Paleogene - Knowledge (XXG)

1664: 1409: 1926: 1897:. Originally thought to be stationary within the mantle, the hotspot is now considered to have drifted south during the Paleocene to early Eocene, as the Pacific Plate moved north. At c. 47 Ma, movement of the hotspot ceased and the Pacific Plate motion changed from northward to northwestward in response to the onset of subduction along its western margin. This resulted in a 60 degree bend in the seamount chain. Other seamount chains related to hotspots in the South Pacific show a similar change in orientation at this time. 1552:

to several models for Greater India: 1) A Late Cretaceous to early Paleocene subduction zone may have lain between India and Eurasia in the Neotethys, dividing the region into two plates, subduction was followed by collision of India with Eurasia in the middle Eocene. In this model Greater India would have been less than 900 km wide; 2) Greater India may have formed a single plate, several thousand kilometres wide, with the Tethyan Himalaya microcontinent separated from the Indian continent by an

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Ocean and became part of the cold circumpolar current. Dense polar waters sank into the deep oceans and moved northwards, reducing global ocean temperatures. This cooling may have occurred over less than 100,000 years and resulted in a widespread extinction in marine life. By the Eocene-Oligocene boundary, sediments deposited in the ocean from glaciers indicate the presence of an ice sheet in western Antarctica that extended to the ocean.

1556:. The microcontinent collided with southern Eurasia c. 58 Ma (late Paleocene), whilst the velocity of the plate did not decrease until c. 50 Ma when subduction rates dropped as young, oceanic crust entered the subduction zone; 3) This model assigns older dates to parts of Greater India, which changes its paleogeographic position relative to Eurasia and creates a Greater India formed of extended continental crust 2000 - 3000 km wide. 5719: 121: 1632:(c. 57 Ma), and, by the early Eocene (c. 54 Ma), into the northeastern Atlantic between Greenland and Eurasia. Extension between North America and Eurasia, also in the early Eocene, led to the opening of the Eurasian Basin across the Arctic, which was linked to the Baffin Bay Ridge and Mid-Atlantic Ridge to the south via major strike slip faults. 2106:

Changes in deep ocean currents, as Australia and South America moved away from Antarctica opening the Drake and Tasmanian passages, were responsible for the drop in global temperatures. The warm waters of the South Atlantic, Indian and South Pacific oceans extended southward into the opening Southern

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During the Eocene (c. 45 Ma), subduction of the Farallon Plate along the Central American subduction zone was (re)established. Subduction along the northern section of the Caribbean volcanic arc ceased as the Bahamas carbonate platform collided with Cuba and was replaced by strike-slip movements as a

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After c. 33 Ma seafloor spreading in Labrador Sea and Baffin Bay gradually ceased and seafloor spreading focused along the northeast Atlantic. By the late Oligocene, the plate boundary between North America and Eurasia was established along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, with Greenland attached to the North

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The relatively cool conditions were brought to an end by the Thanetian Thermal Event, and the beginning of the PETM. This was one of the warmest times of the Phanerozoic eon, during which global mean surface temperatures increased to 31.6 °C. According to a study published in 2018, from about 56 to

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Debate about the amount of deformation seen in the geological record in the India–Eurasia collision zone versus the size of Greater India, the timing and nature of the collision relative to the decrease in plate velocity, and explanations for the unusually high velocity of the Indian plate have led

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Meredith, R. W.; Janecka, J. E.; Gatesy, J.; Ryder, O. A.; Fisher, C. A.; Teeling, E. C.; Goodbla, A.; Eizirik, E.; Simao, T. L. L.; Stadler, T.; Rabosky, D. L.; Honeycutt, R. L.; Flynn, J. J.; Ingram, C. M.; Steiner, C.; Williams, T. L.; Robinson, T. J.; Burk-Herrick, A.; Westerman, M.; Ayoub, N.

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in the British and Northwest Atlantic volcanic provinces occurred mainly in the early Palaeocene, the latter associated with an increased spreading rate in the Labrador Sea, whilst northeast Atlantic magmatism occurred mainly during the early Eocene and is associated with a change in the spreading

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The Izanagi-Pacific spreading ridge lay nearly parallel to the East Asian subduction zone and between 60–50 Ma the spreading ridge began to be subducted. By c. 50 Ma, the Pacific Plate was no longer surrounded by spreading ridges, but had a subduction zone along its western edge. This changed the

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The arrival of the proto-Iceland plume has been considered the driving mechanism for rifting in the North Atlantic. However, that rifting and initial seafloor spreading occurred prior to the arrival of the plume, large scale magmatism occurred at a distance to rifting, and that rifting propagated

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that formed during the Late Cretaceous. During the Late Cretaceous to Paleocene, subduction of Atlantic crust was established along its northern margin, whilst to the southwest, an island arc collided with the northern Andes forming an east dipping subduction zone where Caribbean lithosphere was

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data place the present day Indian continent further south at the time of collision and decrease in plate velocity, indicating the presence of a large region to the north of India that has now been subducted beneath the Eurasian Plate or incorporated into the mountain belt. This region, known as

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plates. The central Pacific Plate grew by seafloor spreading as the other three plates were subducted and broken up. In the southern Pacific, seafloor spreading continued from the Late Cretaceous across the Pacific–Antarctic, Pacific-Farallon and Farallon–Antarctic mid ocean ridges.

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of ocean crust onto the Arabian margin in the Late Cretaceous to Paleocene, with break-off of the subducted oceanic plate close to the Arabian margin occurring during the Eocene. Continental collision began during the Eocene c. 35 Ma and continued into the Oligocene to c. 26 Ma.

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zones, rather than one long system. In the western Mediterranean, the European Plate was subducted southwards beneath the African Plate, whilst in the eastern Mediterranean, Africa was subducted beneath Eurasia along a northward dipping subduction zone. Convergence between the

1982:(PETM). By the middle Eocene, temperatures began to drop again and by the late Eocene (c. 37 Ma) had decreased sufficiently for ice sheets to form in Antarctica. The global climate entered icehouse conditions at the Eocene-Oligocene boundary and the present day 1696:

direction in the Labrador Sea and the northward drift of Greenland. The locations of the magmatism coincide with the intersection of propagating the rifts and large-scale, pre-existing lithospheric structures, which acted as channels to the surface for the

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towards, rather than away from the plume, has led to the suggestion the plume and associated magmatism may have been a result, rather than a cause, of the plate tectonic forces that led to the propagation of rifting from the Central to the North Atlantic.

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with volcanic arc was accreted during the latest Cretaceous and Paleocene, whilst the Central Andes were dominated by the subduction of oceanic crust and the Southern Andes were impacted by the subduction of the Farallon-East Antarctic ocean ridge.

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Steininger, Fritz F.; M. P. Aubry; W. A. Berggren; M. Biolzi; A. M. Borsetti; Julie E. Cartlidge; F. Cati; R. Corfield; R. Gelati; S. Iaccarino; C. Napoleone; F. Ottner; F. Rögl; R. Roetzel; S. Spezzaferri; F. Tateo; G. Villa; D. Zevenboom (1997).

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Schmid, Stefan M.; Fügenschuh, Bernhard; Kounov, Alexandre; Maţenco, Liviu; Nievergelt, Peter; Oberhänsli, Roland; Pleuger, Jan; Schefer, Senecio; Schuster, Ralf; Tomljenović, Bruno; Ustaszewski, Kamil; van Hinsbergen, Douwe J. J. (2020-02-01).

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Collision between India and the West Burma block was complete by the late Oligocene. As the India-Eurasia collision continued, movement of material away from the collision zone was accommodated along, and extended, the already existing major

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into organic-rich sediments during volcanic activity in the North Atlantic Igneous Province, between about 56 and 54 Ma, which rapidly released large amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. This warming led to melting of frozen

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Map showing the northwards drift of the Indian continent between 71 and 0 Ma. The leading edge of Greater India (not shown on the map) collided with the Eurasian plate c. 55 Ma, whilst India itself still lay to the south. (From: Dèzes,

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Subduction of the Farallon Plate beneath the American plates continued from the Late Cretaceous. The Kula-Farallon spreading ridge lay to its north until the Eocene (c. 55 Ma), when the northern section of the plate split forming the

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from the cooler oceans also reduced moisture in the atmosphere and increased aridity. By the early Oligocene, the North American and Eurasian tropical and subtropical forests were replaced by dry woodlands and widespread grasslands.

2166:, mammals began to evolve from a few small and generalized forms into most of the modern varieties we see presently. Some of these mammals evolved into large forms that dominated the land, while others became capable of living in 2118:, and the cooler waters reduced the rate of bacterial decay of organic matter and promoted the growth of methane hydrates in marine sediments. This created a positive feedback cycle where global cooling reduced atmospheric CO 2064:

The (relatively) sudden climatic changes associated with the PETM resulted in the extinction of some groups of fauna and flora and the rise of others. For example, with the warming of the Arctic Ocean, around 70% of deep sea

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at c. 83 Ma and drifted rapidly (c. 18 cm/yr in the Paleocene) northwards towards the southern margin of Eurasia. A rapid decrease in velocity to c. 5 cm/yr in the early Eocene records the collision of the Tethyan (Tibetan)

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began to build across the Antarctica continent that now lay isolated in the south polar region and surrounded by cold ocean waters. These changes contributed to the fall in global temperatures and the beginning of icehouse

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During the Late Cretaceous to Paleogene, the northward movement of the Indian Plate led to the highly oblique subduction of the Neotethys along the edge of the West Burma block and the development of a major north-south

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The collision of Adria with Eurasia in the early Palaeocene was followed by a  c.10 million year pause in the convergence of Africa and Eurasia, connected with the onset of the opening of the North Atlantic Ocean as

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48 Ma, annual air temperatures over land and at mid-latitude averaged about 23–29 °C (± 4.7 °C). For comparison, this was 10 to 15 °C higher than the current annual mean temperatures in these areas.

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in hot, humid conditions. Tropical and subtropical forests flourished and extended into polar regions. Water vapour (a greenhouse gas) associated with these forests also contributed to the greenhouse conditions.

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Over the Paleogene, changes in plate motion and episodes of regional slab shallowing and steepening resulted in variations in the magnitude of crustal shortening and amounts of magmatism along the length of the

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Brombin, Valentina; Bonadiman, Costanza; Jourdan, Fred; Roghi, Guido; Coltorti, Massimo; Webb, Laura E.; Callegaro, Sara; Bellieni, Giuliano; De Vecchi, Giampaolo; Sedea, Roberto; Marzoli, Andrea (2019-05-01).

