112:. The insulation reduces heat flow into the stored nitrogen; this is necessary because heat from the surrounding environment boils the liquid, which then transitions to a gaseous state. Reducing inflowing heat reduces the loss of liquid nitrogen in storage. The requirements of storage prevent the use of pipelines as a means of transport. Since long-distance pipelines would be costly due to the insulation requirements, it would be costly to use distant energy sources for production of liquid nitrogen. Petroleum reserves are typically a vast distance from consumption but can be transferred at ambient temperatures.
193:
383:
Unlike internal combustion engines, using a cryogenic working fluid requires heat exchangers to warm and cool the working fluid. In a humid environment, frost formation will prevent heat flow and thus represents an engineering challenge. To prevent frost build up, multiple working fluids can be used.
255:
Like other non-combustion energy storage technologies, a liquid nitrogen vehicle displaces the emission source from the vehicle's tail pipe to the central electrical generating plant. Where emissions-free sources are available, net production of pollutants can be reduced. Emission control measures at
149:
In 2008, the US Patent Office granted a patent on a liquid nitrogen powered turbine engine. The turbine flash-expands liquid nitrogen that is sprayed into the high-pressure section of the turbine, and the expanding gas is combined with incoming pressurized air to produce a high-velocity stream of gas
374:
For an isothermal expansion engine to have a range comparable to an internal combustion engine, a 350-litre (92 US gal) insulated onboard storage vessel is required. A practical volume, but a noticeable increase over the typical 50-litre (13 US gal) gasoline tank. The addition of
358:
The energy density—derived from nitrogen's isobaric heat of vaporization and specific heat in gaseous state—that can theoretically be realised from liquid nitrogen at atmospheric pressure and 27 °C ambient temperature is about 213 watt-hours per kilogram (W·h/kg), while typically only 97 W·h/kg
246:
In June 2016 trials will begin in London, UK on supermarket J. Sainsbury's fleet of food delivery vehicles: using a
Dearman nitrogen engine to provide power for the cooling of food cargo when the vehicle is stationary and the main engine is off. Currently delivery lorries mostly have second smaller
350:
than processes involving a chemical reaction in a substance, which in turn have lower energy densities than nuclear reactions. Liquid nitrogen as an energy store has a low energy density. Liquid hydrocarbon fuels, by comparison, have a high energy density. A high energy density makes the logistics
228:
The fiber materials are considerably lighter than metals but generally more expensive. Metal tanks can withstand a large number of pressure cycles, but must be checked for corrosion periodically. Liquid nitrogen, LN2, is commonly transported in insulated tanks, up to 50 litres, at atmospheric
312:
The principal disadvantage is the inefficient use of primary energy. Energy is used to liquefy nitrogen, which in turn provides the energy to run the motor. Any conversion of energy has losses. For liquid nitrogen cars, electrical energy is lost during the liquefaction process of nitrogen.
392:
However efficient the insulation on the nitrogen fuel tank, there will inevitably be losses by evaporation to the atmosphere. If a vehicle is stored in a poorly ventilated space, there is some risk that leaking nitrogen could reduce the oxygen concentration in the air and cause
162:. A heat engine runs by extracting thermal energy from the temperature difference between a hot and a cold reservoir; in the case of the liquid nitrogen engine, the "hot" reservoir is the air in the ambient ("room temperature") surroundings, which is used to boil the nitrogen.
67:
in the tailpipe emissions. This does not make it completely pollution free, since energy had been required to liquify the nitrogen in the first place, but that liquification process can be remote from the vehicle operation, and could in principle be powered by a
150:
that is ejected from the back of the turbine. The resulting gas stream can be used to drive generators or other devices. The system has not been demonstrated to power electric generators of greater than 1 kW, however higher output may be possible.
