31:
367:
2322:
2334:
2346:
34:
38:
37:
33:
32:
39:
36:
326:
Gerard Jagers' operator theory proposes that life is a general term for the presence of the typical closures found in organisms; the typical closures are a membrane and an autocatalytic set in the cell and that an organism is any system with an organisation that complies with an operator type that is
545:
In the absence of such a theory, we are in a position analogous to that of a 16th-century investigator trying to define 'water' in the absence of molecular theory. Without access to living things having a different historical origin, it is difficult and perhaps ultimately impossible to formulate an
313:
Harris
Bernstein and colleagues argued in 1983 that the evolution of order in living systems and certain physical systems obeys a common fundamental principle termed the Darwinian dynamic. This was formulated by first considering how macroscopic order is generated in a simple non-biological system
274:
and aims to understand the most fundamental aspects of life. A closely related approach, relational biology, is concerned mainly with understanding life processes in terms of the most important relations, and categories of such relations among the essential functional components of organisms; for
178:
states that Miller's theory is perhaps the "most integrative" social systems theory, clearly distinguishing between matter–energy-processing and information-processing, showing how social systems are linked to biological systems. LST analyzes the irregularities or "organizational pathologies" of
258:
devoted a large part of his career, from 1958 onwards, to developing a comprehensive theory of life as a self-organizing complex system, "closed to efficient causation". He defined a system component as "a unit of organization; a part with a function, i.e., a definite relation between part and
97:
and attempt to map general principles for how all living systems work. Instead of examining phenomena by attempting to break things down into components, a general living systems theory explores phenomena in terms of dynamic patterns of the relationships of organisms with their environment.
166:, and physical and conceptual factors, and above living systems ecological, planetary and solar systems, galaxies, etc. Miller's central thesis is that the multiple levels of living systems (cells, organs, organisms, groups, organizations, societies, supranational systems) are
35:
1390:
Jagers, Gerald (2012). "Contributions of the
Operator Hierarchy to the Field of Biologically Driven Mathematics and Computation". In Ehresmann, Andree C.; Simeonov, Plamen L.; Smith, Leslie S. (eds.).
299:. Related approaches focus on the interdependence of constraints, where constraints can be either molecular, such as enzymes, or macroscopic, such as the geometry of a bone or of the vascular system.
225:
and biological fluxes together as a "reciprocity of influence," and a reciprocal relation with environment is arguably as important for understanding life as it is for understanding ecosystems. As
259:
whole." He identified the "nonfractionability of components in an organism" as the fundamental difference between living systems and "biological machines." He summarised his views in his book
89:
Some scientists have proposed in the last few decades that a general theory of living systems is required to explain the nature of life. Such a general theory would arise out of the
1556:
179:
systems functioning (e.g., system stress and strain, feedback irregularities, information–input overload). It explicates the role of entropy in social research while it equates
170:
composed of critical and mutually-dependent subsystems that process inputs, throughputs, and outputs of energy and information. Seppänen (1998) says that Miller applied
1152:
401:. This system is able to regulate and control metabolism and energy supply and contains at least one subsystem that functions as an information carrier (
1735:
2302:
1542:
1479:
1399:
1243:
1218:
990:
935:
908:
764:
641:
539:
Clealand, Carol E.; Chyba, Christopher F. (8 October 2007). "Does 'Life' Have a
Definition?". In Woodruff, T. Sullivan; Baross, John (eds.).
1777:
1495:
Longo, Giuseppe; Montévil, Maël; Kauffman, Stuart (1 January 2012). "No entailing laws, but enablement in the evolution of the biosphere".
1166:
Bernstein, Harris; Byerly, Henry C.; Hopf, Frederick A.; Michod, Richard A.; Vemulapalli, G. Krishna (June 1983). "The
Darwinian Dynamic".
978:
255:
134:, such a system must contain each of twenty "critical subsystems" defined by their functions. Miller considers living systems as a type of
81:. Multiple theories of living systems have been proposed. Such theories attempt to map general principles for how all living systems work.
197:
The idea that Earth is alive is found in philosophy and religion, but the first scientific discussion of it was by the
Scottish geologist
1652:
Miller, J.L., & Miller, J.G. (1992). Greater than the sum of its parts: Subsystems which process both matter-energy and information.
