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degree of control to it. Bipolar percussion is not popular with hobbyists, but there is evidence that bipolar percussion was the preferred way of dealing with certain problems. Bipolar percussion has the benefit of producing many sharp flakes, and triangular pieces of stone which can be useful as drills. Bipolar percussion also does not require the manufacturer to locate a platform before setting to work, and bipolar percussion can produce sharp flakes almost the size of the original piece of tool stone. The lack of control makes bipolar percussion undesirable in many situations, but the benefits mean that it often has a use, especially if workable material is rare. Bipolar percussion is often used to break open small cobbles, or to have a second chance with spent lithic cores, broken bifaces, and tools that have been reworked so much that it is impossible to make further useful tools using traditional lithic reduction. The end result of bipolar percussion is often a big mess, with only a few pieces that can be useful as cores or flakes for further working, but if other methods would result in a total dead-end, bipolar percussion may be desirable.
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The 'T' is the 'height' of maximum blank thickness and the 't' is the height of retouched scar from the ventral surface. The ratio between t and T is the geometric index of reduction. In theory this ratio shall range between 0 and 1. The bigger the number is the larger amount of lost weight from lithic flake. By using a logarithmic scale, a linear relationship between the geometric index and the percentage of original flake weight lost through retouch is confirmed. In choosing a reduction index, it is important to understand the strengths and weaknesses of each method, and how they fit to the intended research question, as different indices provide different levels of information. For example, Kuhn's geometric index of unifacial reduction (GIUR), which describes the ratio of scar height relative to the flake thickness, is highly influenced by the morphology of the flake blank which limits the applicability of this reduction index.
373:
shattering through them, making it desirable for working tool stone that already has been worked to some degree before. Soft hammers of course also do not have as much force behind them as hard hammers do. Flakes produced by soft hammers are generally smaller and thinner than those produced by hard-hammer flaking; thus, soft-hammer flaking is often used after hard-hammer flaking in a lithic reduction sequence to do finer work. As well as this, soft-hammers can produce longer flakes which aid in the conservation of materials because they produce a longer cutting edge per unit of mass lost.
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modern hobbyists must use a third object in order to hold the targeted piece of tool stone while they strike it. Often, some sort of clamp or vise is used. No evidence for such devices has yet been found in the archaeological record, but this is partly because they would normally be made of perishable materials, and partly because they can have great variation in design.
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1175:(Excellent illustrations by Valerie Waldorf of processes, techniques, hand tools, ancient and modern knapped artifacts . On front and rear cover are photos of precisely made replicas of prehistoric points and within the text are B&W photos including two full-scale "Danish dagger" replicas made by the author.)
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Since indirect percussion can be so precisely placed, the platform is often much smaller on flakes produced in this way than in other methods of flake removal. Of course, indirect percussion requires two hands to hold the percussing tool set. One holds the hammer, and one holds the punch. Therefore,
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Projectile percussion is so basic as to not be considered a technique. It involves throwing the toolstone at a stationary anvil stone. This method provides virtually no control over how the toolstone will fragment, and therefore produces a great deal of shatter, and few flakes. It is difficult to be
312:
In bipolar percussion the objective piece of toolstone is placed on an anvil stone, and then the percussion force is applied to the tool stone. Like projectile percussion, the tool stone is likely to shatter, rather than producing a single flake. Unlike projectile percussion, the technique has some
224:
By understanding the complex processes of lithic reduction, archaeologists recognize that the pattern and amount of reduction contribute tremendous effect to lithic assemblage compositions. One of the measurements is the geometric index of reduction. There are two elements in this index: 't' and 'T'.
192:. This process is predictable, and allows the flintknapper to control and direct the application of force so as to shape the material being worked. Controlled experiments may be performed using glass cores and consistent applied force in order to determine how varying factors affect core reduction.
449:
Usually, the objective piece is held clasped in the flintknapper's hand, with a durable piece of fabric or leather protecting the flintknapper's palm from the sharpness of the flakes removed. The tip of the flaking tool is placed against the edge of the stone tool and pressed hard, removing a small
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Soft-hammer percussion involves the use of a billet, usually made of wood, bone or antler as the percussor. These softer materials are easier to shape than stone hammers, and therefore can be made into more precise tools. Soft hammers also deform around the sharp edges of worked stone, rather than
496:, places the use of pressure flaking by early humans to make stone tools back to 73,000 BCE, 55,000 years earlier than previously accepted. The previously accepted date, "no more than 20,000 years ago", was based upon the earliest evidence previously available, which derived from findings of the
309:-stone and the flake is detached by using a striking implement, the method is known as bipolar percussion or bipolar technique. The resulting flake presents a double bulb of percussion, one at each end; alternatively, especially in the case of a quartz flake, there would be crushing at each end.