351:
of transport and storage more convenient. Convenience is an important factor in consumer acceptance. The convenient storage of petroleum fuels combined with its low cost has led to an unrivaled success. In addition, a petroleum fuel is a
272:
Much like electrical vehicles, liquid nitrogen vehicles would ultimately be powered through the electrical grid, which makes it easier to focus on reducing pollution from one source, as opposed to the millions of vehicles on the
39:, extracting heat from the ambient air and using the resulting pressurized gas to operate a piston or rotary motor. Vehicles propelled by liquid nitrogen have been demonstrated, but are not used commercially. One such vehicle,
316:
Liquid nitrogen is not available in public refueling stations; however, there are distribution systems in place at most welding gas suppliers and liquid nitrogen is an abundant by-product of liquid oxygen production.
384:
This adds topping cycles to ensure the heat exchanger does not fall below freezing. Additional heat exchangers, weight, complexity, efficiency loss, and expense, would be required to enable frost free operation.
229:
pressure. These tanks, being non-pressurized tanks, are not subject to inspection. Very large tanks for LN2 are sometimes pressurized to less than 25 psi to aid in transferring the liquid at point of use.
407:
As liquid nitrogen is colder than 90.2K, oxygen from the atmosphere can condense. Liquid oxygen can spontaneously and violently react with organic chemicals, including petroleum products like asphalt.
276:
Transportation of the fuel would not be required due to drawing power off the electrical grid. This presents significant cost benefits. Pollution created during fuel transportation would be eliminated.
375:
more complex power cycles would reduce this requirement and help enable frost free operation. However, no commercially practical instances of liquid nitrogen use for vehicle propulsion exist.
561:
1142:
165:
As such, the nitrogen engine is extracting energy from the thermal energy of the air, and the conversion efficiency with which it converts energy can be calculated from the
1515:
330:
Liquid nitrogen production is an energy-intensive process. Currently practical refrigeration plants producing a few tons/day of liquid nitrogen operate at about 50% of
868:
630:
840:
758:
771:
Werley, Barry L. (Edtr.) (1991). "Fire
Hazards in Oxygen Systems". ASTM Technical Professional training. Philadelphia: ASTM International Subcommittee G-4.05.
1073:
1295:
2410:
485:
418:, the pressure-relief devices of a tank of liquid nitrogen were sealed with brass plugs. As a result, the tank failed catastrophically, and exploded.
119:
or cryogenic heat engine offers a way to power vehicles and a means to generate electricity. Liquid nitrogen can also serve as a direct coolant for
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2265:
288:
The tank may be able to be refilled more often and in less time than batteries can be recharged, with re-fueling rates comparable to liquid fuels.
2403:
1508:
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of this substance is 1:694, a tremendous amount of force can be generated if liquid nitrogen is rapidly vaporized. In an incident in 2006 at
2459:
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959:
861:
703:, American Physical Society, Texas Section Fall Meeting, October 4–6, 2001 Fort Worth, Texas Meeting ID: TSF01, abstract #EC.009, 10/2001.
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2452:
726:
397:. Since nitrogen is a colorless and odourless gas that already makes up 78 per cent of air, such a change would be difficult to detect.
1501:
1102:
52:
and fuel tanks to recharge the batteries. This kind of system is called a hybrid liquid nitrogen-electric propulsion. Additionally,
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686:
158:
Although the liquid nitrogen is colder than the ambient temperature, the liquid nitrogen engine is nevertheless an example of a
854:
734:
668:
590:
2566:
1031:
782:
458:, Proceedings of 2001 ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, November 11–16, 2001, New York, NY.
268:, but use liquid nitrogen to store the energy instead of batteries. Their potential advantages over other vehicles include:
1421:
455:
256:
a central generating plant may be more effective and less costly than treating the emissions of widely dispersed vehicles.
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Liquid nitrogen vehicles are unconstrained by the degradation problems associated with current battery systems.