2286:
597:
266:
Complex systems biology is a field of science that studies the emergence of complexity in functional organisms from the viewpoint of
1690:
1647:
2115:
559:
1613:
175:
2276:
1368:
2281:
1728:
840:
167:
63:
233:
rather than a single organism or species. He argues that an ecosystemic definition of life is preferable to a strictly
2382:
241:(2009) highlights mutualism as the key to understand the systemic, order-generating behaviour of life and ecosystems.
275:
multicellular organisms, this has been defined as "categorical biology", or a model representation of organisms as a
871:
318:
molecules. The underlying order-generating process was concluded to be basically similar for both types of systems.
2130:
1982:
1259:
Jagers Op
Akkerhuis, Gerard A. J. M. (2010). "Towards a Hierarchical Definition of Life, the Organism, and Death".
2350:
2372:
2326:
1721:
1070:
Rosen, R. (1958b). "The
Representation of Biological Systems from the Standpoint of the Theory of Categories".
432:
2010:
1670:
Jouko Seppänen, (1998). Systems ideology in human and social sciences. In G. Altmann & W.A. Koch (Eds.),
284:
2377:
1294:
Jagers Op
Akkerhuis, Gerard (2011). "Explaining the Origin of Life is not Enough for a Definition of Life".
613:
Seppänen, Jouko (1998). "Systems ideology in human and social sciences". In
Altmann, G.; Koch, W.A. (eds.).
447:
250:
2338:
2030:
1833:
1520:
1118:
486:
171:
119:
2307:
2020:
1890:
480:
402:
308:
127:
74:
183:
with information and order. It emphasizes both structure and process, as well as their interrelations.
2170:
2145:
2100:
1948:
1943:
1905:
1880:
1512:
1424:
1110:
794:
516:
474:
1525:
1123:
2045:
1938:
519: – concerns cybernetic processes in relation to the development/evolution of dynamical systems
355:
210:
2333:
366:
2175:
2110:
2090:
2080:
2040:
2025:
2000:
1958:
1953:
1807:
1797:
1792:
1548:
1502:
1360:
1311:
1276:
1191:
1183:
1144:
1023:
818:
585:
456:
351:
296:
288:
280:
226:
111:
2240:
2155:
2095:
2065:
1990:
1848:
1843:
1767:
1686:
1643:
1593:
1538:
1475:
1459:
1440:
1395:
1352:
1239:
1214:
1136:
986:
931:
904:
810:
760:
645:
593:
489: – Psychological theory of interaction between biological organisms and their environment
332:
328:
114:'s living systems theory is a general theory about the existence of all living systems, their
66:
1702:
698:
2235:
2105:
1967:
1918:
1900:
1583:
1530:
1467:
1432:
1342:
1303:
1268:
1175:
1128:
1079:
1051:
1015:
960:
802:
785:
637:
347:
238:
1498:
Proceedings of the 14th annual conference companion on
Genetic and evolutionary computation
314:
far from thermodynamic equilibrium, and then extending consideration to short, replicating
2205:
2190:
2165:
2140:
2060:
2055:
2015:
1933:
1928:
1923:
1838:
1787:
1744:
1682:
1415:
Korzeniewski, Bernard (7 April 2001). "Cybernetic formulation of the definition of life".
504:
465:
426:
378:
371:
343:
276:
271:
267:
192:
1516:
1428:
1114:
798:
209:, suggests that life on Earth functions as a single organism that defines and maintains
201:. In 1785, he stated that Earth was a superorganism and that its proper study should be
2260:
2255:
2250:
2220:
2195:
2185:
2180:
2150:
2075:
2070:
2035:
1995:
1963:
1870:
1802:
1772:
1236:
The Pursuit of Complexity: The Utility of Biodiversity from an Evolutionary Perspective
836:
780:
754:
750:
510:
406:
206:
69:
and said to interact with their environment. These systems are maintained by flows of
2387:
2366:
2245:
2160:
2120:
2005:
1828:
1812:
1315:
1280:
983:
Life Itself: A Comprehensive Inquiry into the Nature, Origin, and Fabrication of Life
563:
413:
that are involved in the unidirectional and irreversible open-ended process known as
382:
17:
1707:
1552:
1364:
1195:
822:
477: – Scientific study of the Earth's spheres and their natural integrated systems
2225:
2125:
2050:
1148:
1027:
628:
Járos, György (2000). "Living Systems Theory of James Grier Miller and teleonics".
