5317:
Easwaran, Kenny; Efferson, Charles; Fehr, Ernst; Fidler, Fiona; Field, Andy P.; Forster, Malcolm; George, Edward I.; Gonzalez, Richard; Goodman, Steven; Green, Edwin; Green, Donald P.; Greenwald, Anthony G.; Hadfield, Jarrod D.; Hedges, Larry V.; Held, Leonhard; Hua Ho, Teck; Hoijtink, Herbert; Hruschka, Daniel J.; Imai, Kosuke; Imbens, Guido; Ioannidis, John P. A.; Jeon, Minjeong; Jones, James
Holland; Kirchler, Michael; Laibson, David; List, John; Little, Roderick; Lupia, Arthur; Machery, Edouard; Maxwell, Scott E.; McCarthy, Michael; Moore, Don A.; Morgan, Stephen L.; Munafó, Marcus; Nakagawa, Shinichi; Nyhan, Brendan; Parker, Timothy H.; Pericchi, Luis; Perugini, Marco; Rouder, Jeff; Rousseau, Judith; Savalei, Victoria; Schönbrodt, Felix D.; Sellke, Thomas; Sinclair, Betsy; Tingley, Dustin; Van Zandt, Trisha; Vazire, Simine; Watts, Duncan J.; Winship, Christopher; Wolpert, Robert L.; Xie, Yu; Young, Cristobal; Zinman, Jonathan; Johnson, Valen E. (1 September 2017).
3212:
Easwaran, Kenny; Efferson, Charles; Fehr, Ernst; Fidler, Fiona; Field, Andy P.; Forster, Malcolm; George, Edward I.; Gonzalez, Richard; Goodman, Steven; Green, Edwin; Green, Donald P.; Greenwald, Anthony G.; Hadfield, Jarrod D.; Hedges, Larry V.; Held, Leonhard; Hua Ho, Teck; Hoijtink, Herbert; Hruschka, Daniel J.; Imai, Kosuke; Imbens, Guido; Ioannidis, John P. A.; Jeon, Minjeong; Jones, James
Holland; Kirchler, Michael; Laibson, David; List, John; Little, Roderick; Lupia, Arthur; Machery, Edouard; Maxwell, Scott E.; McCarthy, Michael; Moore, Don A.; Morgan, Stephen L.; Munafó, Marcus; Nakagawa, Shinichi; Nyhan, Brendan; Parker, Timothy H.; Pericchi, Luis; Perugini, Marco; Rouder, Jeff; Rousseau, Judith; Savalei, Victoria; Schönbrodt, Felix D.; Sellke, Thomas; Sinclair, Betsy; Tingley, Dustin; Van Zandt, Trisha; Vazire, Simine; Watts, Duncan J.; Winship, Christopher; Wolpert, Robert L.; Xie, Yu; Young, Cristobal; Zinman, Jonathan; Johnson, Valen E. (1 September 2017).
2216:
7724:
2196:
375:
hypothesis test does not tell us which non-zero values of the mean are now most plausible. The more independent observations from the same probability distribution one has, the more accurate the test will be, and the higher the precision with which one will be able to determine the mean value and show that it is not equal to zero; but this will also increase the importance of evaluating the real-world or scientific relevance of this deviation.
7710:
2417:) could distinguish by taste how tea is prepared (first adding the milk to the cup, then the tea, or first tea, then milk), she was sequentially presented with 8 cups: 4 prepared one way, 4 prepared the other, and asked to determine the preparation of each cup (knowing that there were 4 of each). In that case, the null hypothesis was that she had no special ability, the test was
7748:
7736:
1423:-values are helpful in assessing how incompatible the data are with a specified statistical model, contextual factors must also be considered, such as "the design of a study, the quality of the measurements, the external evidence for the phenomenon under study, and the validity of assumptions that underlie the data analysis". Another concern is that the
1936:
2226:
2206:
2601:-value can be used, and the strength of evidence can and will be revised with further experimentation. In contrast, decision procedures require a clear-cut decision, yielding an irreversible action, and the procedure is based on costs of error, which, he argues, are inapplicable to scientific research.