408:
Indirect percussion involves the use of a punch and hammer. The punch and hammer make it possible to apply large force to very small areas of a stone tool. Indirect percussion is therefore often used to achieve detail work on smaller tools. Some modern hobbyists make use of indirect percussion
376:
In most cases, the amount of pressure applied to the objective piece in soft-hammer percussion is not enough for the formation of a typical conchoidal fracture. Rather, soft-hammer flakes are most often produced by what is referred to as a bending fracture, so-called because the flake is quite
195:
It has been shown that stages in the lithic reduction sequence may be misleading and that a better way to assess the data is by looking at it as a continuum. The assumptions that archaeologists sometimes make regarding the reduction sequence based on the placement of a flake into a stage can be
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by pressing on the stone with a sharp instrument rather than striking it with a percussor. This method, which often uses punches made from bone or antler tines (or, among modern hobbyists, copper punches or even nails), provides a greater means of controlling the direction and quantity of the
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An alternative view of the bipolar reduction technique is offered by Jan Willem Van der Drift which contradicts the suggestion that there is little control over fracturing. The characteristics of bipolar reduction are different from that occurring in conchoidal fracture and are therefore often
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from the lithic core. As flakes are detached in sequence, the original mass of stone is reduced; hence the term for this process. Lithic reduction may be performed in order to obtain sharp flakes, of which a variety of tools can be made, or to rough out a blank for later refinement into a
345:. This technique can be used by flintknappers to remove broad flakes that can be made into smaller tools. This method of manufacture is believed to have been used to make some of the earliest stone tools ever found, some of which date from over 2 million years ago.
531:. Blanks are the starting point of a lithic reduction process, and during prehistoric times were often transported or traded for later refinement at another location. Blanks might be stones or cobbles, just as natural processes have left them, or might be
73:
that has been detached by natural geological processes, and is an appropriate size and shape. In some cases solid rock or larger boulders may be quarried and broken into suitable smaller pieces, and in others the starting point may be a piece of the
476:
The use of pressure flaking facilitated the early production of sharper and more finely detailed tools. Pressure flaking also gave toolmakers the ability to create notches where the objective piece could be bound more securely to the shaft of the
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flake from the opposite side. The process also involves frequent preparation of the edge to form better platforms for pressing off flakes. This is usually accomplished with abraiders made from a coarse-grained stone such as
196:
unfounded. For example, a significant amount of cortex can be present on a flake taken off near the very end of the reduction sequence. Removed flakes exhibit features characteristic of conchoidal fracturing, including
208:). Flakes are often quite sharp, with distal edges only a few molecules thick when they have a feather termination. These flakes can be used directly as tools or modified into other utilitarian implements, such as
393:
sure whether or not this method of lithic reduction was ever a commonplace practice, although noting sharp edges on a broken rock might have led early humans to first recognize the value of lithic reduction.
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or other objective piece, such as a partially formed tool, is held in one hand, and struck with a hammer or percussor. Percussors are traditionally either a stone cobble or pebble, often referred to as a
542:, or roughly shaped piece of stone, that probably reveals the final form of the tool, but is not complete. Preforms might also be transported or traded. Typically, a preform is the shaped remnant of a
242:
has demonstrated that heated stones are sometimes much easier to flake, with larger flakes being produced in flint, for example. In some cases the heating changes the colour of the stone.
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pieces, or flakes that are debitage from making another piece. Whatever their origin, on most definitions no further steps have yet been taken to shape them, or they become a preform.
341:
Hard hammer techniques are generally used to remove large flakes of stone. Early flintknappers and hobbyists replicating their methods often use cobbles of very hard stone, such as
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that originates from the point of impact and results in the separation of material from the objective piece, usually in the form of a partial cone, commonly known as a
1212:
754:
2970:
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943:
Pelcin, A. (1997). "The
Formation of Flakes: The Role of Platform Thickness and Exterior Platform Angle in the Production of Flake Initiations and Terminations".
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applied force than when using even the most careful percussive flaking. Copper retoucheurs to facilitate this process were widely employed in the
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literally bent or "peeled" from the objective piece. A bending fracture can be produced with a hard hammer. Flakes removed in this manner lack a
3072:
1205:
755:"Their lips are sealed: identifying hard stone, soft stone, and antler hammer direct percussion in Palaeolithic prismatic blade production"
405:, in which case the percussor never actually makes contact with the objective piece. This technique is referred to as indirect percussion.
381:, and are distinguished instead by the presence of a small lip where the flake's striking platform has separated from the objective piece.
238:
Alongside the various percussion and manipulation techniques described below, there is evidence that heat was at least sometimes used.
653:
Hiscock, Peter; Clarkson, Chris (2005). "Experimental evaluation of Kuhn's geometric index of reduction and the flat-flake problem".