198:
163:
673:
1665:
Psychology and Biology of Language and Thought: Essays in Honor of Eric Lenneberg
1471:
1330:
925:
898:
2215:
2210:
2200:
2135:
1875:
1762:
1639:
441:
394:
234:
155:
70:
1347:
1132:
327:
at least as complex as the cell. Life can be modelled as a network of inferior
2230:
2085:
1621:
1307:
1272:
1019:
848:
642:
10.1002/(sici)1099-1743(200005/06)17:3<289::aid-sres333>3.0.co;2-z
450: – Hierarchy of complex structures and systems within biological sciences
410:
390:
292:
202:
180:
649:
507: – Computational and mathematical modeling of complex biological systems
459: – Complex network which connects several biologically relevant entities
358:. This definition is extended by the evolution of novel functions over time.
130:, intended to formalize the concept of life. According to Miller's 1978 book
1895:
1782:
1534:
444: – Systems concept which entails automatic reproduction and maintenance
414:
398:
354:
capable of reproducing itself or themselves, and of completing at least one
230:
115:
1627:
Kenneth D. Bailey (2006). Living systems theory and social entropy theory.
1597:
1588:
1571:
1444:
1436:
1356:
1140:
814:
1211:
Darwinian Dynamics: Evolutionary Transitions in Fitness and Individuality
875:
492:
123:
27:
Multiple interactions and regulation of life forms with their environment
1570:
Budisa, Nediljko; Kubyshkin, Vladimir; Schmidt, Markus (22 April 2020).
1006:
Baianu, I.C. (2006). "Robert Rosen's Work and Complex Systems Biology".
1660:
1187:
1083:
1055:
964:
159:
94:
90:
1331:"The Role of Logic and Insight in the Search for a Definition of Life"
1752:
806:
386:
151:
147:
135:
78:
59:
1618:
Sociology and the new systems theory: Toward a theoretical synthesis
1496:
1098:
1042:
Rosen, Robert (1958a). "A Relational Theory of Biological Systems".
385:
as an organizational unit resting on four pillars/cornerstones: (i)
1179:
951:
Rosen, Robert (1958). "A relational theory of biological systems".
501: – Hypothetical matter-closed, energy-open life support system
1713:
1507:
498:
365:
139:
29:
1462:. In Barrow, John D.; Davies, P.C.W.; Harper, Jr., C.L. (eds.).
900:
Beginnings of cellular life: metabolism recapitulates biogenesis
222:
143:
51:
1717:
874:. Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America. Archived from
315:
174:
on a broad scale to describe all aspects of living systems.
783:(1965). "A physical basis for life detection experiments".
1663:," in Miller, George A., and Elizabeth Lenneberg (eds.),
546:
adequately general theory of the nature of living systems
470:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
461:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
452:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
335:
formed by the potential of expansion and reproduction.
287:
of living organisms in terms of their dynamic, complex
541:
Planets and Life: The Emerging Science of Astrobiology
468: – System composed of many interacting components
927:
A third window: natural life beyond Newton and Darwin
1572:"Xenobiology: A Journey towards Parallel Life Forms"
521:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
437:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
331:
of regulatory mechanisms subordinated to a superior
43:
A presentation on information flow in living systems
2295:
2269:
1981:
1857:
1821:
1751:
1099:"Biological organisation as closure of constraints"
924:Ulanowicz, Robert W.; Ulanowicz, Robert E. (2009).
674:"The Living Systems Theory of James Grier Miller"
1679:Principles of Quantitative Living Systems Science
1238:. KNNV Publishing. pp. 27–29, 87–88, 94–96.
1661:Biology of language: The epistemology of reality
409:as self-sustaining units are parts of different
205:. The Gaia hypothesis, proposed in the 1960s by
138:. Below the level of living systems, he defines
1703:The Living Systems Theory Of James Grier Miller
1674:(pp. 180–302). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
1335:Journal of Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics
617:. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 180–302.
303:Bernstein, Byerly and Hopf's Darwinian dynamic
1729:
1672:Systems: New paradigms for the human sciences
1329:Jagers Op Akkerhuis, Gerard A. J. M. (2012).