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from the atmosphere by the plants. From this time until about 34 Ma, there was a slow cooling trend known as the Middle-Late Eocene Cooling. As temperatures dropped at high latitudes the presence of cold water

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Vandenberghe, N.; Hilgen, F. J.; Speijer, R. P.; Ogg, J. G.; Gradstein, F. M.; Hammer, O.; Hollis, C. J.; Hooker, J. J. (2012-01-01), Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G.; Schmitz, Mark D.; Ogg, Gabi M. (eds.),

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Between about 40 and 30 Ma, subduction began along the western Mediterranean arc of the Tell, Rif, Betic and Apennine mountain chains. The rate of convergence was less than the subduction rate of the dense

1675:. The middle and top sections are two parts of a single basaltic lava flow; each part of the lava flow cooled differently, forming rock with different characteristics. The middle layer shows spectacular 1997:, which was followed by an abrupt period of warming. After temperatures stabilised, the steady cooling and drying of the Late Cretaceous-Early Paleogene Cool Interval that had spanned the last two 1421:

rifted from the Eurasian Plate in the Palaeocene. Convergence rates between Africa and Eurasia increased again in the early Eocene and the remaining oceanic basins between Adria and Europe closed.

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along the northern margin of India during the opening of the Neotethys. The Tethyan Himalaya block lay along its northern edge, with the Neotethys Ocean lying between it and southern Eurasia.

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Tropical taxa diversified faster than those at higher latitudes after the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, resulting in the development of a significant latitudinal diversity gradient.

1604:. During the middle Eocene, north-dipping subduction resumed along the southern edge of Southeast Asia, from west Sumatra to West Sulawesi, as the Australian Plate drifted slowly northwards. 2325:

Molina, Eustoquio; Alegret, Laia; Arenillas, Ignacio; José A. Arz; Gallala, Njoud; Hardenbol, Jan; Katharina von Salis; Steurbaut, Etienne; Vandenberghe, Noel; Dalila Zaghibib-Turki (2006).

4667: 3067:"Detrital zircon provenance record of the Zagros mountain building from the Neotethys obduction to the Arabia–Eurasia collision, NW Zagros fold–thrust belt, Kurdistan region of Iraq" 2327:"The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point for the base of the Danian Stage (Paleocene, Paleogene, "Tertiary", Cenozoic) at El Kef, Tunisia - Original definition and revision" 5099: 1647:. From c. 47 Ma, the eastern margin of Greenland was cut by the Reykjanes Ridge (the northeastern branch of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge) propagating northwards and splitting off the 4531:

Naafs, B. D. A.; Rohrssen, M.; Inglis, G. N.; Lähteenoja, O.; Feakins, S. J.; Collinson, M. E.; Kennedy, E. M.; Singh, P. K.; Singh, M. P.; Lunt, D. J.; Pancost, R. D. (2018).

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forces acting on the Pacific Plate and led to a major reorganisation of plate motions across the entire Pacific region. The resulting changes in stress between the Pacific and

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During the mid to late Eocene (50–35 Ma), plate convergence rates decreased and the dip of the Farallon slab began to steepen. Uplift ceased and the region largely levelled by

4629:"Carbon isotope and mammal recovery from extreme greenhouse warming at the Paleocene–Eocene boundary in astronomically-calibrated fluvial strata, Bighorn Basin, Wyoming, USA" 1913:

and opened the Southern Ocean also during this time, completing the breakup of Gondwana. The opening of these passages and the creation of the Southern Ocean established the

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transform fault, extending from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, connected with the northern boundary of the Caribbean Plate. Subduction now focused along the southern Caribbean arc (

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settled, a period of cool and dry conditions continued from the Late Cretaceous. At the Paleocene-Eocene boundary global temperatures rose rapidly with the onset of the

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along the margin of Southeast Asia to the south. Between c. 60 and 50 Ma, the leading northeastern edge of Greater India collided with the West Burma block resulting in

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American plate again, and the Jan Mayen microcontinent part of the Eurasian Plate, where its remains now lie to the east and possibly beneath the southeast of Iceland.

1135:, which would have been deposited over only a few days. Similar layers are seen in marine and continental deposits worldwide. These layers include the iridium anomaly, 3340:

Meng, Jun; Gilder, Stuart A.; Tan, Xiaodong; Li, Xin; Li, Yalin; Luo, Hui; Suzuki, Noritoshi; Wang, Zihao; Chi, Yuchen; Zhang, Chunyang; Wang, Chengshan (2023-08-15).

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From the Eocene and into the early Oligocene, Greenland acted as an independent plate moving northwards and rotating anticlockwise. This led to compression across the

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Ocean-continent convergence accommodated by east dipping subduction zone of the Farallon Plate beneath the western edge of South America continued from the Mesozoic.

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Martin, Craig R.; Jagoutz, Oliver; Upadhyay, Rajeev; Royden, Leigh H.; Eddy, Michael P.; Bailey, Elizabeth; Nichols, Claire I. O.; Weiss, Benjamin P. (2020-11-24).

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Peace, Alexander L.; Phethean, J. J. J.; Franke, D.; Foulger, G. R.; Schiffer, C.; Welford, J. K.; McHone, G.; Rocchi, S.; Schnabel, M.; Doré, A. G. (2020-07-01).

3764:"Integrating structural, paleomagnetic, and thermo/geochronologic studies to understand evolution of the Sevier and Laramide belts, northern Utah to Wyoming" 1909:

in the Eocene and deep ocean routes opening from the mid Oligocene. Rifting between the Antarctic Peninsula and the southern tip of South America formed the

1084: 2889:"Late Cretaceous-Cenozoic basin inversion and palaeostress fields in the North Atlantic-western Alpine-Tethys realm: Implications for intraplate tectonics" 1486:

developed on the Eurasia margin as the Neotethys crust was subducted beneath it. A separate intra-oceanic subduction zone in the Neotethys resulted in the

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From the Late Cretaceous into the early Paleocene, Africa began to converge with Eurasia. The irregular outlines of the continental margins, including the

1866:. At the Paleogene-Neogene boundary, spreading ceased between the Pacific and Farallon plates and the Farallon Plate split again forming the present date 4967: 4627:

van der Meulen, Bas; Gingerich, Philip D.; Lourens, Lucas J.; Meijer, Niels; van Broekhuizen, Sjors; van Ginneken, Sverre; Abels, Hemmo A. (2020-03-15).

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Sauermilch, Isabel; Whittaker, Joanne M.; Klocker, Andreas; Munday, David R.; Hochmuth, Katharina; Bijl, Peter K.; LaCasce, Joseph H. (9 November 2021).

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Seton, M.; Müller, R. D.; Zahirovic, S.; Gaina, C.; Torsvik, T.; Shephard, G.; Talsma, A.; Gurnis, M.; Turner, M.; Maus, S.; Chandler, M. (2012-07-01).

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A.; Springer, M. S.; Murphy, W. J. (28 October 2011). "Impacts of the Cretaceous Terrestrial Revolution and KPg Extinction on Mammal Diversification".

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The Early Oligocene Glacial Maximum lasted for about 200,000 years, and the global mean surface temperature continued to decrease gradually during the

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Period was used to define the time now covered by the Paleogene Period and subsequent Neogene Period; despite no longer being recognized as a formal

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Fu, Xiaofei; Feng, Zhiqiang; Zhang, Faqiang; Zhang, Zhongmin; Guo, Jinrui; Cao, Zhe; Kor, Ting; Cheng, Ming; Yan, Jianzhao; Zhou, Yu (2024-03-01).

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suggests sea ice was able to form in winter in the Arctic Ocean, and by the late Eocene (c. 37 Ma) there is evidence of glaciation in Antarctica.

1075:: the Paleocene, Eocene, and Oligocene. These stratigraphic units can be defined globally or regionally. For global stratigraphic correlation, the 3567:

Abdelmalak, M. M.; Planke, S.; Polteau, S.; Hartz, E. H.; Faleide, J. I.; Tegner, C.; Jerram, D. A.; Millett, J. M.; Myklebust, R. (2019-06-05).

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Slow seafloor spreading continued between Australia and East Antarctica. Shallow water channels probably developed south of Tasmania opening the

1691:, which rose beneath the Greenland lithosphere at c. 65 Ma. There were two main phases of volcanic activity with peaks at c. 60 Ma and c. 55 Ma. 1412:

Present day tectonic map of southern Europe, North Africa and the Middle East, showing structures of the western Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt.

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Sprong, M.; Youssef, J. A.; Bornemann, André; Schulte, P.; Steurbaut, E.; Stassen, P.; Kouwenhoven, T. J.; Speijer, Robert P. (September 2011).

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adding further greenhouses gases. It also reduced the rate of burial of organic matter as higher temperatures accelerated the rate of bacterial

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The Oligocene is the third and youngest series/epoch of the Paleogene, and lasted from 33.9 Ma to 23.03 Ma. It is divided into two stages: the

1054:, through global cooling during the Eocene to the first appearance of permanent ice sheets in the Antarctic at the beginning of the Oligocene. 2785:"Cenozoic detrital suites from the Internal Betic-Rif Cordilleras (S Spain and N Morocco): implications for paleogeography and paleotectonics" 4857: 3743: 2708: 2633: 1131:

impact, and is associated with the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. The boundary is defined as the rusty colored base of a 50 cm thick

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beneath the North American Plate. Along the central section of the North American margin, crustal shortening of the Cretaceous to Paleocene

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is the key marker for the Eocene-Oligocene boundary, which was a time of climate cooling that led to widespread changes in fauna and flora.

1051: 501: 5085: 1890: 4532: 1858:. In the Oligocene (c. 28 Ma), the first segment of the Pacific–Farallon spreading ridge entered the North American subduction zone near 1938:

Extensional stresses from the subduction zone along the northern Neotethys resulted in rifting between Africa and Arabia, forming the

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University of Bristol (30 July 2018). "Ever-increasing CO2 levels could take us back to the tropical climate of Paleogene period".

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Montes, Camilo; Rodriguez-Corcho, Andres Felipe; Bayona, German; Hoyos, Natalia; Zapata, Sebastian; Cardona, Agustin (2019-11-01).

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Zachos, J. C.; Kump, L. R. (2005). "Carbon cycle feedbacks and the initiation of Antarctic glaciation in the earliest Oligocene".

1881:. Spreading between the Kula and Pacific and Farallon plates ceased c. 40 Ma and the Kula Plate became part of the Pacific Plate. 1103:

The Paleocene is the first series/epoch of the Paleogene and lasted from 66.0 Ma to 56.0 Ma. It is divided into three stages: the

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This rapid rise in global temperatures and intense greenhouse conditions were due to a sudden increase in levels of atmospheric

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The Eocene is the second series/epoch of the Paleogene, and lasted from 56.0 Ma to 33.9 Ma. It is divided into four stages: the

1684: 1021: 877: 2088:. This change of climate at about 48.5 Ma, is believed to have been caused by a proliferation of aquatic ferns from the genus 1663: 4960: 1847: 1843: 1679:

resulting from relatively slow cooling; the top layer has very irregular closely-spaced joints caused by more rapid cooling.

2084:(c. 53.69 Ma), and the Eocene Thermal Maximum 3 (c. 53 Ma). The early Eocene warm conditions were brought to an end by the 4400: 4284:"Paleoceanographic changes across the Latest Danian Event in the South Atlantic Ocean and planktic foraminiferal response" 3283:

van Hinsbergen, Douwe J. J.; Lippert, Peter C.; Li, Shihu; Huang, Wentao; Advokaat, Eldert L.; Spakman, Wim (2019-06-05).