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82:(also known as the "objective piece"). A basic distinction is that between flaked or knapped stone, the main subject here, and
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Percussion can also be done by throwing the objective piece at an anvil stone. This is sometimes called projectile percussion.
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breaks occur when the force propagates across and through the tool in such a way that the entire opposite margin is removed.
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550:. Sometimes basic features such as stems and notches have been initiated. In most cases, the term refers to an incomplete
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546:. Larger and thicker than the intended tool, it lacks the final trimming and refinement that is present in the completed
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1142:
Macgregor, O.J. (2005). "Abrupt
Terminations and stone artefact reduction potential". In Clarkson, C.; Lamb, L. (eds.).
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808:
599:
Shott, M.J. (1996). "Stage versus continuum models in the debris assemblage from production of a fluted biface".
55:
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1918:
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115:, knife, or other object. Flakes of regular size that are at least twice as long as they are broad are called
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Hiscock, Peter; Tabrett, Amy (2010). "Generalization, inference and the quantification of lithic reduction".
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It is the use of hard-hammer percussion that most often results in the formation of the typical features of
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objects made by grinding. Flaked stone reduction involves the use of a hard hammer percussor, such as a
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78:, a flake removed from a previous operation to make a larger tool. The selected piece is called the
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172:, were used as a source material for producing stone tools. As these materials lack natural
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1146:. British Archaeological Reports International Monograph Series S1408. Oxford: Archaeopress.
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occur when they are struck with sufficient force; for these stones this process is called
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912:"The effect of indentor type on flake attributes: evidence from a controlled experiment"
827:"Identifying bipolar knapping in the Mesolithic site of Font del Ros (northeast Iberia)"
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Lithics âDown Underâ: Australian
Approaches to Lithic Reduction, Use and Classification
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An example of an obsidian core that has had flakes removed using bipolar percussion.
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Percussion reduction, or percussion flaking, refers to removal of flakes by impact.
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1162:(Paperback) (Fourth ed.). Mound Builder Books, Branson MO, USA. p. 76.
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Kuhn, Steve (1990). "A Geometric Index of
Reduction for Unifacial Stone Tools".
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almost exclusively, with little or no pressure flaking to finish their work.
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is the process of fashioning stones or rocks from their natural state into
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Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
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184:. The propagation of force through the material takes the form of a
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Roda
Gilabert, Xavier; Mora, Rafael; MartĂnez-Moreno, Jorge (2015).
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A blank is a stone of suitable size and shape to be worked into a
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1031:"Scientists Find Earliest Evidence of Method of Shaping Weapons"
1012:"Stone Agers Sharpened Skills 55,000 Years Earlier Than Thought"
482:
95:
91:
54:
by removing some parts. It has been intensely studied and many
2384:
2023:
1289:
1194:
1086:
Cotterell, B.; Kamminga, J. (1987). "The
Formation of Flakes".
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1894:
1852:
463:. Great care must be taken during pressure flaking so that
16:
Process of fashioning stones or rocks into tools and weapons
69:
Normally the starting point is the selection of a piece of
467:
that break the entire tool do not occur. Occasionally,
160:, as well as other fine-grained stone material, such as
429:
Pressure flaking is a method of trimming the edge of a
325:
misinterpreted by archaeologists and lithic experts.
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305:When the objective piece is placed on a stationary
1125:Understanding Stone Tools and Archaeological Sites
204:(small secondary flakes detached from the flake's
997:
973:
897:
885:
257:Hitting hand-held core with a hammer or percussor
753:Driscoll, Killian; GarcĂa-Rojas, Maite (2014).
1206:
1046:
1044:
401:Often, flakes are struck from a core using a
297:, or a billet made of bone, antler, or wood.
8:
813:The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology
62:of the precise style of their tools and the
1183:Technology and Terminology of Knapped Stone
1069:Lithics: Macroscopic Approaches to Analysis
273:: the objective stone is thrown at an anvil
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2381:
2033:
2020:
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1299:
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1071:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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279:: flake struck from core by using a punch
119:. Lithic tools produced this way may be
66:of the reduction techniques they used.
1186:. C.R.E.P., Meudon, France. p. 193.
804:
802:
1050:
727:
688:
686:
580:
488:An archaeological discovery in 2010 in
442:â and may therefore be associated with
127:(exhibiting flaking on one side only).
748:
746:
744:
742:
740:
738:
736:
123:(exhibiting flaking on both sides) or
58:are identified almost entirely by the
485:and increasing the object's utility.
337:An example of hard hammer percussion.
7:
368:An example of soft hammer percussion
267:, using anvil and striking implement
90:, a soft hammer fabricator (made of
1180:Inizan, M. L.; et al. (1999).