1097:Montévil, Maël; Mossio, Matteo (7 May 2015).
615:Systems: New paradigms for the human sciences
229:(1992) explains it, life is a property of an
8:
362:Budisa, Kubyshkin and Schmidt's four pillars
221:A systems view of life treats environmental
1629:Systems Research and Behavioral Science, 22
1863:
1736:
1722:
1714:
513: – Interdisciplinary study of systems
1587:
1524:
1506:
1346:
1213:. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
1122:
370:Definition of cellular life according to
560:"Patterns, Flows, and Interrelationship"
270:theory. The latter is also often called
985:. New York: Columbia University Press.
953:The Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics
630:Systems Research and Behavioral Science
531:
279:of biological relations, as well as an
244:
213:conditions necessary for its survival.
1155:from the original on 17 November 2017.
216:
54:forms (or, more colloquially known as
740:Kenneth D. Bailey, 1994, pp. 209–210.
7:
2345:
2287:Systems theory in political science
1072:Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics
1044:Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics
731:Kenneth D. Bailey 2006, pp.292–296.
495: – Individual living life form
1708:James Grier Miller, Living Systems
1371:from the original on 16 April 2021
338:
25:
1559:from the original on 11 May 2017.
1501:. GECCO '12. pp. 1379–1392.
872:"The Ecosystemic Life Hypothesis"
756:Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth
302:
217:Morowitz's property of ecosystems
2344:
2332:
2321:
2320:
870:Fiscus, Daniel A. (April 2002).
381:, Kubyshkin and Schmidt defined
1168:The Quarterly Review of Biology
245:Rosen's complex systems biology
186:
2277:Systems theory in anthropology
1417:Journal of Theoretical Biology
1103:Journal of Theoretical Biology
930:. Templeton Foundation Press.
543:. Cambridge University Press.
346:defines a living system as an
322:Gerard Jagers' operator theory
321:
1:
2282:Systems theory in archaeology
339:Kauffman's multi-agent system
1634:James Grier Miller, (1978).
1472:10.1017/CBO9780511814990.032
1464:Science and Ultimate Reality
897:Morowitz, Harold J. (1992).
435: – viable system theory
361:
106:
1659:Humberto Maturana (1978), "
1209:Michod, Richard E. (2000).
759:. Oxford University Press.
722:Seppänen 1998, pp. 197–198.
558:Brown, Molly Young (2002).
291:of metabolic, genetic, and
2404:
1348:10.1080/073911012010525006
1133:10.1016/j.jtbi.2015.02.029
306:
248:
190:
187:Lovelock's Gaia hypothesis
2316:
1914:
1866:
1778:Coupled human–environment
1710:The Basic Concepts (1978)
1458:Kaufmann, Stuart (2004).
1308:10.1007/s10699-010-9209-4
1273:10.1007/s10699-010-9177-8
1020:10.1007/s10516-005-4204-z
903:. Yale University Press.
592:. New York: McGraw-Hill.
483: – Life not on Earth
1667:. Academic Press: 27-63.
845:Papers by James Lovelock
433:Autonomous Agency Theory
356:thermodynamic work cycle
2111:Charles A. S. Hall
1677:James R. Simms (1999).
1535:10.1145/2330784.2330946
1234:Jagers, Gerard (2012).
699:"The Earth as a System"
672:Parent, Elaine (1996).
662:(Miller, 1978, p. 1025)
448:Biological organization
374:, Kubyshkin and Schmidt
285:functional organisation
251:Complex systems biology
2031:Ludwig von Bertalanffy
1654:Behavioral Science, 37
1589:10.1002/cbic.202000141
1437:10.1006/jtbi.2001.2262
1296:Foundations of Science
1261:Foundations of Science
487:Information metabolism
429: – Field of study
375:
172:general systems theory
62:. They are said to be
44:
2308:Principia Cybernetica
2021:Anthony Stafford Beer
1891:Sociotechnical system
636:(3). Wiley: 289–300.
481:Extraterrestrial life
369:
309:Evolutionary dynamics
107:Miller's open systems
42:
18:Living systems theory
2171:Mihajlo D. Mesarovic
2146:Edward Norton Lorenz
2101:Jay Wright Forrester
1906:World-systems theory
1881:Earth system science
1466:. pp. 654–666.