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35:, which is stored in a tank. Traditional nitrogen engine designs work by heating the liquid nitrogen in a
2019:
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1639:
1352:
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1232:
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the nitrogen is heated by combining it with the heat exchange fluid inside the cylinder of the engine.
136:
2513:
2477:
1477:
1061:
832:, a liquid nitrogen–powered car using a Cryogenic Heat Engine at the University of North Texas.
704:
461:
Kleppe J.A., Schneider R.N., “A Nitrogen
Economy”, Winter Meeting ASEE, Honolulu, HI, December, 1974.
53:
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The tanks to store the liquid nitrogen must be designed to safety standards appropriate for a
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can be achieved under realistic circumstances. This compares with 100–250 W·h/kg for a
282:
Liquid nitrogen tanks can be disposed of or recycled with less pollution than batteries.
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335:
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64:
334:. Currently surplus liquid nitrogen is produced as a byproduct in the production of
100:). The cooler can be powered by electricity or through direct mechanical work from
2004:
1999:
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1207:
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109:
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units. The consumption of liquid nitrogen is in effect boiling and returning the
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2250:
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2190:
2122:
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2014:
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Any process that relies on a phase-change of a substance will have much lower
296:
239:
85:
41:
644:
48:
Liquid nitrogen propulsion may also be incorporated in hybrid systems, e.g.,
2300:
2240:
2180:
2147:
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1994:
1989:
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209:
186:
727:"High Efficiency Energy Conversion Systems for Liquid Nitrogen Automobiles"
725:
Knowlen, C.; Mattick, A. T.; Bruckner, A. P.; Hertzberg, A. (1998-08-11).
609:
535:
63:
is simply nitrogen, a component of air, and thus it produces no localized
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1743:
1705:
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1247:
822:
816:
371:, 14 times the density of liquid nitrogen used at the Carnot efficiency.
132:
93:
2185:
2175:
2142:
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1979:
1944:
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1659:
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1601:
1553:
1331:
1311:
1181:
1046:
916:
400:
Cryogenic liquids are hazardous if spilled. Liquid nitrogen can cause
115:
Liquid nitrogen consumption is in essence production in reverse. The
2195:
1452:
1202:
219:
295:
powertrain in conjunction with a petrol or diesel engine, using the
747:
2069:
1924:
204:
191:
562:"Mullistava idea: Tulevaisuuden auto voi kulkea typpimoottorilla"
1497:
850:
687:"Sainsbury's trials Dearman's world-leading cooling technology"
2229:
1799:
1687:
1524:
1222:
1493:
532:"Stirling Cryogenics - Cryogenic and cryogenerator engineers"
247:
diesel engines to power cooling when the main engine is off.
456:"Cryogenic Heat Engines for Powering Zero Emission Vehicles"
783:"Investigative Report on Chemistry 301A Cylinder Explosion"
701:
Cryogenic Heat
Engines Made Using Electrocaloric Capacitors
466:
Fundamentals of
Classical Thermodynamics SI Version 2nd Ed.
59:
One advantage of the liquid nitrogen vehicle is that the
836:
Discussion on LN2 vehicle feasibility at How stuff works
264:
Liquid nitrogen vehicles are comparable in many ways to
2476:
2390:
2362:
2309:
2161:
2083:
1875:
1813:
1772:
1719:
1686:
1658:
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1532:
1445:
1413:
1340:
1304:
1256:
1180:
1012:
982:
925:
902:
884:
355:, not just an energy storage and transport medium.
56:can also be used in conjunction with this system.
108:. Liquid nitrogen is distributed and stored in
92:coolers that liquefy the main component of air,
759:University of Washington College of Engineering
404:and can make some materials extremely brittle.
593:. Dearman Engine Company. 2012. Archived from
224:other materials, or combinations of the above.
1509:
862:
486:"14.15 Reversed Stirling Cycle Refrigeration"
173:equation, which applies to all heat engines.