352:on the detached flake, such as the
200:, bulbs of force, and occasionally
14:
2337:Megalithic architectural elements
945:Journal of Archaeological Science
916:Journal of Archaeological Science
762:Journal of Archaeological Science
655:Journal of Archaeological Science
628:Journal of Archaeological Science
1010:Bower, Bruce (29 October 2010).
523:Upper Neolithic axe-head preform
2956:Evolutionary origin of religion
1123:Kooyman, Brian Patrick (2000).
998:Cotterell & Kamminga (1987)
974:Cotterell & Kamminga (1987)
898:Cotterell & Kamminga (1987)
886:Cotterell & Kamminga (1987)
1029:Tamar Kahn (29 October 2010).
613:10.1080/01977261.1996.11754381
425:An example of pressure flaking
135:Mount William stone axe quarry
1:
3073:Archaeological artefact types
2569:Art of the Middle Paleolithic
2099:British megalith architecture
564:Eccentric flint (archaeology)
2564:Art of the Upper Paleolithic
2104:Nordic megalith architecture
707:10.1080/00438243.2010.517669
640:10.1016/0305-4403(90)90038-7
144:or amorphous stone such as
3094:
2712:British Isles and Brittany
2633:Gwion Gwion rock paintings
2397:
2380:
2032:
2019:
1481:
1298:
1285:
1228:
1160:The Art of Flint Knapping
815:. Accessed 21 March 2024.
774:10.1016/j.jas.2014.04.008
677:10.1016/j.jas.2005.02.002
538:The next stage creates a
56:archaeological industries
446:in northwestern Europe.
240:Experimental archaeology
2944:Evolutionary musicology
2347:Oldest extant buildings
2274:Archaeological features
1793:Prepared-core technique
1158:Waldorf, D. C. (1994).
356:and compression rings.
102:), or a wood or antler
38:, in particular of the
2906:Unchambered long cairn
2754:Mound Builders culture
2087:Neolithic architecture
1222:Prehistoric technology
1067:Andrefsky, W. (2005).
957:10.1006/jasc.1996.0190
929:10.1006/jasc.1996.0145
843:10.1098/rstb.2014.0354
524:
426:
369:
360:Soft-hammer percussion
338:
329:Hard-hammer percussion
321:
253:The methods used are:
138:
31:
2581:List of Stone Age art
1783:Microblade technology
1731:Langdale axe industry
1329:Ard / plough
522:
424:
385:Projectile percussion
367:
336:
319:
271:Projectile percussion
133:
22:
3078:Primitive technology
2988:Prehistoric medicine
2983:Prehistoric counting
2966:Prehistoric religion
2961:Paleolithic religion
2939:Behavioral modernity
2296:Causewayed enclosure
2188:Abri de la Madeleine
1312:Neolithic Revolution
246:Percussion reduction
178:conchoidal fractures
174:planes of separation
3027:Prehistoric warfare
1773:Magdalenian culture
1736:Levallois technique
1667:Earliest toolmaking
910:Pelcin, A. (1997).
809:"bipolar technique"
515:Blanks and preforms
397:Indirect percussion
350:conchoidal fracture
277:Indirect percussion
25:Levallois technique
2978:Origin of language
2971:Spiritual drug use
2881:Rectangular dolmen
2783:Dartmoor kistvaens
2596:Carved stone balls
2308:Circular enclosure
2267:Other architecture
2210:Alp pile dwellings
1798:Solutrean industry
1709:Gravettian culture
1359:Secondary products
1088:American Antiquity
1000:, pp. 700â745
972:, pp. 18â20;
837:(1682): 20140354.
525:
465:perverse fractures
433:by removing small
427:
379:bulb of percussion
370:
354:bulb of percussion
339:
322:
301:Bipolar percussion
261:Bipolar percussion
198:striking platforms
139:
32:
3055:
3054:
3051:
3050:
3047:
3046:
3000:Prehistoric music
2949:music archaeology
2606:Cup and ring mark
2431:Clothing/textiles
2376:
2375:
2372:
2371:
2015:
2014:
2011:
2010:
1818:Yubetsu technique
1803:Striking platform
1768:Lithic technology
1653:
1652:
1638:Game drive system
1557:Projectile points
1449:Mortar and pestle
951:(12): 1107â1113.
695:World Archaeology
601:Lithic Technology
569:Lithic technology
498:Upper Paleolithic
265:bipolar technique
142:Cryptocrystalline
64:chaßne opératoire
3085:
3015:Divje Babe flute
2922:Archaeoastronomy
2665:Petrosomatoglyph
2399:
2382:
2231:Water management
2034:
2021:
1924:Denticulate tool
1746:Lithic reduction
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986:Andrefsky (2005)
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874:Andrefsky (2005)
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865:
864:
854:
822:
816:
806:
797:
794:Andrefsky (2005)
791:
785:
784:
782:
780:
759:
750:
731:
730:, pp. 65â67
725:
719:
718:
690:
681:
680:
670:
661:(7): 1015â1022.