517:Viable System Theory
475:Earth system science
2046:Kenneth E. Boulding
1517:2012arXiv1201.2069L
1460:"Autonomous agents"
1429:2001JThBi.209..275K
1392:Integral Biomathics
1115:2015JThBi.372..179M
799:1965Natur.207..568L
703:Primer project ISSS
586:Miller, James Grier
403:genetic information
297:signalling pathways
95:biological sciences
2383:Biological systems
2176:James Grier Miller
2131:Faina M. Kirillova
2091:Heinz von Foerster
2081:Edsger W. Dijkstra
2041:Alexander Bogdanov
2026:Richard E. Bellman
2001:William Ross Ashby
1084:10.1007/bf02477890
1056:10.1007/bf02478302
965:10.1007/bf02478302
678:The Primer Project
457:Biological systems
376:
352:multi-agent system
329:negative feedbacks
281:algebraic topology
227:Harold J. Morowitz
112:James Grier Miller
45:
2360:
2359:
2241:Manuela M. Veloso
2156:Humberto Maturana
2096:Stephanie Forrest
2066:C. West Churchman
1991:Russell L. Ackoff
1977:
1976:
1849:Positive feedback
1844:Negative feedback
1614:Kenneth D. Bailey
1582:(16): 2228–2231.
1544:978-1-4503-1178-6
1481:978-0-521-83113-0
1401:978-3-642-28110-5
1245:978-90-5011-443-1
1220:978-0-691-05011-9
992:978-0-231-07565-7
937:978-1-59947-154-9
910:978-0-300-05483-5
766:978-0-19-286030-9
566:on 8 January 2009
333:positive feedback
237:or physical one.
231:ecological system
40:
16:(Redirected from
2395:
2348:
2347:
2336:
2324:
2323:
2236:Francisco Varela
1968:Systems thinking
1901:Urban metabolism
1864:
1738:
1731:
1724:
1715:
1602:
1601:
1591:
1567:
1561:
1560:
1528:
1510:
1492:
1486:
1485:
1455:
1449:
1448:
1412:
1406:
1405:
1387:
1381:
1380:
1378:
1376:
1350:
1326:
1320:
1319:
1291:
1285:
1284:
1256:
1250:
1249:
1231:
1225:
1224:
1206:
1200:
1199:
1163:
1157:
1156:
1126:
1094:
1088:
1087:
1066:
1060:
1059:
1038:
1032:
1031:
1003:
997:
996:
975:
969:
968:
948:
942:
941:
921:
915:
914:
894:
888:
887:
885:
883:
878:on 6 August 2009
867:
861:
860:
858:
856:
847:. Archived from
833:
827:
826:
807:10.1038/207568a0
777:
771:
770:
747:
741:
738:
732:
729:
723:
720:
714:
713:
711:
709:
695:
689:
688:
686:
684:
669:
663:
660:
654:
653:
625:
619:
618:
610:
604:
603:
582:
576:
575:
573:
571:
562:. Archived from
555:
549:
548:
536:
522:
471:
462:
453:
438:
348:autonomous agent
239:Robert Ulanowicz
41:
21:
2403:
2402:
2398:
2397:
2396:
2394:
2393:
2392:
2373:Systems biology
2363:
2362:
2361:
2356:
2312:
2291:
2265:
2206:Anatol Rapoport
2191:Talcott Parsons
2166:Donella Meadows
2141:Allenna Leonard
2061:Mary Cartwright
2056:Kathleen Carley
2016:Gregory Bateson
2011:Béla H. Bánáthy
1973:
1910:
1859:
1853:
1839:Limiting factor
1834:Leverage points
1817:
1755:
1747:
1745:Systems science
1742:
1699:
1683:Kluwer Academic
1636:Living systems.