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The Kula Plate lay between Pacific Plate and North America. To the north and northwest it was being subducted beneath the

2138:. A drop in global sea levels during the mid Oligocene indicates major growth of the Antarctic glacial ice sheet. In the 1966:

began in the mid Oligocene, and across the central and northern Red Sea regions in the late Oligocene and early Miocene.

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and Eurasian plates as the Neotethys Ocean closed and is composed sediments scrapped from the descending Arabian Plate.

4340:"The Impact of the Latest Danian Event on Planktic Foraminiferal Faunas at ODP Site 1210 (Shatsky Rise, Pacific Ocean)" 2142:, global temperatures began to warm slightly, though they continued to be significantly lower than during the previous 5758: 5108: 606: 4074:

Seton, Maria; Flament, Nicolas; Whittaker, Joanne; Müller, R. Dietmar; Gurnis, Michael; Bower, Dan J. (2015-03-28).

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forests developed in mountainous areas. This cooling trend continued, with major fluctuation, until the end of the

2009:(c. 62.2 Ma) when global temperatures rose. There is no evidence for ice sheets at the poles during the Paleocene. 1436:

In the eastern Mediterranean, c. 35 Ma, the Anatolide-Tauride platform (northern part of Adria) began to enter the

1764:. By the Oligocene, convergence gave way to extension, rifting and widespread volcanism across the Laramide belt. 4953: 3816:"Tectonic Regimes of the Central and Southern Andes: Responses to Variations in Plate Coupling During Subduction" 1742: 1718: 1526: 1211:

ratios, produced by a major period of global warming. The change in climate was due to a rapid release of frozen

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The development of the circumpolar current led to changes in the oceans, which in turn reduced atmospheric CO

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and the opening of the Central Atlantic Ocean. The result was a series of arcuate mountain ranges, from the

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59.2 - 56.0 Ma. The GSSP for the base of the Cenozoic, Paleogene and Paleocene is at Oued Djerfane, west of

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during this period. After the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which saw the demise of the non-avian

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that lay to the east of the Sevier belt, and more than 700km from the trench. With the Laramide uplift the

4731: 4172: 4125: 3978: 3928: 3653: 3568: 3510: 3463: 3411: 3284: 3167: 3120: 3004: 2946: 2888: 2887:

Stephenson, Randell; Schiffer, Christian; Peace, Alexander; Nielsen, Søren Bom; Jess, Scott (2020-11-01).

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stretches across the Greenland and northwest European margins and is associated with the proto-Icelandic

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developed in response to the collision between the African and Eurasian plates during the closing of the

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Jehle, Sofie; Bornemann, André; Lägel, Anna Friederike; Deprez, Arne; Speijer, Robert P. (1 July 2019).

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Jiang, Zhaoxia; Li, Sanzhong; Liu, Qingsong; Zhang, Jianli; Zhou, Zaizheng; Zhang, Yuzhen (2021-04-01).

2947:"Intraplate magmatism at a convergent plate boundary: The case of the Cenozoic northern Adria magmatism" 2734: 2538: 1983: 1609: 1597: 1545: 1068: 1020:, "Tertiary" still sometimes remains in informal use. Paleogene is often abbreviated "Pg", although the 673: 651: 3979:"Continental margin response to multiple arc-continent collisions: The northern Andes-Caribbean margin" 3863:"Mesozoic–Cenozoic Evolution of the Western Margin of South America: Case Study of the Peruvian Andes" 2532:

Scotese, Christopher Robert; Song, Haijun; Mills, Benjamin J.W.; van der Meer, Douwe G. (April 2021).

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lessened and deformation moved eastward. The decreasing dip of the subducting Farallon Plate led to a

752: 4890: 4812: 4740: 4681: 4569: 4549: 4479: 4415: 4353: 4297: 4236: 4184: 4137: 4087: 4037: 3990: 3940: 3874: 3827: 3775: 3665: 3580: 3522: 3475: 3423: 3353: 3296: 3229: 3179: 3132: 3078: 3016: 2958: 2900: 2796: 2746: 2547: 2479: 2282: 2170:, specialized terrestrial, and airborne environments. Those that adapted to the oceans became modern 1839: 1733:

segment that increased friction between this and the base of the North American Plate. The resulting

1730: 1530: 1366: 1289: 1277: 1088: 1080: 1032: 4076:"Ridge subduction sparked reorganization of the Pacific plate-mantle system 60–50 million years ago" 2414: 2077:

between North America and Eurasia allowing the movement of land animals between the two continents.

5712: 4075: 3815: 1672: 1321: 5753: 4914: 4830: 4772: 4707: 4573: 4431: 4313: 4025: 2563: 2533: 2503: 2191: 2050: 1855: 1750: 1636: 1621: 1370: 1317: 1273: 1208: 5729: 3654:"A review of Pangaea dispersal and Large Igneous Provinces – In search of a causative mechanism" 3575:. Linking Plate Tectonics and Volcanism to Deep Earth Dynamics – a tribute to Trond H. Torsvik. 3517:. Linking Plate Tectonics and Volcanism to Deep Earth Dynamics – a tribute to Trond H. Torsvik. 3291:. Linking Plate Tectonics and Volcanism to Deep Earth Dynamics – a tribute to Trond H. Torsvik. 2308: 1408: 4668:"High-resolution deep-sea carbon and oxygen isotope records of Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 and H2" 2534:"Phanerozoic paleotemperatures: The earth's changing climate during the last 540 million years" 5510: 5474: 4906: 4863: 4853: 4764: 4756: 4672: 4648: 4540: 4513: 4495: 4381: 4264: 4200: 4153: 4103: 4053: 4006: 3956: 3892: 3843: 3793: 3739: 3691: 3629: 3606: 3538: 3491: 3439: 3387: 3369: 3322: 3265: 3247: 3195: 3148: 3096: 3042: 2984: 2926: 2866: 2822: 2762: 2704: 2629: 2495: 2227: 2046: 1962:

mantle plume began to impact the base of the African lithosphere. Rifting across the southern

1906: 1863: 1676: 1358: 1212: 1156: 850: 641: 2073:, appeared. Fluctuating sea levels meant, during low stands, a land bridge formed across the 5604: 5479: 5448: 5245: 4898: 4820: 4748: 4697: 4689: 4640: 4565: 4557: 4503: 4487: 4423: 4371: 4361: 4305: 4254: 4244: 4192: 4145: 4095: 4045: 3998: 3948: 3882: 3835: 3783: 3681: 3673: 3596: 3588: 3530: 3511:"Global Eocene tectonic unrest: Possible causes and effects around the North American plate" 3483: 3431: 3377: 3361: 3312: 3304: 3255: 3237: 3218:"Paleocene latitude of the Kohistan–Ladakh arc indicates multistage India–Eurasia collision" 3187: 3140: 3086: 3066: 3032: 3024: 2974: 2966: 2916: 2908: 2856: 2812: 2804: 2754: 2555: 2487: 2375: 2338: 2290: 1994: 1975: 1929:

Paleogene flood basalts on the Ethiopian Plateau with the Afar Depression in the background.

1734: 1534: 1460: 1382: 1285: 1152: 1151:, all indicators of a major extraterrestrial impact. The remains of the crater are found at 883: 4610:"Ever-increasing CO2 levels could take us back to the tropical climate of Paleogene period" 1624:

propagated from the Central Atlantic northwards between North America and Greenland in the

1440:

leading to the development of the Dinarides, Hellenides and Tauride mountain chains as the

5573: 5469: 5407: 5302: 5271: 5240: 4725:

Zachos, James C.; Lohmann, Kyger C.; Walker, James C. G.; Wise, Sherwood W. (March 1993).

2380: 2343: 2326: 2221:

resulted in a massive floral shift, and many extant modern plants arose during this time.

2143: 2002: 1974:

Climatic conditions varied considerably during the Paleogene. After the disruption of the

1878: 1859: 1794: 1781: 1746: 1738: 1644: 1593: 1448: 1418: 1293: 1124: 978: 967: 4727:"Abrupt Climate Change and Transient Climates during the Paleogene: A Marine Perspective" 4666:

Stap, L.; Lourens, L.J.; Thomas, E.; Sluijs, A.; Bohaty, S.; Zachos, J.C. (1 July 2010).

1825:

At the beginning of the Paleogene, the Pacific Ocean consisted of the Pacific, Farallon,

1671:, Scotland (person standing on cliff top for scale). The bottom section of this cliff is 1215:

from seafloor sediments at the beginning of the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum (PETM).

4894: 4816: 4744: 4685: 4553: 4483: 4419: 4401:"A multi-proxy record of the Latest Danian Event at Gebel Qreiya, Eastern Desert, Egypt" 4357: 4301: 4240: 4188: 4141: 4091: 4041: 3994: 3944: 3878: 3831: 3779: 3669: 3584: 3526: 3479: 3427: 3382: 3357: 3341: 3300: 3233: 3183: 3136: 3082: 3020: 2962: 2904: 2800: 2758: 2750: 2551: 2483: 2286: 5723: 5542: 5412: 5307: 5276: 4726: 4508: 4465: 4376: 4339: 3285:"Reconstructing Greater India: Paleogeographic, kinematic, and geodynamic perspectives" 3260: 3217: 2211: 2041: 2025: 1894: 1726: 1722: 1565: 1540: 1441: 1389: 1338: 1297: 1281: 1266: 1245: 1148: 840: 5747: 5443: 5433: 5402: 5365: 5297: 5266: 4834: 4577: 4338:

Jehle, Sofie; Bornemann, André; Deprez, Arne; Speijer, Robert P. (25 November 2015).

4317: 4124:

Wright, Nicky M.; Seton, Maria; Williams, Simon E.; Müller, R. Dietmar (2016-03-01).

3005:"Tectonic units of the Alpine collision zone between Eastern Alps and western Turkey" 2567: 2444: 2231:, began to proliferate, at the expense of tropical plants, which began to decrease. 2115: 2074: 2054: 1998: 1990: 1910: 1830: 1585: 1573: 1553: 1518: 1476: 1398: 1354: 1313: 1301: 79: 4918: 4825: 4798: 4776: 4711: 4435: 4196: 4149: 4002: 3952: 3677: 3487: 2970: 2912: 2808: 2559: 2507: 2294: 1392:

that extended north from the African Plate, led to the development of several short

5734: 5718: 5665: 5515: 5438: 2207: 2159: 2085: 2066: 1943: 1939: 1688: 1625: 1601: 1483: 1374: 1342: 1305: 1250: 1017: 748: 2395: 1405:

and, as Adria pushed northwards the Alps and Carpathian orogens began to develop.

125:

Map of Earth as it appeared 50 million years ago during the Eocene, Ypresian stage

4366: 4309: 3144: 2040:

The initial rise in global temperatures was related to the intrusion of magmatic

5660: 5529: 5505: 5350: 5145: 4533:"High temperatures in the terrestrial mid-latitudes during the early Palaeogene" 3592: 3534: 3308: 2236: 2127: 1959: 1871: 1867: 1426: 1309: 54: 4644: 4491: 4439: 3887: 3862: 2445:"Divisions of Geologic Time—Major Chronostratigraphic and Geochronologic Units" 5655: 5615: 5558: 5458: 5355: 5229: 5129: 5077: 5045: 4561: 4249: 4224: 3788: 2735:"Subduction Orogeny and the Late Cenozoic Evolution of the Mediterranean Arcs" 2240: 2187: 2033: 1826: 1629: 1509: 1437: 1433:

of the subducting slab led to the arcuate structure of these mountain ranges.