5316:
Benjamin, Daniel J.; Berger, James O.; Johannesson, Magnus; Nosek, Brian A.; Wagenmakers, E.-J.; Berk, Richard; Bollen, Kenneth A.; Brembs, Björn; Brown, Lawrence; Camerer, Colin; Cesarini, David; Chambers, Christopher D.; Clyde, Merlise; Cook, Thomas D.; De Boeck, Paul; Dienes, Zoltan; Dreber, Anna;
3211:
Benjamin, Daniel J.; Berger, James O.; Johannesson, Magnus; Nosek, Brian A.; Wagenmakers, E.-J.; Berk, Richard; Bollen, Kenneth A.; Brembs, Björn; Brown, Lawrence; Camerer, Colin; Cesarini, David; Chambers, Christopher D.; Clyde, Merlise; Cook, Thomas D.; De Boeck, Paul; Dienes, Zoltan; Dreber, Anna;
2507:
It is usual and convenient for experimenters to take 5 per cent as a standard level of significance, in the sense that they are prepared to ignore all results which fail to reach this standard, and, by this means, to eliminate from further discussion the greater part of the fluctuations which chance
2246:
studied this question in 1710, and examined birth records in London for each of the 82 years from 1629 to 1710. In every year, the number of males born in London exceeded the number of females. Considering more male or more female births as equally likely, the probability of the observed outcome is
824:
The error that a practising statistician would consider the more important to avoid (which is a subjective judgment) is called the error of the first kind. The first demand of the mathematical theory is to deduce such test criteria as would ensure that the probability of committing an error of the
374:
is not normally distributed. Different tests of the same null hypothesis would be more or less sensitive to different alternatives. However, even if we do manage to reject the null hypothesis for all 3 alternatives, and even if we know that the distribution is normal and variance is 1, the null
2018:
The Pr(no. of heads †14 heads) = 1 â Pr(no. of heads â„ 14 heads) + Pr(no. of head = 14) = 1 â 0.058 + 0.036 = 0.978; however, the symmetry of this binomial distribution makes it an unnecessary computation to find the smaller of the two probabilities. Here, the calculated
1567:
of yet another statistic for hypotheses concerning the variance. For data of other nature, for instance, categorical (discrete) data, test statistics might be constructed whose null hypothesis distribution is based on normal approximations to appropriate statistics obtained by invoking the
1526:
For the important case in which the data are hypothesized to be a random sample from a normal distribution, depending on the nature of the test statistic and the hypotheses of interest about its distribution, different null hypothesis tests have been developed. Some such tests are the
104:-value, or statistical significance, does not measure the size of an effect or the importance of a result" or "evidence regarding a model or hypothesis". That said, a 2019 task force by ASA has issued a statement on statistical significance and replicability, concluding with: "
2251:-value. This is vanishingly small, leading Arbuthnot that this was not due to chance, but to divine providence: "From whence it follows, that it is Art, not Chance, that governs." In modern terms, he rejected the null hypothesis of equally likely male and female births at the
155:
is the default hypothesis under which that property does not exist. The null hypothesis is typically that some parameter (such as a correlation or a difference between means) in the populations of interest is zero. Our hypothesis might specify the probability distribution of
3107:
Benjamini, Yoav; De Veaux, Richard D.; Efron, Bradley; Evans, Scott; Glickman, Mark; Graubard, Barry I.; He, Xuming; Meng, Xiao-Li; Reid, Nancy M.; Stigler, Stephen M.; Vardeman, Stephen B.; Wikle, Christopher K.; Wright, Tommy; Young, Linda J.; Kafadar, Karen (2021-10-02).
1700:
1595:(CDF) is often a difficult problem. Today, this computation is done using statistical software, often via numeric methods (rather than exact formulae), but, in the early and mid 20th century, this was instead done via tables of values, and one interpolated or extrapolated
2040:
The difference between the two meanings of "extreme" appear when we consider a sequential hypothesis testing, or optional stopping, for the fairness of the coin. In general, optional stopping changes how p-value is calculated. Suppose we design the experiment as follows:
1681:
of heads. The null hypothesis is that the coin is fair, and coin tosses are independent of one another. If a right-tailed test is considered, which would be the case if one is actually interested in the possibility that the coin is biased towards falling heads, then the
1174:-value less than or equal to any number between 0 and 1 is still less than or equal to that number. In other words, it remains the case that very small values are relatively unlikely if the null-hypothesis is true, and that a significance test at level
2255: = 1/2 significance level. This and other work by Arbuthnot is credited as "⊠the first use of significance tests âŠ" the first example of reasoning about statistical significance, and "⊠perhaps the first published report of a
2629:
number of times that one expects to obtain a test statistic at least as extreme as the one that was actually observed if one assumes that the null hypothesis is true. This expect-value is the product of the number of tests and the
716:
2495:
so Fisher was willing to reject the null hypothesis (consider the outcome highly unlikely to be due to chance) if all were classified correctly. (In the actual experiment, Bristol correctly classified all 8 cups.)
4929:
Pearson, Karl (1914). "On the probability that two independent distributions of frequency are really samples of the same population, with special reference to recent work on the identity of
Trypanosome strains".
2817:
The statistical significance of a result does not imply that the result also has real-world relevance. For instance, a medication might have a statistically significant effect that is too small to be interesting.
1169:
the parameter's value is given by a set of numbers. When the null-hypothesis is composite (or the distribution of the statistic is discrete), then when the null-hypothesis is true the probability of obtaining a
1279:-value is defined by taking the least favorable null-hypothesis case, which is typically on the border between null and alternative. This definition ensures the complementarity of p-values and alpha-levels:
2597:-value for statistical inference in science with the NeymanâPearson method, which he terms "Acceptance Procedures". Fisher emphasizes that while fixed levels such as 5%, 2%, and 1% are convenient, the exact
1931:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&\Pr(14{\text{ heads}})+\Pr(15{\text{ heads}})+\cdots +\Pr(20{\text{ heads}})\\&={\frac {1}{2^{20}}}\left={\frac {60\,460}{1\,048\,576}}\approx 0.058.\end{aligned}}}
4426:"On the criterion that a given system of deviations from the probable in the case of a correlated system of variables is such that it can be reasonably supposed to have arisen from random sampling"
1454:-values the prior probability of a real effect that would be required to obtain a false positive risk (i.e. the probability that there is no real effect) below a pre-specified threshold (e.g. 5%).
2493:
2377:-values, specifically 0.99, 0.98, 0.95, 0,90, 0.80, 0.70, 0.50, 0.30, 0.20, 0.10, 0.05, 0.02, and 0.01. That allowed computed values of Ï to be compared against cutoffs and encouraged the use of
144:. If we state one hypothesis only and the aim of the statistical test is to see whether this hypothesis is tenable, but not to investigate other specific hypotheses, then such a test is called a
2830:= 0.05 corresponds to about 1.96 standard deviations for a normal distribution (two-tailed test), and 2 standard deviations corresponds to about a 1 in 22 chance of being exceeded by chance, or
1705:
4895:. There is growing determination to reform statistical analysis... Some suggest changing statistical methods, whereas others would do away with a threshold for defining "significant" results.