8:
629:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
237:A vehicle propelled by liquid nitrogen, the
1296:Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle
464:Gordon J. Van Wylen and Richard F. Sontag,
303:system. It can even run as a hybrid system.
1538:
1516:
1502:
1494:
869:
855:
847:
720:
718:
716:
841:Thermodynamic Properties of various fuels
555:
553:
1920:Cabriolet / Convertible / Drophead coupe
2266:Homogeneous charge compression ignition
608:Reyes, De Reyes, Edward (25 Jun 2013),
476:
454:C.A. Ordonez, M.C. Plummer, R.F. Reidy
622:
7:
196:Liquid nitrogen tank (Izmir, Turkey)
699:J. Franz, C.A. Ordonez, A. Carlos,
645:"LN2 Turbine - Clean, Green Energy"
813:Video of car powered by liquid air
547:Commercial Stirling engine cooling
25:
1930:Coupé de Ville / Sedanca de Ville
1103:Electric motorcycles and scooters
490:Modern Engineering Thermodynamics
342:Energy density of liquid nitrogen
200:The storage tank may be made of:
363:and 3,000 W·h/kg for a gasoline
84:Liquid nitrogen is generated by
1150:Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
819:report (car appears at 0m 52s).
735:Society of Automotive Engineers
299:from one to run the other in a
2567:Template:EC car classification
1032:Battery electric multiple unit
738:. SAE Technical Paper Series.
1:
1133:Neighborhood Electric Vehicle
1422:Who Killed the Electric Car?
1218:Common ethanol fuel mixtures
568:(in Finnish). Archived from
243:, was demonstrated in 1902.
45:, was demonstrated in 1902.
1436:Revenge of the Electric Car
1027:Battery-electric locomotive
50:battery electric propulsion
2629:
2256:Gasoline / petrol
2020:Roadster / Spider / Spyder
757:on 2003-04-24 – via
560:Raili Leino (2012-10-22).
484:Balmer, Robert T. (2011).
443:Ultra-low-emission vehicle
2552:
2396:(engine / drive)
1429:What Is the Electric Car?
1276:Hydrogen-powered aircraft
878:Alternative fuel vehicles
438:Future energy development
291:It can work as part of a
2035:Sedan delivery/Panel van
1138:Plug-in electric vehicle
1118:Gyro flywheel locomotive
1096:Battery electric vehicle
790:Texas A&M University
433:Cryogenic energy storage
416:Texas A&M University
410:Since the liquid to gas
233:Liquid nitrogen vehicles
2593:Automotive technologies
2296:Liquified petroleum gas
2108:Driverless (autonomous)
1358:Hybrid electric vehicle
1322:Liquid nitrogen vehicle
1317:Hybrid electric vehicle
1123:Hybrid electric vehicle
1086:Electric platform truck
279:Lower maintenance costs
18:Liquid nitrogen vehicle
2201:Compressed natural gas
2128:Personal rapid transit
1483:Zero-emissions vehicle
999:Compressed-air vehicle
940:Solar-powered aircraft
649:www.nitroturbodyne.com
611:Liquid nitrogen engine
197:
167:laws of thermodynamics
29:liquid nitrogen engine
2467:Dual motor-four-wheel
2065:Town (Coupé de Ville)
1353:Flexible-fuel vehicle
1281:Hydrogen-powered ship
1233:Flexible-fuel vehicle
1108:Electric kick scooter
353:primary energy source
195:
2478:Engine configuration
1478:Wind-powered vehicle
1062:Battery electric bus
566:Tekniikka&Talous
125:electrical equipment
110:insulated containers
54:regenerative braking
2484:internal combustion
2286:Internal combustion
2093:All-terrain vehicle
2015:Retractable hardtop
1327:Natural gas vehicle
709:2001APS..TSF.EC009F
361:lithium-ion battery
2588:Sustainable energy
994:Compressed-air car
960:List of prototypes
828:2007-02-05 at the
742:. Warrendale, PA.