1610:
1608:Further reading
1605:
1569:
1568:
1564:
1545:
1526:10.1.1.701.3838
1494:
1493:
1489:
1482:
1457:
1456:
1452:
1414:
1413:
1409:
1402:
1389:
1388:
1384:
1374:
1372:
1328:
1327:
1323:
1293:
1292:
1288:
1258:
1257:
1253:
1246:
1233:
1232:
1228:
1221:
1208:
1207:
1203:
1165:
1164:
1160:
1124:10.1.1.701.3373
1096:
1095:
1091:
1069:
1067:
1063:
1041:
1039:
1035:
1005:
1004:
1000:
993:
977:
976:
972:
950:
949:
945:
938:
923:
922:
918:
911:
896:
895:
891:
881:
879:
869:
868:
864:
854:
852:
841:"Geophysiology"
837:Lovelock, James
835:
834:
830:
779:
778:
774:
767:
751:Lovelock, James
749:
748:
744:
739:
735:
730:
726:
721:
717:
707:
705:
697:
696:
692:
682:
680:
671:
670:
666:
661:
657:
627:
626:
622:
612:
611:
607:
600:
584:
583:
579:
569:
567:
557:
556:
552:
538:
537:
533:
529:
520:
505:Systems biology
469:
466:Complex systems
460:
451:
436:
427:Artificial life
423:
364:
344:Stuart Kauffman
341:
324:
311:
305:
277:category theory
272:systems biology
268:dynamic systems
253:
247:
219:
195:
193:Gaia hypothesis
189:
109:
104:
87:
67:self-organizing
58:) treated as a
30:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2401:
2399:
2391:
2390:
2385:
2380:
2378:Systems theory
2375:
2365:
2364:
2358:
2357:
2355:
2354:
2342:
2330:
2317:
2314:
2313:
2311:
2310:
2305:
2299:
2297:
2293:
2292:
2290:
2289:
2284:
2279:
2273:
2271:
2267:
2266:
2264:
2263:
2261:Anthony Wilden
2258:
2256:Jennifer Wilby
2253:
2251:Norbert Wiener
2248:
2243:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2221:Claude Shannon
2218:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2196:Ilya Prigogine
2193:
2188:
2186:Howard T. Odum
2183:
2181:Radhika Nagpal
2178:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2151:Niklas Luhmann
2148:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2076:George Dantzig
2073:
2071:Manfred Clynes
2068:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2038:
2036:Margaret Boden
2033:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1996:Victor Aladjev
1993:
1987:
1985:
1979:
1978:
1975:
1974:
1972:
1971:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1915:
1912:
1911:
1909:
1908:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1886:Living systems
1883:
1878:
1873:
1871:Control theory
1867:
1861:
1855:
1854:
1852:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1836:
1831:
1825:
1823:
1819:
1818:
1816:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1759:
1757:
1749:
1748:
1743:
1741:
1740:
1733:
1726:
1718:
1712:
1711:
1705:
1698:
1697:External links
1695:
1694:
1693:
1675:
1668:
1657:
1650:
1632:
1625:
1620:. Albany, NY:
1609:
1606:
1604:
1603:
1562:
1543:
1487:
1480:
1450:
1423:(3): 275–286.
1407:
1400:
1382:
1341:(4): 619–620.
1321:
1302:(4): 327–329.
1286:
1267:(3): 245–262.
1251:
1244:
1226:
1219:
1201:
1180:10.1086/413216
1158:
1089:
1078:(4): 317–341.
1061:
1050:(3): 245–260.
1033:
1014:(1–2): 25–34.
998:
991:
970:
959:(3): 245–260.
943:
936:
916:
909:
889:
862:
828:
793:(7): 568–570.
781:Lovelock, J.E.