650:
644:
643:
623:
617:
616:
596:
590:
588:Macgregor (2005)
585:
552:projectile point
440:Early Bronze Age
417:Pressure flaking
113:projectile point
44:lithic reduction
3093:
3092:
3088:
3087:
3086:
3084:
3083:
3082:
3058:
3057:
3056:
3043:
2910:
2896:Stone box grave
2866:Megalithic tomb
2771:Cotswold-Severn
2723:
2628:Guardian stones
2556:Prehistoric art
2550:
2393:
2368:
2357:Timber trackway
2262:
2226:
2222:Wattle and daub
2075:
2054:Standing stones
2028:
2007:
1822:
1649:
1626:
1551:
1468:
1378:Food processing
1373:
1322:New World crops
1294:
1281:
1224:
1219:
1179:
1174:
1170:
1157:
1154:
1152:Further reading
1141:
1135:
1122:
1085:
1079:
1066:
1063:
1058:
1057:
1049:
1042:
1028:
1027:
1023:
1009:
1008:
1004:
996:
992:
984:
980:
968:
964:
942:
941:
937:
909:
908:
904:
896:
892:
884:
880:
872:
868:
824:
823:
819:
807:
800:
792:
788:
778:
776:
757:
752:
751:
734:
726:
722:
692:
691:
684:
668:10.1.1.482.4543
652:
651:
647:
625:
624:
620:
598:
597:
593:
586:
582:
577:
560:
517:
419:
399:
387:
362:
331:
303:
286:
248:
236:
231:
222:
220:Reduction index
60:lithic analysis
17:
12:
11:
5:
3091:
3089:
3081:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3060:
3059:
3053:
3052:
3049:
3048:
3045:
3044:
3042:
3041:
3040:
3039:
3029:
3024:
3023:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3005:Alligator drum
2997:
2996:
2995:
2985:
2980:
2975:
2974:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2953:
2952:
2951:
2941:
2936:
2935:
2934:
2932:lunar calendar
2929:
2918:
2916:
2915:Other cultural
2912:
2911:
2909:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2862:
2861:
2856:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2835:
2834:
2829:
2819:
2814:
2813:
2812:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2786:
2785:
2775:
2774:
2773:
2763:
2762:
2761:
2751:
2750:
2749:
2744:
2733:
2731:
2725:
2724:
2722:
2721:
2719:Venus figurine
2716:
2715:
2714:
2709:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2688:
2687:
2682:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2650:Megalithic art
2647:
2646:
2645:
2640:
2630:
2625:
2620:
2619:
2618:
2608:
2603:
2601:Cave paintings
2598:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2577:
2576:
2566:
2560:
2558:
2552:
2551:
2549:
2548:
2547:
2546:
2541:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2520:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2484:
2479:
2478:
2477:
2467:
2466:
2465:
2460:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2439:
2438:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2407:
2405:
2403:Material goods
2395:
2394:
2385:
2378:
2377:
2374:
2373:
2370:
2369:
2367:
2366:
2365:
2364:
2354:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2333:
2332:
2322:
2317:
2316:
2315:
2305:
2304:
2303:
2293:
2292:
2291:
2281:
2276:
2270:
2268:
2264:
2263:
2261:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2234:
2232:
2228:
2227:
2225:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2213:
2212:
2202:
2197:
2196:
2195:
2190:
2185:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2159:
2158:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2137:
2136:
2126:
2121:
2119:Cliff dwelling
2116:
2111:
2106:
2101:
2096:
2095:
2094:
2083:
2081:
2077:
2076:
2074:
2073:
2072:
2071:
2066:
2061:
2051:
2046:
2040:
2038:
2030:
2029:
2024:
2017:
2016:
2013:
2012:
2009:
2008:
2006:
2005:
2004:
2003:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1977:
1976:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1915:
1914:
1904:
1903:
1902:
1897:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1871:
1870:
1860:
1855:
1850:
1849:
1848:
1838:
1832:
1830:
1824:
1823:
1821:
1820:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1764:
1763:
1758:
1753:
1743:
1738:
1733:
1728:
1727:
1726:
1716:
1711:
1706:
1704:Fire hardening
1701:
1696:
1694:Clovis culture
1691:
1686:
1685:
1684:
1679:
1674:
1663:
1661:
1655:
1654:
1651:
1650:
1648:
1647:
1646:
1645:
1634:
1632:
1628:
1627:
1625:
1624:
1619:
1617:Manis Mastodon
1614:
1609:
1604:
1599:
1594:
1589:
1584:
1579:
1574:
1573:
1572:
1561:
1559:
1553:
1552:
1550:
1549:
1548:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1532:
1527:
1517:
1512:
1511:
1510:
1500:
1499:
1498:
1496:throwing stick
1488:
1482:
1476:
1470:
1469:
1467:
1466:
1461:
1456:
1451:
1446:
1441:
1436:
1435:
1434:
1429:
1419:
1414:
1409:
1404:
1403:
1402:
1392:
1387:
1381:
1379:
1375:
1374:
1372:
1371:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1346:
1341:
1336:
1331:
1326:
1325:
1324:
1319:
1308:
1306:
1296:
1295:
1290:
1283:
1282:
1280:
1279:
1274:
1273:
1272:
1262:
1261:
1260:
1255:
1250:
1245:
1240:
1229:
1226:
1225:
1220:
1218:
1217:
1210:
1203:
1195:
1189:
1188:
1177:
1168:
1153:
1150:
1149:
1148:
1139:
1133:
1120:
1100:10.2307/281378
1083:
1077:
1062:
1059:
1056:
1055:
1051:Kooyman (2000)
1040:
1021:
1002:
990:
978:
962:
935:
922:(7): 613â621.