3752:
2023:-value exceeds 0.05, meaning that the data falls within the range of what would happen 95% of the time, if the coin were fair. Hence, the null hypothesis is not rejected at the 0.05 level.
4222:
2089:
813:
2584:
1054:
614:
558:
2354:, and applied this to a normal distribution (as a two-tailed test), thus yielding the rule of two standard deviations (on a normal distribution) for statistical significance (see
308:
1258:
1221:
For example, when testing the null hypothesis that a distribution is normal with a mean less than or equal to zero against the alternative that the mean is greater than zero (
1461:-values, and their connection to replicability. It states that "Different measures of uncertainty can complement one another; no single measure serves all purposes", citing
2286:
In the 1770s
Laplace considered the statistics of almost half a million births. The statistics showed an excess of boys compared to girls. He concluded by calculation of a
1303:
392:-value is the probability under the null hypothesis of obtaining a real-valued test statistic at least as extreme as the one obtained. Consider an observed test-statistic
1523:. As such, the test statistic follows a distribution determined by the function used to define that test statistic and the distribution of the input observational data.
2512:
He also applies this threshold to the design of experiments, noting that had only 6 cups been presented (3 of each), a perfect classification would have only yielded a
1591:), and data. Even though computing the test statistic on given data may be easy, computing the sampling distribution under the null hypothesis, and then computing its
1216:
1192:
1074:
930:
910:
885:
825:
first kind would equal (or approximately equal, or not exceed) a preassigned number α, such as α = 0.05 or 0.01, etc. This number is called the level of significance.
2121:
1109:
860:
501:
2880:
2164:
1351:
1327:
6845:
5012:
7350:
1679:
1659:
1499:
1260:, variance known), the null hypothesis does not specify the exact probability distribution of the appropriate test statistic. In this example that would be the
1005:
981:
736:
474:
454:
430:
410:
372:
352:
328:
263:
225:
194:
174:
138:
60:
940:". In 2018, a group of statisticians led by Daniel Benjamin proposed the adoption of the 0.005 value as standard value for statistical significance worldwide.
100:-values do not measure the probability that the studied hypothesis is true, or the probability that the data were produced by random chance alone" and that "a
7500:
7124:
5051:
3912:
3153:
5765:
2052:
This experiment has 7 types of outcomes: 2 heads, 2 tails, 5 heads 1 tail, ..., 1 head 5 tails. We now calculate the
1457:
That said, in 2019 a task force by ASA had convened to consider the use of statistical methods in scientific studies, specifically hypothesis tests and
1469:-values can provide valuable information when considering the specific value as well as when compared to some threshold. In general, it stresses that "
1446:, but there is heated debate on the feasibility of these alternatives. Others have suggested to remove fixed significance thresholds and to interpret
176:
precisely, or it might only specify that it belongs to some class of distributions. Often, we reduce the data to a single numerical statistic, e.g.,
6898:
4955:
2342:
937:
7337:
2683:
that is of the median's sign, typically varying between 50% and 100%, and representing the certainty with which an effect is positive or negative.
7774:
1415:-values are often misused and misinterpreted. One practice that has been particularly criticized is accepting the alternative hypothesis for any
932:
is commonly set to 0.05, though lower alpha levels are sometimes used. The 0.05 value (equivalent to 1/20 chances) was originally proposed by R.
2014:= 2 à min(Pr(no. of heads ℠14 heads), Pr(no. of heads †14 heads)) = 2 à min(0.058, 0.978) = 2 à 0.058 = 0.115.
621:
5036:
4987:
4965:
4358:
4296:
4271:
4197:
3190:
3152:(1976). "The Emergence of Mathematical Statistics: A Historical Sketch with Particular Reference to the United States". In Owen, D.B. (ed.).
948:
4838:
An
Introduction to Second-Generation p-Values Jeffrey D. Blume, Robert A. Greevy, Valerie F. Welty, Jeffrey R. Smith &William D. Dupont
1393:-value does not, in itself, establish probabilities of hypotheses. Rather, it is a tool for deciding whether to reject the null hypothesis.
5760:
5460:
4402:
4325:
1130:-value is interpreted by a significance test, and no effort is made to estimate the distribution it was drawn from. When a collection of
6364:
5512:
7752:
4678:
2242:
at birth, and used to compute statistical significance compared to the null hypothesis of equal probability of male and female births.
5256:
2134:
If we consider every outcome that has equal or lower probability than "3 heads 3 tails" as "at least as extreme", then the
7147:
7039:
5104:
3735:
1369:, specifically in null hypothesis significance testing. In this method, before conducting the study, one first chooses a model (the
1081:
7325:
7199:
2801:
1592:
1408:
2030:-value (two-tailed) would have been 0.0414 (4.14%), in which case the null hypothesis would be rejected at the 0.05 level.
1450:-values as continuous indices of the strength of evidence against the null hypothesis. Yet others suggested to report alongside
7383:
7044:
6789:
6160:
5750:
1620:
1473:-values and significance tests, when properly applied and interpreted, increase the rigor of the conclusions drawn from data".
108:-values and significance tests, when properly applied and interpreted, increase the rigor of the conclusions drawn from data".