1430: 1393: 1346: 1232: 1199:

37.71 Ma to 33.9 Ma. The GSSP for the base of the Eocene is at Dababiya, near

1196: 1168: 1092: 1044: 982: 741: 445: 274: 99: 64: 17: 4910: 4760: 4652: 4499: 4268: 4204: 4157: 4107: 4057: 4010: 3960: 3896: 3847: 3797: 3695: 3610: 3542: 3495: 3443: 3435: 3373: 3326: 3251: 3199: 3191: 3152: 3100: 3046: 3028: 2988: 2930: 2870: 2826: 2766: 2360: 792: 779: 710: 697: 5670: 5620: 5594: 5553: 5500: 5345: 5321: 5202: 5192: 5040: 5019: 5014: 4999: 4989: 4867: 4427: 3365: 3242: 3091: 2491: 2361:"The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for the base of the Neogene" 2232: 2218: 2195: 2183: 2114:

further. Increasing upwellings of cold water stimulated the productivity of

2029: 1692: 1514: 1487: 1192: 1175:

and many other groups of organisms, are also used for correlation purposes.

1112: 1108: 1009: 1001: 986: 521: 436: 409: 399: 365: 319: 31: 4940: 4881:

Muller, Jan (January 1981). "Fossil pollen records of extant angiosperms".

4768: 4517: 4385: 4126:"The Late Cretaceous to recent tectonic history of the Pacific Ocean basin" 3391: 3269: 2783:

Martín-Martín, Manuel; Perri, Francesco; Critelli, Salvatore (2023-08-01).

2499: 2126:

lead to changes which further lowered global temperatures. The decrease in

1499: 120: 3121:"Wilson cycles of the Zagros fold and thrust belt: A comprehensive review" 5630: 5625: 5589: 5489: 5422: 5391: 5286: 5255: 5216: 5166: 5140: 5116: 5061: 5056: 5035: 5030: 4466:"Gateway-driven weakening of ocean gyres leads to Southern Ocean cooling" 4344: 4099: 3839: 2979: 2171: 2163: 2139: 2135: 1947: 1640: 1444: 1402: 1228: 1224: 1188: 1184: 1172: 1164: 1128: 1013: 994: 767: 463: 454: 427: 418: 250: 237: 94: 89: 74: 69: 59: 4259: 3686: 3065:

Koshnaw, Renas I.; Schlunegger, Fritz; Stockli, Daniel F. (2021-11-03).

2843:

Brunsmann, Quentin; Rosenberg, Claudio Luca; Bellahsen, Nicolas (2024).

2817: 5644: 5584: 5334: 5171: 5155: 4902: 4702: 4049: 3317: 3037: 2861: 2222: 2203: 2199: 2175: 2070: 1963: 1918: 1761: 1577: 1569: 1262: 1136: 1120: 990: 689: 672:

enriched layer associated with a major meteorite impact and subsequent

669: 310: 109: 84: 4024:

van Benthem, Steven; Govers, Rob; Spakman, Wim; Wortel, Rinus (2013).

3601: 2921: 5680: 5563: 5197: 5009: 4994: 4693: 2155: 2100: 2090: 2006: 1668: 1468: 1378: 1236: 1160: 1144: 1140: 1116: 1104: 1036: 1005: 823: 685: 390: 346: 2069:

species went extinct, whilst on land many modern mammals, including

4945: 4752: 2415:"FGDC Digital Cartographic Standard for Geologic Map Symbolization" 3464:"Late Cretaceous–Early Palaeogene tectonic development of SE Asia" 2179: 2167: 2028:. An accompanying rise in humidity is reflected in an increase in 1955: 1951: 1924: 1777: 1697: 1662: 1522: 1498: 1407: 1240: 1204: 1200: 1072: 1035:

from relatively small, simple forms into a large group of diverse

771: 3929:"Global continental and ocean basin reconstructions since 200 Ma" 2588: 1533:

rocks scraped off the now subducted Indian continental crust and

1050:

The Period is marked by considerable changes in climate from the

5704: 5700: 5696: 4799:"Early Cenozoic evolution of the latitudinal diversity gradient" 4223:

Boone, Samuel C.; Balestrieri, Maria-Laura; Kohn, Barry (2021).

1862:

leading to major strike-slip movements and the formation of the

1581: 1475:. It formed as a result of the convergence and collision of the 1472: 1464: 1362: 1269: 1207:

and is marked by the start of a significant variation in global

1132: 48: 5081: 4949: 1231:

27.82 - 23.03 Ma. The GSSP for the base of the Oligocene is at

1350: 997: 910: 137: 4604: 4602: 2239:

period. This evidence for this floral shift is found in the

946: 928: 922: 904: 898: 892: 4173:"The trials and tribulations of the Hawaii hot spot model" 4026:"Tectonic evolution and mantle structure of the Caribbean" 3569:"Breakup volcanism and plate tectonics in the NW Atlantic" 3412:"Multiple Tethyan ocean basins and orogenic belts in Asia" 3168:"Multiple Tethyan ocean basins and orogenic belts in Asia" 2845:"The Western Alpine arc: a review and new kinematic model" 2699:

Torsvik, Trond H.; Cocks, Leonard Robert Morrison (2017).

2194:

as they took over the skies left empty by the now extinct

1529:. To the south of this zone, the Himalaya are composed of 1463:

belt stretches for c. 2000 km from the eastern border of

907: 27:

First period of the Cenozoic Era (66–23 million years ago)

1942:

in the late Eocene. To the west, in the early Oligocene,

940: 3762:

Yonkee, W. A.; Weil, A. B.; Wells, M. L. (2024-07-01).

3342:"Strengthening the argument for a large Greater India" 2186:

which were already well established by the end of the

2094:, resulting in the sequestering of large amounts of CO 955: 913: 1028:" for the Paleogene on the Survey's geologic maps. 943: 937: 919: 895: 889: 5679: 5643: 5603: 5572: 5541: 5528: 5488: 5457: 5421: 5390: 5364: 5333: 5320: 5285: 5254: 5228: 5215: 5180: 5154: 5128: 5115: 4936:

Paleogene Microfossils: 180+ images of Foraminifera

3738:(4th ed.). New York: W.H.Freeman and Company. 3628:(2nd ed.). Edinburgh: Dunedin Academic Press. 2396:"GeoWhen Database – What Happened to the Tertiary?" 2005:continued, with only the brief interruption of the 1817:began to collide with northwestern South American. 1667:A Paleogene-aged basaltic lava flow on the Isle of 1620:During the Paleocene, seafloor spreading along the 934: 886: 858: 838: 821: 816: 808: 762: 734: 726: 680: 665: 657: 647: 637: 632: 624: 612: 602: 597: 589: 581: 576: 130: 39: 3861:Pfiffner, O. Adrian; Gonzalez, Laura (June 2013). 1749:extending to mid-crustal depths and the uplift of 4289:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2255: – Geological boundary between time periods 1989:The Paleogene began with the brief but intense " 981:that spans 43 million years from the end of the 4225:"Tectono-Thermal Evolution of the Red Sea Rift" 3660:. A new paradigm for the North Atlantic Realm. 3346:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 3222:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2733:Royden, Leigh; Faccenna, Claudio (2018-05-30). 1095:) identifying the lower boundary of the stage. 993:Period 23.03 Ma. It is the first period of the 2527: 2525: 2523: 2521: 2519: 2517: 1517:, the leading edge of Greater India, with the 1312:mountain chains and the western margin of the 558:Subdivision of the Paleogene according to the 5093: 4961: 3509:Gaina, Carmen; Jakob, Johannes (2019-06-05). 2739:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 1802:subducted beneath the South American margin. 8: 1797:is largely composed of oceanic crust of the 1568:extends from the Himalayas in India through 1447:of Adria were scrapped off onto the Eurasia 1085:Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point 989:(million years ago) to the beginning of the 4030:Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth 2314:. International Commission on Stratigraphy. 2174:, while those that adapted to trees became 925: 901: 5538: 5330: 5225: 5125: 5100: 5086: 5078: 4985: 4968: 4954: 4946: 2589:"International Commission on Stratigraphy" 565:Vertical axis scale: millions of years ago 4824: 4701: 4570:1983/82e93473-2a5d-4a6d-9ca1-da5ebf433d8b 4507: 4375: 4365: 4258: 4248: 3886: 3787: 3685: 3600: 3381: 3316: 3259: 3241: 3090: 3036: 2978: 2920: 2860: 2816: 2703:. Cambridge: Cambridge university press. 2379: 2342: 2309:"International Chronostratigraphic Chart" 2146:of the Paleogene and polar ice remained. 2080:The PETM was followed by the less severe 1537:lithosphere as the collision progressed. 1643:and northern Greenland resulting in the 1077:International Commission on Stratigraphy 3729: 3727: 3725: 2265: 4218: 4216: 4214: 4119: 4117: 4069: 4067: 3972: 3970: 3922: 3920: 3918: 3916: 3914: 3912: 3910: 3908: 3906: 3809: 3807: 3757: 3755: 3734:Stanley, Steven; Luczaj, John (2015). 3723: 3721: 3719: 3717: 3715: 3713: 3711: 3709: 3707: 3705: 3647: 3645: 3626:"Volcanoes and the Making of Scotland" 3562: 3560: 3558: 3556: 3554: 3552: 3457: 3455: 3453: 2694: 2692: 2690: 2688: 2686: 2684: 2682: 2680: 2678: 2676: 2674: 2672: 2670: 2628:, Boston: Elsevier, pp. 855–921, 1842:plates initiated subduction along the 1717:Mountain building continued along the 1564:The Alpine-Himalayan Orogenic Belt in 1525:(southern Eurasian margin), along the 36: 3405: 3403: 3401: 3211: 3209: 3114: 3112: 3110: 3060: 3058: 3056: 2882: 2880: 2838: 2836: 2778: 2776: 2728: 2726: 2724: 2722: 2720: 2668: 2666: 2664: 2662: 2660: 2658: 2656: 2654: 2652: 2650: 2614: 2612: 2610: 2608: 1737:, which began the development of the 1659:North Atlantic Large Igneous Province 1041:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 7: 4941:Paleogene (chronostratigraphy scale) 2178:, the group to which humans belong. 1813:By the Oligocene, the intra-oceanic 1276:extended northwards, separating the 1067:The Paleogene is divided into three 530: 509: 491: 5699:= kiloannum (thousands years ago); 4633:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2759:10.1146/annurev-earth-060115-012419 2622:"Chapter 28 - The Paleogene Period" 2413:Federal Geographic Data Committee. 1261:The final stages of the breakup of 5703:= megaannum (millions years ago); 3814:Horton, Brian K. (February 2018). 2422:The National Geologic Map Database 1308:collided with Eurasia forming the 864:(4.5 °C above pre-industrial) 25: 5707:= gigaannum (billions years ago). 4797:Crame, J. Alistair (March 2020). 2701:Earth history and palaeogeography 2450:. United States Geological Survey 2424:. United States Geological Survey 1721:in response to subduction of the 1508:The Indian continent rifted from 1429:of the western Mediterranean and 1265:occurred during the Paleogene as 5728: 5717: 2198:. Some flightless birds such as 1980:Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum 1799:Caribbean Large Igneous Province 1757:was divided and then retreated. 1527:Indus-Yarling-Zangbo suture zone 1052:Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum 882: 119: 4826:10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103090 4197:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103544 4150:10.1016/j.earscirev.2015.11.015 4003:10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.102903 3953:10.1016/j.earscirev.2012.03.002 3678:10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.102902 3488:10.1016/j.earscirev.2012.08.002 3125:Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 2971:10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.03.016 2913:10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103252 2809:10.1016/j.earscirev.2023.104498 2560:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103503 2443:Orndorff, R.C. (20 July 2010). 2381:10.18814/epiiugs/1997/v20i1/005 2344:10.18814/epiiugs/2006/v29i4/004 2295:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2005.01.001 2210:also filled niches left by the 1891:Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain 1685:North Atlantic Igneous Province 1401:and European plates led to the 1022:United States Geological Survey 1033:mammals continued to diversify 959:-lee-ə-jeen, -⁠lee-oh-, 1: 5146:Pleistocene (11.7 ka–2.58 Ma) 4408:Journal of Micropalaeontology 3768:Journal of Structural Geology 2253:Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary 2214:and other extinct dinosaurs. 2032:in sediments, which forms by 1915:Antarctic Circumpolar Current 1815:Central American volcanic arc 1031:During the Paleogene period, 817:Atmospheric and climatic data 747:Near first appearance of the 4367:10.1371/journal.pone.0141644 4310:10.1016/j.palaeo.2019.03.024 4080:Geophysical Research Letters 3462:Morley, C. K. (2012-10-01). 3410:Metcalfe, Ian (2021-12-01). 3166:Metcalfe, Ian (2021-12-01). 3145:10.1016/j.jseaes.2023.105993 1856:Vancouver/Juan de Fuca Plate 1780:. In the Northern Andes, an 1482:From the Late Cretaceous, a 5109:Geological history of Earth 3593:10.1016/j.tecto.2018.08.002 3535:10.1016/j.tecto.2018.08.010 3309:10.1016/j.tecto.2018.04.006 2275:Global and Planetary Change 1637:Canadian Arctic Archipelago 1390:Adriatic promontory (Adria) 5775: 5382:Mississippian (323–359 Ma) 5377:Pennsylvanian (299–323 Ma) 5141:Holocene (present–11.7 ka) 4645:10.1016/j.epsl.2019.116044 4492:10.1038/s41467-021-26658-1 4229:Frontiers in Earth Science 3888:10.3390/geosciences3020262 2849:Comptes Rendus. Géoscience 2217:Pronounced cooling in the 1357:cordillera in the western 1328:Alpine - Himalayan Orogeny 1227:33.9 Ma to 27.82 Ma; and, 1195:41.2 Ma to 37.71 Ma; and, 979:geologic period and system 854:(1.8 times pre-industrial) 740:Base of magnetic polarity 29: 5694: 5666:Paleoarchean (3.2–3.6 Ga) 5516:Terreneuvian (521–539 Ma) 4983: 4848:Traverse, Alfred (1988). 4562:10.1038/s41561-018-0199-0 4250:10.3389/feart.2021.713448 3789:10.1016/j.jsg.2024.105104 3418:. SPECIAL ISSUE: GR-100. 3174:. SPECIAL ISSUE: GR-100. 1743:thick-skinned deformation 1544:Greater India, formed by 1043:that ended the preceding 1012:epochs. The earlier term 735:Upper boundary definition 666:Lower boundary definition 555: 135: 118: 44: 5661:Mesoarchean (2.8–3.2 Ga) 5506:Miaolingian (497–509 Ma) 5351:Guadalupian (260–272 Ma) 5203:Paleocene (56.0–66.0 Ma) 5193:Oligocene (23.0–33.9 Ma) 3436:10.1016/j.gr.2021.01.012 3192:10.1016/j.gr.2021.01.012 3029:10.1016/j.gr.2019.07.005 2122:and this reduction in CO 2082:Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 1719:North America Cordillera 1649:Jan Mayen microcontinent 1171:and dramatic changes in 1163:. The extinction of the 1000:and is divided into the 859:Mean surface temperature 766:Lemme-Carrosio Section, 753:Paragloborotalia kugleri 749:Planktonic foraminiferan 30:Not to be confused with 5656:Neoarchean (2.5–2.8 Ga) 5621:Orosirian (1.8–2.05 Ga) 5616:Statherian (1.6–1.8 Ga) 5559:Cryogenian (635–720 Ma) 5449:Llandovery (433–444 Ma) 5356:Cisuralian (272–299 Ma) 5167:Pliocene (2.59–5.33 Ma) 4428:10.1144/0262-821X10-023 3366:10.1073/pnas.2305928120 3243:10.1073/pnas.2009039117 3092:10.5194/se-12-2479-2021 2626:The Geologic Time Scale 2492:10.1126/science.1211028 1934:Red Sea and East Africa 1755:Western Interior Seaway 1612:systems of the region. 1024:uses the abbreviation " 5626:Rhyacian (2.05–2.3 Ga) 5595:Calymmian (1.4–1.6 Ga) 5554:Ediacaran (539–635 Ma) 5501:Furongian (485–497 Ma) 5346:Lopingian (252–260 Ma) 5172:Miocene (5.33–23.0 Ma) 4732:The Journal of Geology 2061:back into the oceans. 