902:
890:
878:
866:
817:
798:
786:
732:
728:Kooyman (2000)
720:
701:(4): 545â561.
682:
645:
634:(5): 583â593.
618:
591:
579:
578:
576:
573:
572:
571:
566:
559:
556:
516:
513:
444:Beaker Culture
418:
415:
398:
395:
386:
383:
361:
358:
330:
327:
302:
299:
285:
284:Hand-held core
282:
281:
280:
274:
268:
258:
247:
244:
235:
232:
230:
227:
221:
218:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3090:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3065:
3063:
3038:
3035:
3034:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3002:
3001:
2998:
2994:
2991:
2990:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2958:
2957:
2954:
2950:
2947:
2946:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2933:
2930:
2928:
2925:
2924:
2923:
2920:
2919:
2917:
2913:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2891:Simple dolmen
2889:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2876:Passage grave
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2851:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2833:
2830:
2828:
2825:
2824:
2823:
2822:Gallery grave
2820:
2818:
2815:
2811:
2808:
2807:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2784:
2781:
2780:
2779:
2776:
2772:
2769:
2768:
2767:
2764:
2760:
2757:
2756:
2755:
2752:
2748:
2745:
2743:
2740:
2739:
2738:
2737:Burial mounds
2735:
2734:
2732:
2730:
2726:
2720:
2717:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2704:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2697:Statue menhir
2695:
2693:
2690:
2686:
2685:Stone carving
2683:
2681:
2678:
2677:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2635:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2617:
2614:
2613:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2575:
2572:
2571:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2561:
2559:
2557:
2553:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2536:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2524:Sewing needle
2522:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2489:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2476:
2473:
2472:
2471:
2468:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2455:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2437:
2434:
2433:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2408:
2406:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2383:
2379:
2363:
2360:
2359:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2352:Timber circle
2350:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2331:
2328:
2327:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2314:
2311:
2310:
2309:
2306:
2302:
2301:Tor enclosure
2299:
2298:
2297:
2294:
2290:
2289:fulacht fiadh
2287:
2286:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2271:
2269:
2265:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2235:
2233:
2229:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2211:
2208:
2207:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2180:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2157:
2154:
2153:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2135:
2132:
2131:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2093:
2090:
2089:
2088:
2085:
2084:
2082:
2078:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2056:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2045:
2042:
2041:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2022:
2018:
2002:
1999:
1998:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1975:
1972:
1971:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1913:
1910:
1909:
1908:
1905:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1892:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1869:
1866:
1865:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1847:
1844:
1843:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1834:
1833:
1831:
1829:
1825:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1748:
1747:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1737:
1734:
1732:
1729:
1725:
1722:
1721:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1700:
1697:
1695:
1692:
1690:
1687:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1673:
1670:
1669:
1668:
1665:
1664:
1662:
1660:
1656:
1644:
1641:
1640:
1639:
1636:
1635:
1633:
1629:
1623:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1603:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1588:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1578:
1575:
1571:
1568:
1567:
1566:
1563:
1562:
1560:
1558:
1554:
1546:
1543:
1541:
1538:
1536:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1526:
1525:spear-thrower
1523:
1522:
1521:
1518:
1516:
1513:
1509:
1506:
1505:
1504:
1503:Bow and arrow
1501:
1497:
1494:
1493:
1492:
1489:
1487:
1484:
1483:
1480:
1477:
1475:
1471:
1465:
1462:
1460:
1457:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1442:
1440:
1437:
1433:
1430:
1428:
1425:
1424:
1423:
1420:
1418:
1415:
1413:
1412:Grinding slab
1410:
1408:
1405:
1401:
1398:
1397:
1396:
1393:
1391:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1382:
1380:
1376:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1347:
1345:
1344:Domestication
1342:
1340:
1339:Digging stick
1337:
1335:
1332:
1330:
1327:
1323:
1320:
1318:
1317:Founder crops
1315:
1314:
1313:
1310:
1309:
1307:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1288:
1284:
1278:
1275:
1271:
1268:
1267:
1266:
1263:
1259:
1258:New Stone Age
1256:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1246:
1244:
1241:
1239:
1236:
1235:
1234:
1231:
1230:
1227:
1223:
1216:
1211:
1209:
1204:
1202:
1197:
1196:
1193:
1185:
1184:
1178:
1171:
1169:9780943917016
1165:
1161:
1156:
1155:
1151:
1145:
1140:
1136:
1134:9780826323330
1130:
1127:. UNM Press.