6374:
7434:
6646:
6453:
6342:
6300:
1366:
145:
38:
5539:
2168:
However, suppose we have planned to simply flip the coin 6 times no matter what happens, then the second definition of
1661:
would be a sequence of twenty times the symbol "H" or "T". The statistic on which one might focus could be the total number
7677:
6636:
2428:
2303:
1573:
6686:
7228:
7177:
7162:
7152:
7021:
6893:
6860:
6641:
6471:
2888:
2749:
2653:
7297:
6598:
4856:
Denworth L (October 2019). "A Significant
Problem: Standard scientific methods are under fire. Will anything change?".
1115:-value is not fixed; if the same test is repeated independently with fresh data, one will typically obtain a different
7572:
7373:
6352:
6021:
5485:
1553:
of a suitable statistic for hypotheses concerning the mean of a normal distribution when the variance is unknown, the
7457:
7424:
2744:
1949:. However, one might be interested in deviations in either direction, favoring either heads or tails. The two-tailed
1546:
231:-value is, the lower the probability of getting that result if the null hypothesis were true. A result is said to be
2340:-value in statistics, with it playing a central role in his approach to the subject. In his highly influential book
7429:
7172:
6931:
6837:
6817:
6725:
6436:
6254:
5737:
5609:
5424:
5413:
2062:
1641:
Suppose that the experimental results show the coin turning up heads 14 times out of 20 total flips. The full data
1583:-value requires a null hypothesis, a test statistic (together with deciding whether the researcher is performing a
741:
6603:
6369:
6227:
2519:
7189:
6957:
6678:
6532:
6461:
6381:
6239:
6220:
5928:
5649:
5092:
2398:
1946:
65:
7302:
2686:
1146:-curve can be used to assess the reliability of scientific literature, such as by detecting publication bias or
1010:
7672:
7439:
6987:
6952:
6916:
6701:
6143:
6052:
6011:
5923:
5614:
5453:
4876:
2664:
2355:
2351:
2315:
2307:
889:
204:
117:
6709:
6693:
565:
509:
3753:"Replacing p-values with Bayes-Factors: A Miracle Cure for the Replicability Crisis in Psychological Science"
2855:
7581:
7194:
7134:
7071:
6431:
6293:
6283:
6133:
6047:
4215:"An argument for Divine Providence, taken from the constant regularity observed in the births of both sexes"
2626:
2590:
as the long-run proportion of values at least as extreme as the data, assuming the null hypothesis is true.
1638:(equal chance of landing heads or tails) or unfairly biased (one outcome being more likely than the other).
1603:-values, Fisher instead inverted the CDF, publishing a list of values of the test statistic for given fixed
1389:
for the null hypothesis to be rejected. However, that does not prove that the null hypothesis is false. The
196:, whose marginal probability distribution is closely connected to a main question of interest in the study.
7342:
7279:
1076:
is the only parameter), and if that distribution is continuous, then when the null-hypothesis is true, the
7619:
7549:
7034:
6921:
5918:
5815:
5722:
5601:
5500:
4901:
2958:
2418:
1134:-values are available (e.g. when considering a group of studies on the same subject), the distribution of
271:
7740:
6618:
242:
Loosely speaking, rejection of the null hypothesis implies that there is sufficient evidence against it.
7644:
7586:
7529:
7355:
7248:
7157:
6883:
6767:
6626:
6508:
6500:
6315:
6211:
6189:
6148:
6113:
6080:
6026:
6001:
5956:
5895:
5855:
5657:
5480:
2735:
2707:
2680:
2279:
1954:
1569:
77:
7723:
6613:
1165:
refers to a hypothesis where the parameter's value is assumed to be a single number. In contrast, in a
5404:-values can give quite misleading impressions about the truth or falsity of the hypothesis under test.
4088:
2361:
He then computed a table of values, similar to
Elderton but, importantly, reversed the roles of Ï and
1224:
7567:
7142:
7091:
7067:
7029:
6947:
6926:
6878:
6757:
6735:
6704:
6490:
6441:
6359:
6332:
6288:
6244:
6006:
5782:
5662:
4839:
4742:
3874:
3535:
3476:
2649:
2638:
2614:
2613:
can refer to two concepts, both of which are related to the p-value and both of which play a role in
2271:
2209:
1953:-value, which considers deviations favoring either heads or tails, may instead be calculated. As the
1691:
1506:
1439:
1435:
2205:
456:
is what the prior probability would be of observing a test-statistic value at least as "extreme" as
7714:
7639:
7562:
7243:
7007:
7000:
6962:
6870:
6850:
6822:
6555:
6421:
6416:
6406:
6398:
6216:
6177:
6067:
6057:
5966:
5745:
5701:
5619:
5544:
5446:
4858:
3908:
2876:
2726:
2702:
2672:
2657:
2256:
2215:
1535:
266:
85:
7289:
2586:
which would not have met this level of significance. Fisher also underlined the interpretation of
1282:
7728:
7539:
7393:
7238:
7114:
7011:
6995:
6972:
6749:
6483:
6466:
6426:
6337:
6232:
6194:
6165:
6125:
6085:
6031:
5948:
5634:
5629:
5364:
5338:
5131:
5084:
5047:
5020:
5006:
4567:
4516:
4241:
4016:
3794:
3525:
3434:
3395:
3360:
3259:
3233:
3086:
3037:
2975:
1402:
89:
2717:
151:
As our statistical hypothesis will, by definition, state some property of the distribution, the
7634:
7604:
7596:
7416:
7407:
7332:
7263:
7119:
7104:
7079:
6967:
6908:
6774:
6762:
6388:
6305:
6249:
6172:
6016:
5938:
5717:
5591:
5356:
5252:
5229:
5032:
4983:
4961:
4821:
4770:
4497:
4479:
4398:
4394:
4354:
4321:
4317:
4292:
4267:
4193:
4189:
4155:
4116:
4108:
4069:
4008:
3970:
3890:
3843:
3731:
3700:
3651:
3610:
3561:
3494:
3442:
3352:
3313:
3251:
3186:
3131:
3078:
3029:
1608:
3727:
3378:
Bhattacharya B, Habtzghi D (2002). "Median of the p value under the alternative hypothesis".