772:
765:
742:
733:
724:
715:
690:
664:
655:
620:
605:
599:978-0070420151
598:
590:Living Systems
577:
550:
530:
528:
525:
524:
523:
514:
511:Systems theory
508:
502:
496:
490:
484:
478:
472:
463:
454:
445:
439:
430:
422:
419:
363:
360:
340:
337:
323:
320:
307:Main article:
304:
301:
295:processes and
249:Main article:
246:
243:
218:
215:
207:James Lovelock
191:Main article:
188:
185:
132:Living Systems
108:
105:
103:
100:
86:
83:
48:Living systems
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2400:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2370:
2368:
2353:
2352:
2343:
2341:
2340:
2335:
2331:
2329:
2328:
2319:
2318:
2315:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2300:
2298:
2296:Organizations
2294:
2288:
2285:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2274:
2272:
2268:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2246:Kevin Warwick
2244:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
2164:
2162:
2161:Margaret Mead
2159:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2121:Lydia Kavraki
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2106:Barbara Grosz
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2006:Ruzena Bajcsy
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1988:
1986:
1984:
1980:
1969:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1916:
1913:
1907:
1904:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1868:
1865:
1862:
1856:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1840:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1829:Doubling time
1827:
1826:
1824:
1820:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1760:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1739:
1734:
1732:
1727:
1725:
1720:
1719:
1716:
1709:
1706:
1704:
1701:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1691:0-306-45979-5
1688:
1684:
1681:. Dordrecht:
1680:
1676:
1673:
1669:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1655:
1651:
1649:
1648:0-87081-363-3
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1630:
1626:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1612:
1611:
1607:
1599:
1595:
1590:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1566:
1563:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1527:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1500:
1499:
1491:
1488:
1483:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1454:
1451:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1411:
1408:
1403:
1397:
1393:
1386:
1383:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1349:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1325:
1322:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1290:
1287:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1255:
1252:
1247:
1241:
1237:
1230:
1227:
1222:
1216:
1212:
1205:
1202:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1162:
1159:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1125:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1093:
1090:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1065:
1062:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1037:
1034:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1002:
999:
994:
988:
984:
980:
979:Robert, Rosen
974:
971:
966:
962:
958:
954:
947:
944:
939:
933:
929:
928:
920:
917:
912:
906:
902:
901:
893:
890:
877:
873:
866:
863:
851:on 6 May 2007
850:
846:
842:
838:
832:
829:
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
787:
782:
776:
773:
768:
762:
758:
757:
752:
746:
743:
737:
734:
728:
725:
719:
716:
704:
700:
694:
691:
679:
675:
668:
665:
659:
656:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
631:
624:
621:
616:
609:
606:
601:
595:
591:
587:
581:
578:
565:
561:
554:
551:
547:
542:
535:
532:
526:
518:
515:
512:
509:
506:
503:
500:
497:
494:
491:
488:
485:
482:
479:
476:
473:
467:
464:
458:
455:
449:
446:
443:
440:
434:
431:
428:
425:
424:
420:
418:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
383:cellular life
380:
373:
368:
359:
357:
353:
349:
345:
336:
334:
330:
319:
317:
310:
300:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
273:
269:
264:
262:
257:
252:
242:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
214:
212:
211:environmental
208:
204:
200:
194:
184:
182:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
101:
99:
96:
92:
84:
82:
80:
76:
72:
68:
65:
61:
57:
56:living things
53:
49:
19:
2349:
2337:
2325:
2270:Applications
2226:Katia Sycara
2126:James J. Kay
2116:Mike Jackson
2051:Murray Bowen
1949:Pharmacology
1944:Neuroscience
1885:
1678:
1671:
1664:
1653:
1635:
1628:
1617:
1579:
1575:
1565:
1497:
1490:
1463:
1453:
1420:
1416:
1410:
1394:. Springer.
1391:
1385:
1373:. Retrieved
1338:
1334:
1324:
1299:
1295:
1289:
1264:
1260:
1254:
1235:
1229:
1210:
1204:
1171:
1167:
1161:
1106:
1102:
1092:
1075:
1071:
1064:
1047:
1043:
1036:
1011:
1007:
1001:
982:
973:
956:
952:
946:
926:
919:
899:
892:
880:. Retrieved
876:the original
865:
853:. Retrieved
849:the original
844:
831:
790:
784:
775:
755:
745:
736:
727:
718:
708:20 September
706:. Retrieved
702:
693:
683:20 September
681:. Retrieved
677:
667:
658:
633:
629:
623:
614:
608:
589:
580:
568:. Retrieved
564:the original
553:
544:
540:
534:
377:
342:
325:
312:
265:
260:
256:Robert Rosen
254:
220:
199:James Hutton
196:
168:open systems
164:organization
162:, levels of
131:
110:
88:
55:
47:
46:
2216:Peter Senge
2211:John Seddon
2201:Qian Xuesen
2136:George Klir
1939:Engineering
1876:Cybernetics
1858:Theoretical
1808:Recommender
1798:Multi-agent
1793:Information
1640:McGraw-Hill
1576:ChemBioChem
1109:: 179–191.
442:Autopoiesis
411:populations
395:information
261:Life Itself
235:biochemical
156:information
128:development
120:interaction
71:information
2367:Categories
2231:Eric Trist
2086:Fred Emery
1983:Scientists
1959:Psychology
1954:Philosophy
1783:Ecological
1768:Biological
1638:New York:
1631:, 291–300.
