:Bibcode
1558:1690453
1412:Bibcode
1403:Science
1378:4928970
1357:Bibcode
1316:Bibcode
1233:3988185
1210:Bibcode
1091:. PBS.
1041:3523981
924:Bibcode
873:Bibcode
771:Cumbria
767:Norfolk
672:falcons
624:Hunting
618:Hunting
556:shark,
554:Permian
469:anchovy
465:Iceland
461:Burundi
419:magpies
378:willows
343:sea ice
95:, is a
3853:Rivers
3749:Marine
3260:Forage
3250:Fodder
3078:Others
2725:6 June
2614:
2586:
2515:
2438:
2428:
2375:
2350:
2340:
2301:
2293:
2246:
2191:Nature
2171:
2128:
2118:
2066:
2056:
2007:
1997:
1818:
1769:
1761:
1743:
1708:
1621:
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1438:
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1385:
1375:
1240:
1230:
1139:
1048:
1038:
952:
944:
773:, and
668:Eagles
656:. The
456:humans
448:walrus
444:Humans
404:, the
394:beaver
384:, and
382:aspens
290:tundra
239:badger
167:, and
157:Humans
130:, and
116:wolves
4770:Other
4671:Other
4624:Guild
4596:Niche
3848:Lakes
2838:adult
2721:. BBC
2584:JSTOR
2299:S2CID
2291:JSTOR
1945:(3).
1913:(PDF)
1906:(PDF)
1767:S2CID
1706:S2CID
1641:(PDF)
1533:(PDF)
1473:(PDF)
1458:(PDF)
1436:S2CID
1308:Oikos
1182:(PDF)
1159:(PDF)
950:S2CID
793:Notes
652:, or
613:hunt.
509:seas.
398:moose
216:Apex
3858:Soil
3145:Pica
2769:2018
2727:2018
2612:ISBN
2545:2016
2513:ISBN
2494:2018
2436:OCLC
2426:ISBN
2407:2018
2373:ISBN
2348:PMID
2244:PMID
2169:PMID
2126:PMID
2064:PMID
2005:PMID
1842:2018
1816:PMID
1759:PMID
1619:PMID
1563:PMID
1511:PMID
1428:PMID
1383:PMID
1238:PMID
1137:PMID
1046:PMID
942:ISSN
835:Its
763:lynx
747:lynx
670:and
611:boar
572:and
543:and
392:for
322:wolf
320:The
245:, a
204:The
161:wolf
147:and
77:orca
71:The
59:The
45:lion
43:The
2700:doi
2688:215
2660:doi
2576:doi
2338:PMC
2330:doi
2326:275
2283:doi
2234:doi
2195:doi
2159:doi
2155:175
2116:PMC
2106:doi
2094:111
2054:PMC
2044:doi
2032:110
1995:PMC
1985:doi
1806:doi
1751:doi
1729:333
1698:doi
1669:hdl
1661:doi
1609:doi
1553:PMC
1545:doi
1541:266
1503:doi
1420:doi
1408:307
1373:PMC
1365:doi
1324:doi
1312:124
1277:hdl
1269:doi
1228:PMC
1218:doi
1171:doi
1127:doi
1036:PMC
1026:doi
932:doi
891:hdl
881:doi
869:168
644:to
473:pig
471:or
370:Elk
257:.
91:or
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