1201:
1177:
1059:
915:
912:
is not derived from the data, but rather is set by the researcher before examining the data.
895:
870:
7659:
7614:
7378:
7365:
7258:
7233:
7167:
7099:
6977:
6585:
6478:
6411:
6324:
6271:
6090:
5961:
5755:
5554:
5521:
5429:
5346:
5330:
5302:
5219:
5211:
5173:
5123:
5074:
5066:
4939:
4917:
4811:
4801:
4760:
4750:
4709:
4559:
4528:
4487:
4471:
4440:
4231:
4181:
4147:
4100:
4059:
4051:
4000:
3988:
3960:
3950:
3930:
3882:
3833:
3825:
3786:
3723:
3690:
3682:
3641:
3600:
3592:
3551:
3543:
3484:
3426:
3387:
3344:
3303:
3293:
3241:
3225:
3178:
3121:
3068:
3019:
3009:
2967:
2932:
2403:
4214:
2098:
1087:
838:
479:
7576:
7320:
7182:
7109:
6784:
6658:
6631:
6608:
6577:
6204:
6199:
6153:
5883:
5534:
5282:
5248:
5157:
5052:"Why We Don't Really Know What Statistical Significance Means: Implications for Educators"
4888:
4626:
4425:
2762:
2689:
extend the concept of p-values by not considering extremely small, practically irrelevant
2239:
2141:
1588:
1584:
1386:
1370:
1336:
1312:
984:
152:
69:
5139:
4622:
4587:
3335:-Curve and Effect Size: Correcting for Publication Bias Using Only Significant Results".
2381:-values (especially 0.05, 0.02, and 0.01) as cutoffs, instead of computing and reporting
1427:-value is often misunderstood as being the probability that the null hypothesis is true.
5291:"The ASA President's Task Force Statement on Statistical Significance and Replicability"
4746:
4649:
4647:
3991:, Greenland S (January 2018). "Remove, rather than redefine, statistical significance".
3878:
3539:
3480:
7525:
7520:
5983:
5913:
5559:
5383:
5266:
5224:
5199:
4816:
4789:
4492:
4459:
4104:
4064:
4035:
3965:
3934:
3838:
3813:
3695:
3670:
3605:
3580:
3556:
3513:
3308:
3281:
3024:
2997:
2996:, Nosek BA, Bishop DV, Button KS, Chambers CD, du Sert NP, et al. (January 2017).
2993:
2414:
2243:
2199:
2195:
1664:
1644:
1630:
As an example of a statistical test, an experiment is performed to determine whether a
1561:
1502:
1484:
1261:
990:
966:
721:
459:
439:
415:
395:
357:
337:
313:
248:
210:
179:
159:
123:
45:
4765:
4730:
3913:"Statisticians Found One Thing They Can Agree On: It's Time To Stop Misusing P-Values"
1275:-test statistic has a different probability distribution. In these circumstances the
245:
As a particular example, if a null hypothesis states that a certain summary statistic
7768:
7682:
7649:
7512:
7473:
7284:
7253:
6717:
6671:
6276:
5978:
5805:
5569:
5564:
5368:
5286:
5270:
5135:
5025:
4975:
4951:
4641:, II. The Principles of Experimentation, Illustrated by a Psycho-physical Experiment.
4346:
4245:
4182:
4177:
4173:
3263:
3090:
2979:
2333:
2229:
1631:
1509:
function of all the observations. This statistic provides a single number, such as a
1443:
1385:, that is taken to mean that the observed data is sufficiently inconsistent with the
933:
235:
if it allows us to reject the null hypothesis. All other things being equal, smaller
5835:
5088:
4571:
4517:"P values and multivariate distributions: Non-orthogonal terms in regression models"
4020:
3514:"An investigation of the false discovery rate and the misinterpretation of p-values"
3399:
3364:
3110:"ASA President's Task Force Statement on Statistical Significance and Replicability"
96:. In 2016, the American Statistical Association (ASA) made a formal statement that "
7624:
7557:
7534:
7449:
6779:
6075:
5973:
5908:
5850:
5772:
5727:
5393:
5274:
4532:
4421:
3460:
3149:
3041:
2625:
of experiments. Second, it is also used to abbreviate "expect value", which is the
2299:
2219:
5200:"P value and the theory of hypothesis testing: an explanation for new researchers"
4460:"P Value and the Theory of Hypothesis Testing: An Explanation for New Researchers"
3829:
3126:
3109:
3073:
3056:
2956:
Values Are Not a Useful
Measure of Evidence in Statistical Significance Testing".
2937:
2920:
2225:
203:-value is used in the context of null hypothesis testing in order to quantify the
3777:
Marden JI (December 2000). "Hypothesis
Testing: From p Values to Bayes Factors".