369:thermal efficiency
326:Cost of production
198:
2575:
2574:
1871:
1870:
1640:Compact executive
1491:
1490:
1400:Electric aircraft
1266:Fuel cell vehicle
1113:Fuel cell vehicle
1037:Electric aircraft
969:Electric aircraft
894:Fuel cell vehicle
843:(tabulated data).
781:Brent S. Mattox.
503:978-0-12-374996-3
365:combustion engine
332:Carnot efficiency
266:electric vehicles
171:Carnot efficiency
16:(Redirected from
2620:
2487:
2446:Front-four-wheel
2397:
2260:direct injection
2171:Alternative fuel
1985:Multi-stop truck
1539:
1518:
1511:
1504:
1495:
1291:Hydrogen vehicle
1271:Hydrogen economy
1238:Methanol economy
1091:Electric vehicle
1042:Electric bicycle
1014:Electric battery
912:Electric bicycle
871:
864:
857:
848:
801:
800:
798:
792:. Archived from
787:
778:
772:
769:
763:
762:
756:
750:. Archived from
731:
722:
711:
697:
691:
690:
683:
677:
676:
669:"ISO 11439:2000"
665:
659:
658:
656:
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641:
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620:
619:
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605:
599:
598:
591:"The Technology"
587:
581:
580:
578:
577:
557:
548:
546:
544:
543:
534:. Archived from
528:
522:
521:
514:
508:
507:
481:
348:energy densities
129:air conditioning
70:renewable energy
21:
2628:
2627:
2623:
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2621:
2619:
2618:
2617:
2578:
2577:
2576:
2571:
2548:
2519:Single-cylinder
2481:
2480:
2472:
2460:Rear-four-wheel
2411:Front mid-front
2395:
2394:
2386:
2364:Engine position
2358:
2305:
2291:Liquid nitrogen
2157:
2085:
2079:
1867:
1809:
1768:
1715:
1701:Crossover (CUV)
1682:
1654:
1626:
1588:
1528:
1522:
1492:
1487:
1468:Wave power ship
1458:Ram air turbine
1441:
1409:
1348:Bi-fuel vehicle
1336:
1300:
1252:
1176:
1016:
1008:
985:
984:Compressed-air
978:
921:
898:
880:
875:
830:Wayback Machine
809:
804:
796:
785:
780:
779:
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770:
766:
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483:
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451:
449:Further reading
424:
412:expansion ratio
390:
381:
379:Frost formation
367:running at 28%
344:
328:
323:
310:
262:
253:
251:Emission output
235:
183:pressure vessel
179:
156:
117:Stirling engine
99:
90:Stirling engine
82:
33:liquid nitrogen
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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2453:Mid-four-wheel
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2040:Shooting brake
2037:
2032:
2030:Saloon / Sedan
2027:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1987:
1982:
1977:
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1962:
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1534:Classification
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1417:
1415:
1411:
1410:
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1407:
1402:
1397:
1396:
1395:
1390:
1380:
1378:Plug-in hybrid
1375:
1370:
1368:Hybrid vehicle
1365:
1360:
1355:
1350:
1344:
1342:
1338:
1337:
1335:
1334:
1329:
1324:
1319:
1314:
1308:
1306:
1302:
1301:
1299:
1298:
1293:
1288:
1286:Hydrogen train
1283:
1278:
1273:
1268:
1262:
1260:
1254:
1253:
1251:
1250:
1245:
1240:
1235:
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1205:
1200:
1195:
1189:
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1178:
1177:
1175:
1174:
1173:
1172:
1167:
1162:
1152:
1147:
1146:
1145:
1135:
1130:
1125:
1120:
1115:
1110:
1105:
1100:
1099:
1098:
1088:
1083:
1081:Electric truck
1078:
1077:
1076:
1066:
1065:
1064:
1054:
1049:
1044:
1039:
1034:
1029:
1023:
1021:
1010:
1009:
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996:
990:
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980:
979:
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896:
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882:
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873:
866:
859:
851:
845:
844:
838:
833:
820:
815:, embedded in
808:
807:External links
805:
803:
802:
799:on 2008-10-31.