1930: 1741:, was a broad zone of 1680: 1505: 1413: 834:(125 % of modern) 223:−25 — 213:−30 — 203:−35 — 193:−40 — 183:−45 — 173:−50 — 163:−55 — 153:−60 — 143:−65 — 5631:Siderian (2.3–2.5 Ga) 5590:Ectasian (1.2–1.4 Ga) 5511:Series 2 (509–521 Ma) 5198:Eocene (33.9–56.0 Ma) 4804:Earth-Science Reviews 4614:University of Bristol 4471:Nature Communications 4177:Earth-Science Reviews 4130:Earth-Science Reviews 3983:Earth-Science Reviews 3933:Earth-Science Reviews 3658:Earth-Science Reviews 3624:Upton, Brian (2015). 3468:Earth-Science Reviews 2951:Earth-Science Reviews 2893:Earth-Science Reviews 2789:Earth-Science Reviews 2539:Earth-Science Reviews 1984:Late Cenozoic ice age 1928: 1666: 1502: 1411: 1243:. The extinction the 1123:. It is marked by an 1111:61.6 - 59.2 Ma; and, 1087:(GSSP) from a single 674:K-Pg extinction event 593:Palaeogene, Palæogene 590:Alternate spelling(s) 5671:Eoarchean (3.6–4 Ga) 5564:Tonian (720 Ma–1 Ga) 5444:Wenlock (427–433 Ma) 5434:Pridoli (419–423 Ma) 4883:The Botanical Review 4100:10.1002/2015GL063057 3840:10.1002/2017TC004624 3736:Earth System Science 2400:www.stratigraphy.org 1191:47.8 Ma to 41.2 Ma; 1187:56.0 Ma to 47.8 Ma; 1079:(ICS) ratify global 522:permanent ice-sheets 5726: • 5715: • 5713:Geologic time scale 5475:Middle (458–470 Ma) 5439:Ludlow (423–427 Ma) 5408:Middle (383–393 Ma) 5303:Middle (237–247 Ma) 5272:Middle (164–174 Ma) 4895:1981BotRv..47....1M 4817:2020ESRv..20203090C 4745:1993JG....101..191Z 4686:2010Geo....38..607S 4554:2018NatGe..11..766N 4484:2021NatCo..12.6465S 4420:2011JMicP..30..167S 4358:2015PLoSO..1041644J 4302:2019PPP...525....1J 4241:2021FrEaS...9..588B 4189:2021ESRv..21503544J 4142:2016ESRv..154..138W 4092:2015GeoRL..42.1732S 4042:2013JGRB..118.3019V 3995:2019ESRv..19802903M 3945:2012ESRv..113..212S 3879:2013Geosc...3..262P 3832:2018Tecto..37..402H 3780:2024JSG...18405104Y 3670:2020ESRv..20602902P 3585:2019Tectp.760..267A 3527:2019Tectp.760..136G 3480:2012ESRv..115...37M 3428:2021GondR.100...87M 3358:2023PNAS..12005928M 3352:(33): e2305928120. 3301:2019Tectp.760...69V 3234:2020PNAS..11729487M 3228:(47): 29487–29494. 3184:2021GondR.100...87M 3137:2024JAESc.26205993F 3083:2021SolE...12.2479K 3021:2020GondR..78..308S 2963:2019ESRv..192..355B 2905:2020ESRv..21003252S 2801:2023ESRv..24304498M 2751:2018AREPS..46..261R 2552:2021ESRv..21503503S 2484:2011Sci...334..521M 2287:2005GPC....47...51Z 2225:and herbs, such as 2190:, also experienced 2034:chemical weathering 2007:Latest Danian Event 1673:volcaniclastic rock 1451:during subduction. 1165:non-avian dinosaurs 1039:in the wake of the 809:Upper GSSP ratified 789: / 763:Upper boundary GSSP 727:Lower GSSP ratified 707: / 681:Lower boundary GSSP 658:Time span formality 5759:Geological periods 5724:Geology portal 5585:Stenian (1–1.2 Ga) 5480:Early (470–485 Ma) 5413:Early (393–419 Ma) 5308:Early (247–252 Ma) 5277:Early (174–201 Ma) 5246:Early (100–145 Ma) 5241:Late (66.0–100 Ma) 4903:10.1007/bf02860537 4050:10.1002/jgrb.50235 2862:10.5802/crgeos.253 2192:adaptive radiation 2051:continental slopes 1931: 1681: 1622:Mid-Atlantic Ridge 1506: 1471:coast in southern 1414: 1274:seafloor spreading 1213:methane clathrates 1018:stratigraphic term 793:44.6589°N 8.8364°E 711:36.1537°N 8.6486°E 648:Stratigraphic unit 638:Chronological unit 625:Time scale(s) used 5741: 5740: 5639: 5638: 5605:Paleoproterozoic 5524: 5523: 5470:Late (444–458 Ma) 5403:Late (359–383 Ma) 5316: 5315: 5298:Late (201–237 Ma) 5267:Late (145–164 Ma) 5211: 5210: 5132:(present–2.58 Ma) 5120:(present–66.0 Ma) 5075: 5074: 5070: 5069: 4859:978-0-04-561001-3 4541:Nature Geoscience 3745:978-1-319-15402-8 3416:Gondwana Research 3172:Gondwana Research 3077:(11): 2479–2501. 3009:Gondwana Research 2710:978-1-107-10532-4 2635:978-0-444-59425-9 2478:(6055): 521–524. 2057:which released CO 1907:Tasmanian Passage 1893:formed above the 1864:San Andreas Fault 1844:Izu-Bonin-Mariana 1677:columnar jointing 1495:Himalayan Orogeny 1157:Yucatan Peninsula 868: 867: 839:Mean atmospheric 822:Mean atmospheric 598:Usage information 571: 570: 551: 550: 529: 528: 508: 507: 16:(Redirected from 5766: 5735:World portal 5733: 5732: 5722: 5721: 5684: 5648: 5608: 5577: 5574:Mesoproterozoic 5546: 5539: 5534: 5493: 5462: 5426: 5395: 5369: 5338: 5331: 5326: 5290: 5259: 5233: 5226: 5221: 5185: 5159: 5133: 5126: 5121: 5102: 5095: 5088: 5079: 4986: 4977:Paleogene Period 4970: 4963: 4956: 4947: 4923: 4922: 4878: 4872: 4871: 4845: 4839: 4838: 4828: 4794: 4788: 4787: 4785: 4783: 4722: 4716: 4715: 4705: 4694:10.1130/G30777.1 4663: 4657: 4656: 4624: 4618: 4617: 4606: 4597: 4596: 4588: 4582: 4581: 4537: 4528: 4522: 4521: 4511: 4461: 4455: 4454: 4452: 4450: 4444: 4438:. Archived from 4405: 4396: 4390: 4389: 4379: 4369: 4352:(11): e0141644. 4335: 4329: 4328: 4326: 4324: 4279: 4273: 4272: 4262: 4252: 4220: 4209: 4208: 4168: 4162: 4161: 4121: 4112: 4111: 4086:(6): 1732–1740. 4071: 4062: 4061: 4036:(6): 3019–3036. 4021: 4015: 4014: 3974: 3965: 3964: 3924: 3901: 3900: 3890: 3858: 3852: 3851: 3811: 3802: 3801: 3791: 3759: 3750: 3749: 3731: 3700: 3699: 3689: 3649: 3640: 3639: 3621: 3615: 3614: 3604: 3564: 3547: 3546: 3506: 3500: 3499: 3459: 3448: 3447: 3407: 3396: 3395: 3385: 3337: 3331: 3330: 3320: 3280: 3274: 3273: 3263: 3245: 3213: 3204: 3203: 3163: 3157: 3156: 3116: 3105: 3104: 3094: 3062: 3051: 3050: 3040: 2999: 2993: 2992: 2982: 2941: 2935: 2934: 2924: 2884: 2875: 2874: 2864: 2840: 2831: 2830: 2820: 2780: 2771: 2770: 2730: 2715: 2714: 2696: 2645: 2644: 2643: 2642: 2616: 2603: 2602: 2600: 2599: 2593:stratigraphy.org 2585: 2579: 2578: 2576: 2574: 2529: 2512: 2511: 2466: 2460: 2459: 2457: 2455: 2449: 2440: 2434: 2433: 2431: 2429: 2419: 2410: 2404: 2403: 2392: 2386: 2385: 2383: 2365: 2355: 2349: 2348: 2346: 2322: 2316: 2315: 2313: 2305: 2299: 2298: 2270: 2047:methane hydrates 2026:greenhouse gases 1995:Chicxulub impact 1993:" caused by the 1976:Chicxulub impact 1895:Hawaiian hotspot 1735:Laramide Orogeny 1574:West Burma block 1455:Zagros Mountains 1403:Pyrenean Orogeny 1324:plate boundary. 1310:Alpine-Himalayan 1107:66.0 - 61.6 Ma; 1027: 962: 958: 953: 952: 949: 948: 945: 942: 939: 936: 931: 930: 927: 924: 921: 916: 915: 912: 909: 906: 903: 900: 897: 894: 891: 888: 881: 872:Paleogene Period 832:c. 26 vol % 804: 803: 801: 800: 799: 794: 790: 787: 786: 785: 782: 722: 721: 719: 718: 717: 712: 708: 705: 704: 703: 700: 684:El Kef Section, 546: 536: 531: 524: 520:First Antarctic 515: 510: 497: 492: 466: 457: 448: 439: 430: 421: 412: 403: 393: 384: 359: 340: 304: 268: 243: 229: 224: 219: 214: 209: 204: 199: 194: 189: 184: 179: 174: 169: 164: 159: 154: 149: 144: 138: 123: 114: 51: 37: 21: 5774: 5773: 5769: 5768: 5767: 5765: 5764: 5763: 5744: 5743: 5742: 5737: 5727: 5716: 5708: 5690: 5682: 5675: 5646: 5635: 5606: 5599: 5575: 5568: 5544: 5543:Neoproterozoic 5533:(539 Ma–2.5 Ga) 5532: 5531: 5530:Proterozoic Eon 5520: 5491: 5484: 5460: 5453: 5424: 5417: 5393: 5386: 5367: 5360: 5336: 5324: 5323: 5312: 5288: 5281: 5257: 5250: 5231: 5219: 5218: 5207: 5183: 5176: 5157: 5150: 5131: 5119: 5118: 5111: 5106: 5076: 5071: 5066: 5050: 5024: 5000:Oligocene Epoch 4990:Paleocene Epoch 4979: 4974: 4932: 4927: 4926: 4880: 4879: 4875: 4860: 4852:. Unwin Hyman. 4850:Paleopalynology 4847: 4846: 4842: 4796: 4795: 4791: 4781: 4779: 4724: 4723: 4719: 4665: 4664: 4660: 4626: 4625: 4621: 4608: 4607: 4600: 4590: 4589: 4585: 4548:(10): 766–771. 4535: 4530: 4529: 4525: 4463: 4462: 4458: 4448: 4446: 4445:on 28 June 2023 4442: 4403: 4398: 4397: 4393: 4337: 4336: 4332: 4322: 4320: 4281: 4280: 4276: 4222: 4221: 4212: 4170: 4169: 4165: 4123: 4122: 4115: 4073: 4072: 4065: 4023: 4022: 4018: 3976: 3975: 3968: 3926: 3925: 3904: 3860: 3859: 3855: 3813: 3812: 3805: 3761: 3760: 3753: 3746: 3733: 3732: 3703: 3651: 3650: 3643: 3636: 3623: 3622: 3618: 3566: 3565: 3550: 3508: 3507: 3503: 3461: 3460: 3451: 3409: 3408: 3399: 3339: 3338: 3334: 3282: 3281: 3277: 3215: 3214: 3207: 3165: 3164: 3160: 3118: 3117: 3108: 3064: 3063: 3054: 3001: 3000: 2996: 2943: 2942: 2938: 2886: 2885: 2878: 2855:(S2): 231–263. 2842: 2841: 2834: 2782: 2781: 2774: 2732: 2731: 2718: 2711: 2698: 2697: 2648: 2640: 2638: 2636: 2618: 2617: 2606: 2597: 2595: 2587: 2586: 2582: 2572: 2570: 2531: 2530: 2515: 2468: 2467: 2463: 2453: 2451: 2447: 2442: 2441: 2437: 2427: 2425: 2417: 2412: 2411: 2407: 2394: 2393: 2389: 2363: 2357: 2356: 2352: 2324: 2323: 2319: 2311: 2307: 2306: 2302: 2272: 2271: 2267: 2262: 2249: 2160:diversification 2152: 2150:Flora and fauna 2125: 2121: 2113: 2097: 2060: 2023: 2003:Late Cretaceous 1972: 1946:erupted across 1936: 1903: 1887: 1879:Aleutian trench 1860:Baja California 1823: 1808:Lesser Antilles 1795:Caribbean Plate 1791: 1782:oceanic plateau 1770: 1739:Rocky Mountains 1715: 1710: 1661: 1628:(c. 62 Ma) and 1618: 1594:transform fault 1562: 1560:South East Asia 1531:metasedimentary 1497: 1461:Zagros mountain 1457: 1343:Neotethys Ocean 1335: 1330: 1316:changed from a 1259: 1257:Palaeogeography 1221: 1181: 1173:marine plankton 1127:produced by an 1125:iridium anomaly 1101: 1065: 1060: 1025: 960: 956: 933: 918: 885: 876: 875: 863: 853: 844: 833: 827: 798:44.6589; 8.8364 797: 795: 791: 788: 783: 780: 778: 776: 775: 774: 716:36.1537; 8.6486 715: 713: 709: 706: 701: 698: 696: 694: 693: 692: 572: 567: 566: 564: 547: 543: 540: 534: 525: 519: 513: 504: 495: 488: 487: 483: 482: 478: 477: 473: 472: 468: 467: 462: 459: 458: 453: 450: 449: 444: 441: 440: 435: 432: 431: 426: 423: 422: 417: 414: 413: 408: 405: 404: 402: 398: 395: 394: 389: 386: 385: 381: 379: 377: 375: 373: 