3298:
7667:
7629:
7312:
7213:
7075:
6888:
6855:
6347:
6264:
6259:
5903:
5860:
5840:
5820:
5810:
5579:
5109:
Values Are Not a Useful
Measure of Evidence in Statistical Significance Testing"
4342:
3182:
2712:
2690:
1510:
93:
5285:; Vardeman, Stephen B.; Wikle, Christopher K.; Wright, Tommy; Young, Linda J.;
4735:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3646:
3629:
3596:
2396:-values to the design and interpretation of experiments, in his following book
6513:
5993:
5693:
5624:
5574:
5549:
5469:
5418:
5407:
5334:
5278:
5215:
5178:
5161:
4880:
4698:"The positive false discovery rate: a Bayesian interpretation and the q-value"
4475:
4444:
4135:
4004:
3814:"A Test by Any Other Name: P Values, Bayes Factors, and Statistical Inference"
3686:
3630:"Why the P-value culture is bad and confidence intervals a better alternative"
3229:
3170:
947:-values based on independent sets of data can be combined, for instance using
5342:
5127:
5070:
4943:
4921:
4806:
4714:
4697:
4483:
4159:
4112:
3348:
3237:
3135:
3082:
2971:
2784:
Italicisation, capitalisation and hyphenation of the term vary. For example,
2238:-value computations date back to the 1700s, where they were computed for the
6666:
6518:
6138:
5933:
5845:
5830:
5825:
5790:
5318:
4884:
4755:
3939:> 0.05): significance thresholds and the crisis of unreplicable research"
3213:
3014:
2793:
2785:
2264:
2260:
1945:-value, considering only extreme results that favor heads. This is called a
1635:
1419:-value nominally less than 0.05 without other supporting evidence. Although
1147:
5360:
5233:
5027:
The history of statistics : the measurement of uncertainty before 1900
4825:
4774:
4623:
IV. Tests of Goodness of Fit, Independence and Homogeneity; with Table of Ï
4501:
4236:
4120:
4073:
4012:
3974:
3894:
3847:
3704:
3655:
3614:
3565:
3498:
3356:
3317:
3255:
3033:
2247:
1/2, or about 1 in 4,836,000,000,000,000,000,000,000; in modern terms, the
310:
then the rejection of this null hypothesis could mean that (i) the mean of
4606:
4563:
3446:
6182:
5800:
5677:
5672:
5667:
5639:
5188:
3391:
3177:, Springer Series in Statistics, New York, NY: Springer, pp. 66â70,
2618:
2045:
Flip the coin twice. If both comes up heads or tails, end the experiment.
331:
207:
of a result, the result being the observed value of the chosen statistic
31:
5351:
5307:
5290:
4790:"Indices of Effect Existence and Significance in the Bayesian Framework"
4055:
3547:
3246:
2350:= 0.05, or a 1 in 20 chance of being exceeded by chance, as a limit for
711:{\displaystyle p=2\min\{\Pr(T\geq t\mid H_{0}),\Pr(T\leq t\mid H_{0})\}}
80:
would be very unlikely under the null hypothesis. Even though reporting
64:
is the probability of obtaining test results at least as extreme as the
7687:
7388:
5400:, including a Java applet that illustrates how the numerical values of
4892:
4869:
4151:
3955:
3798:
3438:
17:
3886:
3671:"Sifting the evidence. Likelihood ratios are alternatives to P values"
7609:
6590:
6564:
6544:
5795:
5586:
4391:
The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty Before 1900
4374:
Hald A (1998). "Chapter 4. Chance or Design: Tests of Significance".
4314:
The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty Before 1900
3718:
Royall R (2004). "The Likelihood Paradigm for Statistical Evidence".
3415:"The behavior of the P-value when the alternative hypothesis is true"
3158:. Textbooks and Monographs. New York: Marcel Dekker Inc. p. 161.
1554:
1539:
1528:
1517:
5079:
4999:
Statistical tables for biological, agricultural and medical research
4905:
4546:
Hubbard R, Bayarri MJ (2003), "Confusion Over Measures of Evidence (
3790:
3489:
3464:
3430:
3414:
1686:-value of this result is the chance of a fair coin landing on heads
718:
for a two-sided test-statistic distribution. If the distribution of
239:-values are taken as stronger evidence against the null hypothesis.
5434:-values can be manipulated and an interactive tool to visualize it.
4788:
Makowski D, Ben-Shachar MS, Chen SH, LĂŒdecke D (10 December 2019).
3862:
2619:
it corresponds to a generic, more robust alternative to the p-value
2385:-values themselves. The same type of tables were then compiled in (
1434:-values and focusing more on other inferential statistics, such as
120:
of a collection of random variables representing the observed data
4840:
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00031305.2018.1537893
3530:
2754:
867:
5242:
4906:"Tables for Testing the Goodness of Fit of Theory to Observation"
3280:
Head ML, Holman L, Lanfear R, Kahn AT, Jennions MD (March 2015).
2318:(for various values of Ï and degrees of freedom), now notated as
2183:-value is deeply contextual and depends on what the experimenter
1599:-values from these discrete values. Rather than using a table of
5529:
5273:; Evans, Scott; Glickman, Mark; Graubard, Barry I.; He, Xuming;
4458:
Biau, David Jean; Jolles, Brigitte M.; Porcher, Raphaël (2010).
2921:"The ASA's Statement on p-Values: Context, Process, and Purpose"
1690:
14 times out of 20 flips. That probability can be computed from
7498:
7065:
6812:
6111:
5881:
5498:
5442:
5390:
for various specific tests (chi-square, Fisher's F-test, etc.).