773:
764:
748:10.4271/981898
712:
692:
689:. Innovate UK.
678:
660:
636:
600:
597:on 2012-10-22.
582:
549:
523:
509:
502:
494:Academic Press
475:
473:
470:
469:
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459:
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447:
446:
445:
440:
435:
430:
428:Energy storage
423:
420:
389:
386:
380:
377:
343:
340:
327:
324:
322:
319:
309:
306:
305:
304:
293:combined cycle
289:
286:
283:
280:
277:
274:
261:
258:
252:
249:
234:
231:
226:
225:
222:
217:
212:
207:
178:
175:
155:
152:
144:Dearman Engine
97:
81:
78:
37:heat exchanger
31:is powered by
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2625:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2585:
2583:
2568:
2565:
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2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
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2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2514:Reciprocating
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
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2492:
2491:
2489:
2485:
2479:
2475:
2468:
2464:
2461:
2457:
2454:
2450:
2447:
2443:
2440:
2436:
2433:
2432:Rear mid-rear
2429:
2426:
2422:
2419:
2415:
2412:
2408:
2405:
2402:
2401:
2399:
2393:
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2239:
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2227:
2224:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
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2189:
2187:
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2179:
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2174:
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2046:
2045:Station wagon
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1978:
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1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1956:
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1936:
1935:Coupé utility
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1778:
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1771:
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1757:
1755:
1752:
1750:
1749:Sport compact
1747:
1745:
1742:
1740:
1737:
1735:
1732:
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1727:
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1689:
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1679:
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1663:
1661:
1660:Minivan / MPV
1657:
1651:
1648:
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1643:
1641:
1638:
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1629:
1623:
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1514:
1512:
1507:
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1500:
1499:
1496:
1484:
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1479:
1476:
1474:
1473:Windmill ship
1471:
1469:
1466:
1464:
1461:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1451:
1450:
1448:
1444:
1438:
1437:
1433:
1431:
1430:
1426:
1424:
1423:
1419:
1418:
1416:
1414:Documentaries
1412:
1406:
1405:Electric boat
1403:
1401:
1398:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1386:
1385:
1384:
1383:Solar vehicle
1381:
1379:
1376:
1374:
1371:
1369:
1366:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1345:
1343:
1341:Multiple-fuel
1339:
1333:
1330:
1328:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1318:
1315:
1313:
1310:
1309:
1307:
1303:
1297:
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1292:
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1284:
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1279:
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1274:
1272:
1269:
1267:
1264:
1263:
1261:
1259:
1255:
1249:
1246:
1244:
1243:Methanol fuel
1241:
1239:
1236:
1234:
1231:
1229:
1226:
1224:
1221:
1219:
1216:
1214:
1211:
1209:
1206:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1190:
1188:
1186:
1183:
1179:
1171:
1168:
1166:
1163:
1161:
1158:
1157:
1156:
1155:Solar vehicle
1153:
1151:
1148:
1144:
1141:
1140:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1129:
1126:
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1119:
1116:
1114:
1111:
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1106:
1104:
1101:
1097:
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1079:
1075:
1072:
1071:
1070:
1067:
1063:
1060:
1059:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1052:Electric boat
1050:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1040:
1038:
1035:
1033:
1030:
1028:
1025:
1024:
1022:
1020:
1015:
1011:
1005:
1004:Tesla turbine
1002:
1000:
997:
995:
992:
991:
989:
987:
981:
975:
974:Electric boat
972:
970:
967:
961:
958:
957:
956:
953:
951:
948:
946:
943:
941:
938:
937:
936:
935:Solar vehicle
933:
932:
930:
928:
924:
918:
915:
913:
910:
909:
907:
905:
901:
895:
892:
891:
889:
887:
883:
879:
872:
867:
865:
860:
858:
853:
852:
849:
842:
839:
837:
834:
831:
827:
824:
823:LN2 Vehicle 1
821:
818:
814:
811:
810:
806:
795:
791:
784:
777:
774:
768:
765:
760:
753:
749:
745:
741:
737:
736:
728:
721:
719:
717:
713:
710:
706:
702:
696:
693:
688:
682:
679:
674:
670:
664:
661:
650:
646:
640:
637:
632:
626:
613:
612:
604:
601:
596:
592:
586:
583:
572:on 2013-09-01
571:
567:
563:
556:
554:
550:
538:on 2013-02-03
537:
533:
527:
524:
519:
518:"Our History"
513:
510:
505:
499:
495:
491:
487:
480:
477:
471:
467:
463:
460:
457:
453:
452:
448:
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441:
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436:
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408:
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403:
398:
396:
387:
385:
378:
376:
372:
370:
366:
362:
356:
354:
349:
341:
339:
337:
336:liquid oxygen
333:
325:
320:
318:
314:
308:Disadvantages
307:
302:
301:turbocompound
298:
294:
290:
287:
284:
281:
278:
275:
271:
270:
269:
267:
259:
257:
250:
248:
244:
242:
241:
232:
230:
223:
221:
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213:
211:
208:
206:
203:
202:
201:
194:
190:
188:
184:
176:
174:
172:
168:
163:
161:
153:
151:
147:
145:
140:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
121:refrigerators
118:
113:
111:
107:
106:wind turbines
103:
95:
91:
87:
79:
77:
75:
71:
66:
65:air pollution
62:
57:
55:
51:
46:
44:
43:
38:
34:
30:
19:
2354:Twelve-wheel
2311:Drive wheels
2290:
2084:Specialized
2005:Pickup truck
1910:Cabrio coach
1754:Sports sedan
1729:Grand tourer
1434:
1427:
1420:
1363:Hybrid train
1321:
1228:Ethanol fuel
1208:Butanol fuel
1193:Alcohol fuel
1128:Hybrid train
1069:Electric car
1057:Electric bus
794:the original
776:
767:
752:the original
739:
733:
700:
695:
681:
672:
663:
652:. Retrieved
648:
639:
615:, retrieved
610:
603:
595:the original
585:
574:. Retrieved
570:the original
565:
540:. Retrieved
536:the original
526:
512:
489:
479:
465:
409:
406:
399:
395:asphyxiation
391:
382:
373:
357:
345:
329:
315:
311:
263:
254:
245:
238:
236:
227:
215:carbon fiber
199:
180:
164:
157:
154:Carnot Cycle
148:
141:
114:
88:or reversed
83:
74:clean energy
58:
47:
40:
28:
26:
2504:Four-stroke
2404:Front-front
2344:Eight-wheel
2319:Front-wheel
2251:Natural gas
2236:Fossil fuel
2191:Biogasoline
1877:Body styles
1805:Vintage car
1213:Biogasoline
927:Solar power
904:Human power
160:heat engine
80:Description
61:exhaust gas
2582:Categories
2529:Two-stroke
2425:Front-rear
2418:Rear-front
2334:Four-wheel
2324:Rear-wheel
2163:Propulsion
2153:Voiturette
2138:Flying car
2133:Police car
2098:Amphibious
2010:Quad coupé
1900:Berlinetta
1617:Street rod
1559:Subcompact
654:2016-11-18
617:2016-11-18
576:2012-10-22
542:2013-02-11
472:References
321:Criticisms
297:waste heat
260:Advantages
240:Liquid Air
185:, such as
137:atmosphere
42:Liquid Air
2439:Rear-rear
2349:Ten-wheel
2339:Six-wheel
2329:Two-wheel
2241:Fuel cell
2181:Biodiesel
2148:Tow truck
2123:Pedal car
2103:Connected
2075:Vis-Ă -vis
2050:Targa top
1995:Panel van
1990:Notchback
1970:Limousine
1960:Landaulet
1950:Hatchback
1895:Barchetta
1863:S-segment
1858:M-segment
1853:J-segment
1848:F-segment
1843:E-segment
1838:D-segment
1833:C-segment
1828:B-segment
1823:A-segment
1734:Hot hatch
1711:Coupe SUV
1645:Executive
1607:Lead sled
1584:Full-size
1564:Supermini
1393:Solar bus
1388:Solar car
1373:Multifuel
1198:Biodiesel
1170:Solar bus
1165:Solar car
955:Solar car
950:Solar bus
886:Fuel cell
797:(reprint)
402:frostbite
210:aluminium
187:ISO 11439
86:cryogenic
2603:Peak oil
2598:Nitrogen
2562:Category
2539:W engine
2524:Straight
2281:Hydrogen
2246:Fuel gas
2211:Electric
2086:vehicles
2025:Runabout
1975:Microvan
1965:Liftback
1955:Kammback
1940:Fastback
1915:Cab over
1905:Brougham
1650:Personal
1622:T-bucket
1612:Lowrider
1579:Mid-size
1463:Vactrain
1446:See also
1258:Hydrogen
1248:Wood gas
1160:aircraft
826:Archived
817:BBC News
625:citation
422:See also
133:nitrogen
94:nitrogen
76:source.
2534:V (Vee)
2509:H-block
2275:plug-in
2273: (
2258: (
2228: (
2226:Ethanol
2215:battery
2213: (
2186:Biofuel
2176:Autogas
2143:Taxicab
2118:Gyrocar
2113:Go-kart
2060:Touring
2055:Torpedo
2000:Phaeton
1980:Minibus
1945:Hardtop
1790:Economy
1785:Classic
1780:Antique
1764:Go-kart
1696:Compact
1673:Leisure
1668:Compact
1602:Hot rod
1574:Compact
1542:By size
1332:Propane
1312:Autogas
1182:Biofuel
1047:Pedelec
917:Pedelec
705:Bibcode
142:In the
135:to the
2557:Portal
2544:Wankel
2469:
2465:
2462:
2458:
2455:
2451:
2448:
2444:
2441:
2437:
2434:
2430:
2427:
2423:
2420:
2416:
2413:
2409:
2406:
2392:Layout
2271:Hybrid
2206:Diesel
2196:Biogas
1890:Baquet
1739:Muscle
1721:Sports
1632:Luxury
1594:Custom
1569:Family
1527:design
1453:Maglev
1305:Others
1203:Biogas
986:engine
500:
388:Safety
220:Kevlar
169:using
2608:Fuels
2494:Boxer
2372:Front
2301:Steam
2070:T-top
1925:Coupe
1773:Other
1759:Super
1549:Micro
1019:motor
945:boats
786:(PDF)
755:(PDF)
730:(PDF)
273:road.
205:steel
177:Tanks
127:and
102:hydro
2499:Flat
2382:Rear
1744:Pony
1706:Mini
1678:Mini
1143:List
1074:List
1017:and
631:link
498:ISBN
139:.
2377:Mid
2230:E85
2220:NEV
1885:2+2
1800:Van
1795:Ute
1688:SUV
1554:Kei
1525:Car
1223:E85
1185:ICE
744:doi
673:ISO
104:or
72:or
2584::
1815:EU
788:.
732:.
715:^
671:.
647:.
627:}}
623:{{
564:.
552:^
496:.
492:.
488:.
338:.
189:.
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2482:(
2277:)
2262:)
2232:)
2222:)
1517:e
1510:t
1503:v
870:e
863:t
856:v
761:.
746::
740:1
707::
675:.
657:.
633:)
579:.
545:.
520:.
506:.
98:2
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