371: 369: 367: 364: 361: 360: 356: 354: 352: 350: 348: 345: 342: 341: 339: 338: 335: 333: 331: 329: 327: 325: 323: 321: 318: 315: 314: 306: 305: 300: 298: 296: 294: 292: 290: 288: 286: 282: 279: 278: 270: 269: 264: 262: 260: 258: 256: 254: 252: 248: 245: 244: 239: 235: 230: 227: 225: 222: 220: 217: 215: 212: 210: 207: 205: 202: 200: 197: 195: 192: 190: 187: 185: 182: 180: 177: 175: 172: 170: 167: 165: 162: 160: 157: 155: 152: 150: 147: 145: 142: 126: 113: 112: 107: 102: 97: 92: 87: 82: 77: 72: 67: 62: 57: 47:66.0 – 23.03 46: 45: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5772: 5770: 5762: 5761: 5756: 5746: 5745: 5739: 5738: 5695: 5692: 5691: 5688: 5686: 5677: 5676: 5674: 5673: 5668: 5663: 5658: 5652: 5650: 5641: 5640: 5637: 5636: 5634: 5633: 5628: 5623: 5618: 5612: 5610: 5601: 5600: 5598: 5597: 5592: 5587: 5581: 5579: 5570: 5569: 5567: 5566: 5561: 5556: 5550: 5548: 5536: 5526: 5525: 5522: 5521: 5519: 5518: 5513: 5508: 5503: 5497: 5495: 5486: 5485: 5483: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5466: 5464: 5455: 5454: 5452: 5451: 5446: 5441: 5436: 5430: 5428: 5419: 5418: 5416: 5415: 5410: 5405: 5399: 5397: 5388: 5387: 5385: 5384: 5379: 5373: 5371: 5366:Carboniferous 5362: 5361: 5359: 5358: 5353: 5348: 5342: 5340: 5328: 5318: 5317: 5314: 5313: 5311: 5310: 5305: 5300: 5294: 5292: 5283: 5282: 5280: 5279: 5274: 5269: 5263: 5261: 5252: 5251: 5249: 5248: 5243: 5237: 5235: 5223: 5213: 5212: 5209: 5208: 5206: 5205: 5200: 5195: 5189: 5187: 5184:(23.0–66.0 Ma) 5178: 5177: 5175: 5174: 5169: 5163: 5161: 5158:(2.58–23.0 Ma) 5152: 5151: 5149: 5148: 5143: 5137: 5135: 5123: 5113: 5112: 5107: 5105: 5104: 5097: 5090: 5082: 5073: 5072: 5068: 5067: 5065: 5064: 5059: 5053: 5051: 5049: 5048: 5043: 5038: 5033: 5027: 5025: 5023: 5022: 5017: 5012: 5006: 5003: 5002: 4997: 4992: 4984: 4981: 4980: 4975: 4973: 4972: 4965: 4958: 4950: 4944: 4943: 4938: 4931: 4930:External links 4928: 4925: 4924: 4873: 4858: 4840: 4789: 4753:10.1086/648216 4739:(2): 191–213. 4717: 4680:(7): 607–610. 4658: 4619: 4598: 4583: 4523: 4456: 4414:(2): 167–182. 4391: 4330: 4274: 4210: 4163: 4113: 4063: 4016: 3966: 3939:(3): 212–270. 3902: 3873:(2): 262–310. 3853: 3826:(2): 402–429. 3803: 3751: 3744: 3701: 3641: 3634: 3616: 3573:Tectonophysics 3548: 3515:Tectonophysics 3501: 3449: 3397: 3332: 3289:Tectonophysics 3275: 3205: 3158: 3106: 3052: 2994: 2936: 2876: 2832: 2772: 2745:(1): 261–289. 2716: 2709: 2646: 2634: 2604: 2580: 2513: 2461: 2435: 2405: 2387: 2350: 2337:(4): 263–278. 2317: 2300: 2264: 2263: 2261: 2258: 2257: 2256: 2248: 2245: 2212:hesperornithes 2158:began a rapid 2151: 2148: 2140:Late Oligocene 2123: 2119: 2111: 2095: 2075:Bering Straits 2058: 2021: 2018:carbon dioxide 1971: 1968: 1954:and southwest 1935: 1932: 1902: 1899: 1886: 1885:Hawaii hotspot 1883: 1848:Tonga-Kermadec 1840:Philippine Sea 1822: 1819: 1790: 1787: 1769: 1766: 1751:basement rocks 1723:Farallon plate 1714: 1711: 1709: 1706: 1660: 1657: 1645:Eureka Orogeny 1617: 1616:Atlantic Ocean 1614: 1566:Southeast Asia 1561: 1558: 1541:Palaeomagnetic 1496: 1493: 1456: 1453: 1442:passive margin 1339:Alpine Orogeny 1334: 1333:Alpine Orogeny 1331: 1329: 1326: 1298:Southern Ocean 1296:, opening the 1267:Atlantic Ocean 1258: 1255: 1220: 1217: 1209:carbon isotope 1180: 1177: 1149:shocked quartz 1100: 1097: 1064: 1061: 1059: 1056: 866: 865: 860: 856: 855: 847: 842: 836: 835: 830: 825: 819: 818: 814: 813: 810: 806: 805: 764: 760: 759: 758: 757: 745: 736: 732: 731: 728: 724: 723: 682: 678: 677: 667: 663: 662: 659: 655: 654: 649: 645: 644: 639: 635: 634: 630: 629: 628:ICS Time Scale 626: 622: 621: 614: 613:Regional usage 610: 609: 604: 603:Celestial body 600: 599: 595: 594: 591: 587: 586: 583: 582:Name formality 579: 578: 574: 573: 569: 568: 556: 553: 552: 549: 548: 539: 537: 527: 526: 518: 516: 506: 505: 500: 498: 489: 485: 484: 480: 479: 475: 474: 470: 469: 461: 460: 452: 451: 443: 442: 434: 433: 425: 424: 416: 415: 407: 406: 397: 396: 388: 387: 363: 362: 344: 343: 317: 316: 308: 307: 281: 280: 272: 271: 247: 246: 234: 233: 231: 226: 221: 216: 211: 206: 201: 196: 191: 186: 181: 176: 171: 166: 161: 156: 151: 146: 141: 136: 133: 132: 128: 127: 124: 116: 115: 108: 103: 98: 93: 88: 83: 78: 73: 68: 63: 58: 53: 52: 42: 41: 26: 24: 18:Lower Tertiary 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5771: 5760: 5757: 5755: 5752: 5751: 5749: 5736: 5731: 5725: 5720: 5714: 5711: 5706: 5702: 5698: 5693: 5687: 5685: 5678: 5672: 5669: 5667: 5664: 5662: 5659: 5657: 5654: 5653: 5651: 5649: 5642: 5632: 5629: 5627: 5624: 5622: 5619: 5617: 5614: 5613: 5611: 5609: 5602: 5596: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5586: 5583: 5582: 5580: 5578: 5571: 5565: 5562: 5560: 5557: 5555: 5552: 5551: 5549: 5547: 5545:(539 Ma–1 Ga) 5540: 5537: 5535: 5527: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5498: 5496: 5494: 5487: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5467: 5465: 5463: 5456: 5450: 5447: 5445: 5442: 5440: 5437: 5435: 5432: 5431: 5429: 5427: 5420: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5406: 5404: 5401: 5400: 5398: 5396: 5389: 5383: 5380: 5378: 5375: 5374: 5372: 5370: 5363: 5357: 5354: 5352: 5349: 5347: 5344: 5343: 5341: 5339: 5332: 5329: 5327: 5322:Paleozoic Era 5319: 5309: 5306: 5304: 5301: 5299: 5296: 5295: 5293: 5291: 5284: 5278: 5275: 5273: 5270: 5268: 5265: 5264: 5262: 5260: 5253: 5247: 5244: 5242: 5239: 5238: 5236: 5234: 5232:(66.0–145 Ma) 5227: 5224: 5222: 5220:(66.0–252 Ma) 5214: 5204: 5201: 5199: 5196: 5194: 5191: 5190: 5188: 5186: 5179: 5173: 5170: 5168: 5165: 5164: 5162: 5160: 5153: 5147: 5144: 5142: 5139: 5138: 5136: 5134: 5127: 5124: 5122: 5114: 5110: 5103: 5098: 5096: 5091: 5089: 5084: 5083: 5080: 5063: 5060: 5058: 5055: 5054: 5052: 5047: 5044: 5042: 5039: 5037: 5034: 5032: 5029: 5028: 5026: 5021: 5018: 5016: 5013: 5011: 5008: 5007: 5005: 5004: 5001: 4998: 4996: 4993: 4991: 4988: 4987: 4982: 4978: 4971: 4966: 4964: 4959: 4957: 4952: 4951: 4948: 4942: 4939: 4937: 4934: 4933: 4929: 4920: 4916: 4912: 4908: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4892: 4888: 4884: 4877: 4874: 4869: 4865: 4861: 4855: 4851: 4844: 4841: 4836: 4832: 4827: 4822: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4805: 4800: 4793: 4790: 4778: 4774: 4770: 4766: 4762: 4758: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4733: 4728: 4721: 4718: 4713: 4709: 4704: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4674: 4669: 4662: 4659: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4634: 4630: 4623: 4620: 4615: 4611: 4605: 4603: 4599: 4594: 4587: 4584: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4555: 4551: 4547: 4543: 4542: 4534: 4527: 4524: 4519: 4515: 4510: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4473: 4472: 4467: 4460: 4457: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4402: 4395: 4392: 4387: 4383: 4378: 4373: 4368: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4346: 4341: 4334: 4331: 4319: 4315: 4311: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4290: 4285: 4278: 4275: 4270: 4266: 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2918: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2883: 2881: 2877: 2872: 2868: 2863: 2858: 2854: 2851:(in French). 2850: 2846: 2839: 2837: 2833: 2828: 2824: 2819: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2779: 2777: 2773: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2729: 2727: 2725: 2723: 2721: 2717: 2712: 2706: 2702: 2695: 2693: 2691: 2689: 2687: 2685: 2683: 2681: 2679: 2677: 2675: 2673: 2671: 2669: 2667: 2665: 2663: 2661: 2659: 2657: 2655: 2653: 2651: 2647: 2637: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2615: 2613: 2611: 2609: 2605: 2594: 2590: 2584: 2581: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2540: 2535: 2528: 2526: 2524: 2522: 2520: 2518: 2514: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2465: 2462: 2446: 2439: 2436: 2423: 2416: 2409: 2406: 2401: 2397: 2391: 2388: 2382: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2362: 2354: 2351: 2345: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2321: 2318: 2310: 2304: 2301: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2269: 2266: 2259: 2254: 2251: 2250: 2246: 2244: 2242: 2241:palynological 2238: 2234: 2230: 2229: 2224: 2220: 2215: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2149: 2147: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2132: 2129: 2117: 2116:phytoplankton 2108: 2104: 2102: 2093: 2092: 2087: 2083: 2078: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2062: 2056: 2055:decomposition 2052: 2048: 2043: 2038: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2019: 2014: 2010: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1991:impact winter 1987: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1969: 1967: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1944:flood basalts 1941: 1933: 1927: 1923: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1911:Drake Passage 1908: 1900: 1898: 1896: 1892: 1884: 1882: 1880: 1875: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1851: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1835: 1832: 1828: 1821:Pacific Ocean 1820: 1818: 1816: 1811: 1809: 1803: 1800: 1796: 1788: 1786: 1783: 1779: 1773: 1768:South America 1767: 1765: 1763: 1758: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1727:Sevier Orogen 1724: 1720: 1713:North America 1712: 1707: 1705: 1701: 1699: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1665: 1658: 1656: 