3169:
Fisher, R. A. (1992), Kotz, Samuel; Johnson, Norman L. (eds.),
3057:"The ASA Statement on p -Values: Context, Process, and Purpose"
2593:
In later editions, Fisher explicitly contrasted the use of the
987:. If the null hypothesis fixes the probability distribution of
5031:. Cambridge, Mass: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
4668:, Section 12.1 Scientific Inference and Acceptance Procedures.
4598:
4596:
4036:"The reproducibility of research and the misinterpretation of
3581:"Alternatives to P value: confidence interval and effect size"
5438:
866:-value is less than or equal to a predefined threshold value
4136:"A practical solution to the pervasive problems of p values"
2091:, then under the null hypothesis is exactly 1 for two-sided
1271:-test. For each possible value of the theoretical mean, the
277:
92:
is widespread and has been a major topic in mathematics and
4550:âČs) Versus Errors (αâČs) in Classical Statistical Testing",
2290:-value that the excess was a real, but unexplained, effect.
4223:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
3175:
Breakthroughs in Statistics: Methodology and Distribution
1989:
Alpha level (designated threshold of significance): 0.05.
1961:-value is simply twice the above calculated single-sided
4180:(2007). "Physico-Theology and Mathematics (1710â1794)".
2026:
However, had one more head been obtained, the resulting
830:
Jerzy Neyman, "The Emergence of Mathematical Statistics"
3055:
Wasserstein, Ronald L.; Lazar, Nicole A. (2016-04-02).
2508:
causes have introduced into their experimental results.
2503:= 0.05 threshold and explained its rationale, stating:
1465:-value as one of these measures. They also stress that
1377:(most commonly 0.05). After analyzing the data, if the
560:
for a one-sided right-tail test-statistic distribution.
116:
In statistics, every conjecture concerning the unknown
4376:
A History of Mathematical Statistics from 1750 to 1930
2808:-value". In all cases, the "p" stands for probability.
616:
for a one-sided left-tail test-statistic distribution.
3331:
Simonsohn U, Nelson LD, Simmons JP (November 2014). "
3282:"The extent and consequences of p-hacking in science"
2522:
2431:
2144:
2101:
2065:
1703:
1667:
1647:
1487:
1339:
1315:
1285:
1227:
1204:
1180:
1090:
1062:
1013:
993:
969:
918:
898:
873:
841:
744:
724:
624:
568:
512:
482:
462:
442:
418:
398:
360:
340:
316:
274:
251:
213:
182:
162:
126:
48:
7351:
Autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity (ARCH)
3413:
Hung HM, O'Neill RT, Bauer P, Köhne K (March 1997).
2488:{\displaystyle 1/{\binom {8}{4}}=1/70\approx 0.014,}
2176:-value of "3 heads 3 tails" is exactly 1.
1194:
is obtained by rejecting the null-hypothesis if the
1126:-value relating to a hypothesis is observed, so the
7658:
7595:
7548:
7511:
7466:
7448:
7415:
7406:
7364:
7311:
7272:
7221:
7212:
7133:
7090:
7020:
6986:
6940:
6907:
6869:
6836:
6748:
6657:
6576:
6531:
6499:
6452:
6397:
6323:
6314:
6124:
6066:
6040:
5992:
5947:
5894:
5781:
5736:
5710:
5692:
5648:
5600:
5520:
5511:
2656:to maintain statistical power while minimizing the
2406:experiment, which is the archetypal example of the
2056:-value of the "3 heads 3 tails" outcome.
88:of many quantitative fields, misinterpretation and
84:-values of statistical tests is common practice in
5420:StatQuest: P-value pitfalls and power calculations
5244:Statistics Done Wrong: The Woefully Complete Guide
5024:
4188:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp.
2578:
2487:
2369:for different values of Ï (and degrees of freedom
2158:
2115:
2083:
1930:
1673:
1653:
1493:
1345:
1321:
1305:means one only rejects the null hypothesis if the
1297:
1252:
1210:
1186:
1103:
1068:
1048:
999:
975:
963:-value is a function of the chosen test statistic
924:
904:
879:
854:
807:
730:
710:
608:
552:
495:
468:
448:
424:
404:
366:
346:
322:
302:
257:
219:
188:
168:
132:
54:
4731:"Statistical significance for genomewide studies"
4262:Conover WJ (1999). "Chapter 3.4: The Sign Test".
2881:"Not Even Scientists Can Easily Explain P-values"
2547:
2534:
2456:
2443:
1878:
1865:
1847:
1834:
1822:
1809:
2679:-value. It corresponds to the proportion of the
2373:), he computed values of Ï that yield specified
2278:test, modeling the number of male births with a
1757:
1731:
1711:
1084:between 0 and 1. Regardless of the truth of the
751:
674:
640:
634:
575:
519:
6899:Multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS)
4521:Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems
3779:Journal of the American Statistical Association
2505:
2284:
822:
4416:
4414:
4257:
4255:
4089:"A Dirty Dozen: Twelve P-Value Misconceptions"
2179:Thus, the "at least as extreme" definition of
1957:is symmetrical for a fair coin, the two-sided
5454:
2187:to do even in situations that did not occur.
2084:{\displaystyle {\text{heads}}/{\text{tails}}}
1329:, and the hypothesis test will indeed have a
1161:In parametric hypothesis testing problems, a
888:, which is referred to as the alpha level or
808:{\displaystyle p=\Pr(|T|\geq |t|\mid H_{0}).}
8:
5198:Biau DJ, Jolles BM, Porcher R (March 2010).