1126:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1084:
1080:
1078:0-521-61500-3
1074:
1070:
1065:
1064:
1060:
1053:, p. 47
1052:
1047:
1045:
1041:
1036:
1032:
1025:
1022:
1017:
1013:
1006:
1003:
999:
994:
991:
987:
982:
979:
976:, p. 690
975:
971:
966:
963:
958:
954:
950:
946:
939:
936:
930:
925:
921:
917:
913:
906:
903:
900:, p. 867
899:
894:
891:
888:, p. 986
887:
882:
879:
875:
870:
867:
862:
858:
853:
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
821:
818:
814:
810:
805:
803:
799:
795:
790:
787:
775:
771:
767:
763:
756:
749:
747:
745:
743:
741:
739:
737:
733:
729:
724:
721:
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
696:
689:
687:
683:
678:
674:
669:
664:
660:
656:
649:
646:
641:
637:
633:
629:
622:
619:
614:
610:
606:
602:
595:
592:
589:
584:
581:
574:
570:
567:
565:
562:
561:
557:
555:
553:
549:
545:
541:
536:
534:
530:
521:
514:
512:
510:
506:
502:
499:
495:
491:
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435:lithic flakes
432:
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288:Generally, a
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206:bulb of force
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186:Hertzian cone
183:
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136:
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108:lithic flakes
105:
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49:
45:
41:
37:
30:
26:
21:
2832:wedge-shaped
2817:Funeral pyre
2810:Great dolmen
2766:Chamber tomb
2747:Round barrow
2702:Stone circle
2574:Blombos Cave
2502:Grooved ware
2426:Chalcolithic
2330:Thornborough
2248:Flush toilet
2183:Blombos Cave
2178:Rock shelter
2134:Quiggly hole
2026:Architecture
2001:illustration
1745:
1643:Buffalo jump
1464:Storage pits
1427:AĆıklı HöyĂŒk
1417:Ground stone
1253:Subdivisions
1182:
1159:
1143:
1124:
1091:
1087:
1068:
1024:
1015:
1005:
993:
988:, p. 12
981:
965:
948:
944:
938:
919:
915:
905:
893:
881:
876:, p. 31
869:
834:
830:
820:
812:
796:, p. 12
789:
777:. Retrieved
765:
761:
723:
698:
694:
658:
654:
648:
631:
627:
621:
604:
600:
594:
583:
539:
537:
526:
494:South Africa
490:Blombos Cave
487:
475:
468:
448:
428:
411:
407:
400:
391:
388:
375:
371:
347:
340:
323:
311:
304:
287:
276:
270:
264:
260:
252:
249:
237:
223:
194:
190:lithic flake
140:
137:in Australia
84:ground stone
68:
43:
33:
2854:unchambered
2849:Long barrow
2839:Grave goods
2795:Court cairn
2790:Clava cairn
2742:Bowl barrow
2680:Rock cupule
2623:Golden hats
2616:Hill figure
2517:Unstan ware
2497:Cord-marked
2362:Sweet Track
2284:Burnt mound
2205:Stilt house
2193:Sibudu Cave
1986:Tally stick
1954:Quern-stone
1939:Hammerstone
1929:Fire plough
1900:Pesse canoe
1858:Bannerstone
1828:Other tools
1741:Lithic core
1689:Aurignacian
1577:Bare Island
1459:Quern-stone
1094:: 675â708.
768:: 134â141.
607:(1): 6â22.