1652: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1633: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1615: 1613: 1611: 1605: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1589: 1587: 1586:West Sulawesi 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1559: 1557: 1555: 1554:oceanic basin 1549: 1547: 1542: 1538: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1519:Lhasa Terrane 1516: 1511: 1501: 1494: 1492: 1489: 1485: 1480: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1454: 1452: 1450: 1446: 1443: 1439: 1434: 1432: 1428: 1422: 1420: 1410: 1406: 1404: 1400: 1395: 1391: 1386: 1385:in the east. 1384: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1359:Mediterranean 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1332: 1327: 1325: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1314:Pacific Plate 1311: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1290:South America 1287: 1283: 1279: 1278:North America 1275: 1271: 1268: 1264: 1256: 1254: 1252: 1248: 1247: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1218: 1216: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1178: 1176: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1147:crystals and 1146: 1142: 1138: 1137:microtektites 1134: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1098: 1096: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1062: 1057: 1055: 1053: 1048: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1029: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 996: 992: 988: 984: 980: 976: 972: 969: 965: 964: 951: 879: 873: 862:c. 18 °C 861: 857: 852: 848: 845: 837: 831: 828: 820: 815: 811: 807: 802: 773: 769: 765: 761: 755: 754: 750: 746: 743: 739: 738: 737: 733: 729: 725: 720: 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 671: 668: 664: 660: 656: 653: 650: 646: 643: 640: 636: 631: 627: 623: 619: 615: 611: 608: 605: 601: 596: 592: 588: 584: 580: 575: 563: 562:, as of 2021. 561: 554: 545: 538: 533: 532: 523: 517: 512: 511: 503: 499: 494: 493: 490: 465: 456: 447: 438: 429: 420: 411: 401: 392: 383: 358: 337: 313: 312: 303: 302: 277: 276: 267: 266: 242: 241: 232: 140: 139: 134: 129: 122: 117: 111: 106: 101: 96: 91: 86: 81: 76: 71: 66: 61: 56: 50: 43: 38: 33: 19: 5709: 5645:Archean Eon 5607:(1.6–2.5 Ga) 5492:(485–539 Ma) 5461:(444–485 Ma) 5425:(419–444 Ma) 5394:(359–419 Ma) 5368:(299–359 Ma) 5337:(252–299 Ma) 5325:(252–539 Ma) 5289:(201–252 Ma) 5258:(145–201 Ma) 5217:Mesozoic Era 5181: 5117:Cenozoic Era 4995:Eocene Epoch 4976: 4889:(1): 1–142. 4886: 4882: 4876: 4849: 4843: 4808: 4802: 4792: 4782:23 September 4780:. Retrieved 4736: 4730: 4720: 4677: 4671: 4661: 4636: 4632: 4622: 4613: 4593:ScienceDaily 4592: 4586: 4545: 4539: 4526: 4475: 4469: 4459: 4447:. Retrieved 4440:the original 4411: 4407: 4394: 4349: 4343: 4333: 4321:. Retrieved 4293: 4287: 4277: 4260:11343/289555 4232: 4228: 4180: 4176: 4166: 4133: 4129: 4083: 4079: 4033: 4029: 4019: 3986: 3982: 3936: 3932: 3870: 3866: 3856: 3823: 3819: 3771: 3767: 3735: 3687:11568/992336 3661: 3657: 3625: 3619: 3576: 3572: 3518: 3514: 3504: 3474:(1): 37–75. 3471: 3467: 3419: 3415: 3349: 3345: 3335: 3292: 3288: 3278: 3225: 3221: 3175: 3171: 3161: 3128: 3124: 3074: 3070: 3012: 3008: 2997: 2954: 2950: 2939: 2896: 2892: 2852: 2848: 2818:10045/136199 2792: 2788: 2742: 2738: 2700: 2639:, retrieved 2625: 2596:. Retrieved 2592: 2583: 2573:23 September 2571:. Retrieved 2543: 2537: 2475: 2471: 2464: 2452:. Retrieved 2438: 2426:. Retrieved 2421: 2408: 2399: 2390: 2374:(1): 23–28. 2371: 2367: 2353: 2334: 2330: 2320: 2303: 2281:(1): 51–66. 2278: 2274: 2268: 2226: 2216: 2208:terror birds 2153: 2133: 2109: 2105: 2089: 2086:Azolla event 2079: 2067:foraminifera 2063: 2039: 2024:) and other 2015: 2011: 1988: 1973: 1950:, northeast 1940:Gulf of Aden 1937: 1904: 1888: 1876: 1852: 1836: 1824: 1812: 1804: 1792: 1774: 1771: 1759: 1716: 1702: 1689:mantle plume 1682: 1653: 1634: 1626:Labrador Sea 1619: 1606: 1602:metamorphism 1590: 1563: 1550: 1539: 1507: 1484:volcanic arc 1481: 1458: 1435: 1423: 1415: 1387: 1361:through the 1336: 1292:rifted from 1284:plates, and 1260: 1251:foraminifera 1244: 1222: 1182: 1102: 1066: 1063:Stratigraphy 1049: 1030: 974: 970: 968:also spelled 871: 869: 751: 557: 309: 284: 283: 273: 249: 236: 104: 5681:Hadean Eon 5459:Ordovician 5230:Cretaceous 5130:Quaternary 4703:1874/385773 4478:(1): 6465. 4449:30 December 4323:30 December 4136:: 138–173. 3867:Geosciences 3579:: 267–296. 3521:: 136–151. 3318:1874/380963 3071:Solid Earth 3038:1874/394073 3015:: 308–374. 2957:: 355–378. 2237:Pleistocene 2128:evaporation 1922:conditions. 1610:strike slip 1598:deformation 1427:lithosphere 1367:Carpathians 1249:planktonic 1246:hantkeninid 1083:based on a 796: / 714: / 5748:Categories 5683:(4–4.6 Ga) 5647:(2.5–4 Ga) 5576:(1–1.6 Ga) 5182:Paleogene 5046:Priabonian 4811:: 103090. 4639:: 116044. 4183:: 103544. 3989:: 102903. 3774:: 105104. 3664:: 102902. 3602:2164/12816 3422:: 87–130. 3178:: 87–130. 3131:: 105993. 2922:2164/16706 2899:: 103252. 2795:: 104498. 2641:2024-07-15 2598:2024-07-15 2546:: 103503. 2454:29 January 2428:29 January 2260:References 2196:pterosaurs 2188:Cretaceous 1901:Antarctica 1630:Baffin Bay 1510:Madagascar 1394:subduction 1379:Hellenides 1322:convergent 1294:Antarctica 1233:Massignano 1197:Priabonian 1093:stratotype 1045:Cretaceous 985:Period 66 983:Cretaceous 971:Palaeogene 781:44°39′32″N 742:chronozone 699:36°09′13″N 633:Definition 544:extinction 446:Priabonian 275:Cretaceous 131:Chronology 5754:Paleogene 5710:See also: 5490:Cambrian 5423:Silurian 5392:Devonian 5287:Triassic 5256:Jurassic 5041:Bartonian 5020:Thanetian 5015:Selandian 4911:0006-8101 4835:214219923 4761:0022-1376 4653:0012-821X 4578:135045515 4500:2041-1723 4318:134929774 4269:2296-6463 4205:0012-8252 4158:0012-8252 4108:0094-8276 4058:2169-9313 4011:0012-8252 3961:0012-8252 3897:2076-3263 3848:0278-7407 3820:Tectonics 3798:0191-8141 3696:0012-8252 3611:0040-1951 3543:0040-1951 3496:0012-8252 3444:1342-937X 3374:0027-8424 3327:0040-1951 3295:: 69–94. 3252:0027-8424 3200:1342-937X 3153:1367-9120 3101:1869-9510 3047:1342-937X 2989:0012-8252 2931:0012-8252 2871:1778-7025 2827:0012-8252 2767:0084-6597 2568:233579194 2228:Artemisia 2219:Oligocene 2184:dinosaurs 2182:, extant 2172:cetaceans 2164:dinosaurs 2030:kaolinite 1789:Caribbean 1731:flat-slab 1693:Magmatism 1546:extension 1515:Himalayas 1445:sediments 1431:roll-back 1419:Greenland 1375:Dinarides 1371:Apennines 1318:divergent 1286:Australia 1219:Oligocene 1193:Bartonian 1169:ammonites 1153:Chicxulub 1113:Thanetian 1109:Selandian 1099:Paleocene 1089:formation 1047:Period. 1010:Oligocene 1002:Paleocene 975:Palæogene 784:8°50′11″E 702:8°38′55″E 577:Etymology 542:K-Pg mass 437:Bartonian 410:Thanetian 400:Selandian 40:Paleogene 32:Paleocene 5335:Permian 5156:Neogene 5062:Chattian 5057:Rupelian 5036:Lutetian 5031:Ypresian 4919:10574478 4868:17674795 4777:29784731 4769:11537739 4712:41123449 4518:34753912 4436:55038043 4386:26606656 4345:PLOS ONE 4296:: 1–13. 3392:37552758 3383:10433724 3270:33148806 2508:38120449 2500:21940861 2368:Episodes 2331:Episodes 2247:See also 2243:record. 2200:penguins 2176:primates 2136:Rupelian 2071:primates 1948:Ethiopia 1919:Glaciers 1874:plates. 1708:Americas 1641:Svalbard 1488:obuction 1383:Taurides 1282:Eurasian 1229:Chattian 1225:Rupelian 1189:Lutetian 1185:Ypresian 1129:asteroid 1014:Tertiary 995:Cenozoic 768:Carrosio 744:C6Cn.2n. 616:Global ( 464:Chattian 455:Rupelian 428:Lutetian 419:Ypresian 4891:Bibcode 4813:Bibcode 4741:Bibcode 4682:Bibcode 4673:Geology 4616:. 2018. 4550:Bibcode 4509:8578591 4480:Bibcode 4416:Bibcode 4377:4659543 4354:Bibcode 4298:Bibcode 4237:Bibcode 4235:: 588. 4185:Bibcode 4138:Bibcode 4088:Bibcode 4038:Bibcode 3991:Bibcode 3941:Bibcode 3875:Bibcode 3828:Bibcode 3776:Bibcode 3666:Bibcode 3581:Bibcode 3523:Bibcode 3476:Bibcode 3424:Bibcode 3354:Bibcode 3297:Bibcode 3261:7703637 3230:Bibcode 3180:Bibcode 3133:Bibcode 3079:Bibcode 3017:Bibcode 2959:Bibcode 2901:Bibcode 2797:Bibcode 2747:Bibcode 2548:Bibcode 2480:Bibcode 2472:Science 2283:Bibcode 2233:Conifer 2223:Grasses 2204:ratites 2156:Mammals 2101:diatoms 2001:of the 1986:began. 1970:Climate 1964:Red Sea 1958:as the 1831:Izanagi 1762:erosion 1745:, with 1578:Sumatra 1570:Myanmar 1477:Arabian 1467:to the 1399:Iberian 1381:to the 1270:rifting 1263:Pangaea 1235:, near 1155:on the 1121:Tunisia 1058:Geology 1037:animals 991:Neogene 977:) is a 849:c. 500 846:content 829:content 690:Tunisia 670:Iridium 535:← 514:← 496:← 311:Neogene 228:– 218:– 208:– 198:– 188:– 178:– 168:– 158:– 148:– 5689: 5010:Danian 4917: 4909: 4866: 4856: 4833: 4775: 4767: 4759: 4710: 4651: 4576: 4516: 4506: 4498: 4434: 4384: 4374: 4316: 4267: 4203: 4156: 4106: 4056: 4009: 3959: 3895: 3846: 3796: 3742: 3694: 3632: 3609: 3541: 3494: 3442: 3390: 3380: 3372: 3325: 3268: 3258: 3250: 3198: 3151: 3099: 3045: 2987: 2929: 2869: 2825: 2765: 2707: 2632: 2566: 2506: 2498: 2206:, and 2168:marine 2144:epochs 2091:Azolla 1850:arcs. 1747:faults 1669:Staffa 1535:mantle 1469:Makran 1438:trench 1302:Africa 1237:Ancona 1179:Eocene 1161:Mexico 1145:spinel 1143:-rich 1141:nickel 1117:El Kef 1105:Danian 1081:stages 1073:epochs 1069:series 1008:, and 1006:Eocene 686:El Kef 661:Formal 652:System 642:Period 585:Formal 486: 481: 476: 471: 391:Danian 4915:S2CID 4831:S2CID 4773:S2CID 4708:S2CID 4574:S2CID 4536:(PDF) 4443:(PDF) 4432:S2CID 4404:(PDF) 4314:S2CID 2564:S2CID 2504:S2CID 2448:(PDF) 2418:(PDF) 2364:(PDF) 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