1622:SUNY Press
1616:, (1994).
1174:(2): 185.
1008:Axiomathes
527:References
391:metabolism
293:epigenetic
203:physiology
181:negentropy
91:ecological
1896:Systemics
1521:CiteSeerX
1508:1201.2069
1316:195284978
1281:195282529
1119:CiteSeerX
882:28 August
855:1 October
650:1092-7026
415:evolution
397:and (iv)
116:structure
2327:Category
1929:Dynamics
1919:Analysis
1822:Concepts
1788:Economic
1598:32323410
1557:Archived
1553:15609415
1445:11312589
1375:16 April
1369:Archived
1365:35426048
1357:22208258
1196:83956410
1153:Archived
1141:25752259
981:(1991).
823:33821197
753:(1979).
588:(1978).
493:Organism
421:See also
393:, (iii)
289:networks
124:behavior
102:Theories
2351:Commons
1934:Ecology
1924:Biology
1803:Nervous
1773:Complex
1656:, 1–38.
1513:Bibcode
1425:Bibcode
1188:2828805
1149:4654439
1111:Bibcode
1028:4673166
815:5883628
795:Bibcode
570:27 June
389:, (ii)
283:of the
160:entropy
85:Context
2339:Portal
1964:Theory
1860:fields
1813:Social
1753:System
1689:
1646:
1596:
1551:
1541:
1523:
1478:
1443:
1398:
1363:
1355:
1314:
1279:
1242:
1217:
1194:
1186:
1147:
1139:
1121:
1026:
989:
934:
907:
821:
813:
786:Nature
763:
648:
596:
387:energy
379:Budisa
372:Budisa
223:fluxes
176:Bailey
152:energy
148:matter
136:system
79:matter
75:energy
60:system
1756:types
1549:S2CID
1503:arXiv
1361:S2CID
1312:S2CID
1277:S2CID
1192:S2CID
1184:JSTOR
1145:S2CID
1024:S2CID
819:S2CID
499:Spome
407:Cells
350:or a
140:space
2388:Life
2303:List
1687:ISBN
1644:ISBN
1594:PMID
1539:ISBN
1476:ISBN
1441:PMID
1396:ISBN
1377:2021
1353:PMID
1240:ISBN
1215:ISBN
1137:PMID
987:ISBN
932:ISBN
905:ISBN
884:2009
857:2009
811:PMID
761:ISBN
710:2023
685:2023
646:ISSN
594:ISBN
572:2009
399:form
158:and
150:and
144:time
142:and
126:and
93:and
77:and
64:open
52:life
50:are
1763:Art
1584:doi
1531:doi
1468:doi
1433:doi
1421:209
1343:doi
1304:doi
1269:doi
1176:doi
1129:doi
1107:372
1080:doi
1052:doi
1016:doi
961:doi
803:doi
791:207
638:doi
405:).
316:RNA
2369::
1685:.
1642:.
1592:.
1580:21
1578:.
1574:.
1555:.
1547:.
1537:.
1529:.
1519:.
1511:.
1474:.
1439:.
1431:.
1419:.
1367:.
1359:.
1351:.
1339:29
1337:.
1333:.
1310:.
1300:16
1298:.
1275:.
1265:15
1263:.
1190:.
1182:.
1172:58
1170:.
1151:.
1143:.
1135:.
1127:.
1117:.
1105:.
1101:.
1076:20
1074:.
1068:*
1048:20
1046:.
1040:*
1022:.
1012:16
1010:.
957:20
955:.
843:.
839:.
817:.
809:.
801:.
789:.
701:.
676:.
644:.
634:17
632:.
417:.
263:.
154:,
146:,
122:,
118:,
73:,
1970:)
1966:(
1737:e
1730:t
1723:v
1624:.
1600:.
1586::
1533::
1515::
1505::
1484:.
1470::
1447:.
1435::
1427::
1404:.
1379:.
1345::
1318:.
1306::
1283:.
1271::
1248:.
1223:.
1198:.
1178::
1131::
1113::
1086:.
1082::
1058:.
1054::
1030:.
1018::
995:.
967:.
963::
940:.
913:.
886:.
859:.
825:.
805::
797::
769:.
712:.
687:.
652:.
640::
602:.
574:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.