544:lithic core
503:culture in
295:hammerstone
210:spokeshaves
88:hammerstone
80:lithic core
36:archaeology
3062:Categories
2993:trepanning
2886:Ring cairn
2844:Jar burial
2827:transepted
2759:U.S. sites
2660:Petroglyph
2586:Bird stone
2544:wine press
2217:Stone roof
2200:Roundhouse
2092:long house
2069:Stonehenge
2037:Ceremonial
1981:Stone tool
1808:Tool stone
1778:Metallurgy
1682:Mousterian
1659:Toolmaking
1597:Cumberland
1570:Transverse
1540:Schöningen
1432:Qesem cave
1400:Earth oven
1354:Irrigation
1265:Technology
1233:Prehistory
1061:References
529:stone tool
470:outrepasse
450:linear or
431:stone tool
229:Techniques
202:eraillures
158:chalcedony
106:to detach
71:tool stone
3037:symbolism
2901:Tor cairn
2859:GrĂžnsalen
2800:Cremation
2692:Sculpture
2670:Pictogram
2655:Petroform
2475:amber use
2443:Cosmetics
2253:Reservoir
2238:Check dam
2168:Pueblitos
2163:Pit-house
2146:Longhouse
2080:Dwellings
1949:Microlith
1880:Bow drill
1875:Bone tool
1868:prismatic
1677:Acheulean
1592:Cresswell
1565:Arrowhead
1491:Boomerang
1407:Granaries
1369:Terracing
1248:Stone Age
1116:163565502
1035:AllAfrica
715:162434327
663:CiteSeerX
501:Solutrean
461:quartzite
343:quartzite
170:quartzite
125:unifacial
40:Stone Age
27:of flint-
2675:Rock art
2638:painting
2611:Geoglyph
2436:timeline
2416:Beadwork
2156:Mehrgarh
2151:Mudbrick
2059:megalith
1934:Fire-saw
1756:debitage
1751:analysis
1719:Hand axe
1699:Cupstone
1277:Glossary
1238:Timeline
861:26483532
558:See also
548:artifact
533:quarried
214:scrapers
182:knapping
162:rhyolite
154:obsidian
121:bifacial
76:debitage
29:knapping
3068:Lithics
3032:Symbols
2643:pigment
2529:Weaving
2492:Cardium
2487:Pottery
2482:Mirrors
2470:Jewelry
2411:Baskets
2391:culture
2243:Cistern
2049:Pyramid
1991:Weapons
1969:Scraper
1959:Racloir
1919:Cleaver
1907:Chopper
1813:Uniface
1724:Grooves
1714:Hafting
1672:Oldowan
1631:Systems
1582:Cascade
1545:woomera
1535:harpoon
1508:history
1474:Hunting
1454:Pottery
1395:Cooking
1304:Farming
1270:history
1243:Outline
852:4614717
779:19 July
540:preform
234:Heating
166:felsite
52:weapons
3010:flutes
2805:Dolmen
2729:Burial
2539:winery
2512:Linear
2342:Midden
2320:Cursus
2313:Goseck
2173:Pueblo
2124:Dugout
2109:Burdei
1788:Mining
1612:Lamoka
1607:Folsom
1587:Clovis
1444:Metate
1422:Hearth
1390:Basket
1364:Sickle
1166:
1131:
1114:
1108:281378
1106:
1075:
859:
849:
713:
665:
505:France
479:weapon
457:basalt
452:lunate
168:, and
156:, and
117:blades
100:antler
2927:sites
2871:Mummy
2591:Cairn
2507:JĆmon
2458:shoes
2453:Hides
2325:Henge
2279:Broch
2141:Jacal
1996:Wheel
1944:Knife
1890:Canoe
1885:Burin
1863:Blade
1761:flake
1622:Plano
1530:baton
1520:Spear
1486:Arrow
1439:Manos
1292:Tools
1112:S2CID
1104:JSTOR
1016:Wired
758:(PDF)
711:S2CID
575:Notes
509:Spain
403:punch
307:anvil
150:flint
146:chert
104:punch
48:tools
3020:gudi
2778:Cist
2707:list
2534:Wine
2463:Ătzi
2448:Glue
2421:Beds
2389:and
2387:Arts
2258:Well
2114:Cave
2044:Kiva
1974:side
1964:Rope
1912:tool
1846:bone
1836:Adze
1602:Eden
1515:Nets
1385:Fire
1349:Goad
1334:Celt
1164:ISBN
1129:ISBN
1073:ISBN
857:PMID
781:2017
507:and
483:tool
290:core
212:and
96:bone
92:wood
23:The
2129:Hut
2064:row
1895:Oar
1853:Axe
1841:Awl
1096:doi
953:doi
924:doi
847:PMC
839:doi
835:370
811:in
770:doi
703:doi
673:doi
636:doi
609:doi
481:or
459:or
263:or
98:or
50:or
34:In
3064::
1110:.
1102:.
1092:52
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1043:^
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1014:.
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920:24
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833:.
829:.
801:^
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764:.
760:.
735:^
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699:42
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685:^
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659:32
657:.
632:17
630:.
605:21
603:.
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511:.
492:,
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1200:v
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1037:.
1018:.
959:.
955::
932:.
926::
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611::
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