3155:On the History of Statistics and Probability
2579:{\displaystyle 1/{\binom {6}{3}}=1/20=0.05,}
1430:Some statisticians have proposed abandoning
835:In a significance test, the null hypothesis
705:
637:
5190:The Little Handbook of Statistical Practice
4266:(Third ed.). Wiley. pp. 157â176.
4095:. Interpretation of Quantitative Research.
3275:
3273:
2834:â 0.045; Fisher notes these approximations.
2386:
2330:, pp. xxxiâxxxiii, 26â28, Table XII).
1607:-values; this corresponds to computing the
76:-value means that such an extreme observed
7508:
7495:
7412:
7218:
7087:
7062:
6833:
6809:
6537:
6320:
6121:
6108:
5891:
5878:
5517:
5508:
5495:
5461:
5447:
5439:
5204:Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research
5011:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
4960:. Edinburgh, Scotland: Oliver & Boyd.
4883:results has contributed to an illusion of
4464:Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research
3171:"Statistical Methods for Research Workers"
2336:formalized and popularized the use of the
2127:-value, and same for one-sided right-tail
1983:): The coin is fair, with Pr(heads) = 0.5.
1049:{\displaystyle H_{0}:\theta =\theta _{0},}
5350:
5306:
5223:
5177:
5078:
4815:
4805:
4764:
4754:
4713:
4491:
4341:Bellhouse P (2001). "John Arbuthnot". In
4289:Applied Nonparametric Statistical Methods
4235:
4063:
3964:
3954:
3837:
3694:
3645:
3604:
3555:
3529:
3488:
3307:
3297:
3245:
3125:
3102:
3100:
3072:
3023:
3013:
2936:
2919:Wasserstein RL, Lazar NA (7 March 2016).
2559:
2546:
2533:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2468:
2455:
2442:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2392:As an illustration of the application of
2270:The same question was later addressed by
2148:
2143:
2105:
2100:
2076:
2071:
2066:
2064:
1911:
1907:
1898:
1892:
1877:
1864:
1862:
1846:
1833:
1831:
1821:
1808:
1806:
1793:
1784:
1766:
1740:
1720:
1704:
1702:
1666:
1646:
1486:
1338:
1314:
1284:
1232:
1226:
1203:
1179:
1095:
1089:
1061:
1037:
1018:
1012:
992:
968:
917:
897:
872:
846:
840:
793:
781:
773:
765:
757:
743:
723:
696:
662:
623:
597:
567:
541:
511:
487:
481:
461:
441:
417:
397:
359:
339:
315:
276:
275:
273:
250:
212:
181:
161:
125:
47:
4957:Statistical Methods for Research Workers
2343:Statistical Methods for Research Workers
2323:
2298:-value was first formally introduced by
2224:
2214:
2204:
2194:
1534:for hypotheses concerning the mean of a
938:Statistical Methods for Research Workers
609:{\displaystyle p=\Pr(T\leq t\mid H_{0})}
553:{\displaystyle p=\Pr(T\geq t\mid H_{0})}
4729:Storey JD, Tibshirani R (August 2003).
4291:(Second ed.). Chapman & Hall.
4184:The Descent of Human Sex Ratio at Birth
3465:"Scientific method: statistical errors"
2847:
2777:
2327:
27:Function of the observed sample results
7425:KaplanâMeier estimator (product limit)
5430:Science Isnât Broken - Article on how
5409:StatQuest: P Values, clearly explained
5004:
4665:
4656:, Section 7. The Test of Significance.
4653:
4638:
4618:
4602:
4583:
4134:Wagenmakers, Eric-Jan (October 2007).
3933:, Korner-Nievergelt F, Roth T (2017).
3728:10.7208/chicago/9780226789583.003.0005
2998:"A manifesto for reproducible science"
1505:. A test statistic is the output of a
1267:belonging to the one-sided one-sample
4316:. Harvard University Press. pp.
3337:Perspectives on Psychological Science
2914:
2912:
2910:
2908:
2906:
2413:To evaluate a lady's claim that she (
1572:for large samples, as in the case of
1411:, there is widespread agreement that
1157:Distribution for composite hypothesis
936:in 1925 in his famous book entitled "
7:
7735:
7435:Accelerated failure time (AFT) model
4393:. Harvard University Press. p.
303:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {N}}(0,1),}
39:null-hypothesis significance testing
7747:
7030:Analysis of variance (ANOVA, anova)
5319:"Redefine statistical significance"
4875:for nearly a century to determine
3214:"Redefine statistical significance"
2952:Hubbard R, Lindsay RM (2008). "Why
2865:. American Statistical Association.
7125:CochranâMantelâHaenszel statistics
5751:Pearson product-moment correlation
4264:Practical Nonparametric Statistics
4105:10.1053/j.seminhematol.2008.04.003
2538:
2447:
2346:(1925), Fisher proposed the level
1869:
1838:
1813:
949:Fisher's combined probability test
25:
4140:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
3720:The Nature of Scientific Evidence
2048:Else, flip the coin 4 more times.
7746:
7734:
7722:
7709:
7708:
3818:Multivariate Behavioral Research
3585:Korean Journal of Anesthesiology
3120:(4). Informa UK Limited: 10â11.
2802:American Statistical Association
2389:), which cemented the approach.
1986:Test statistic: Number of heads.
1593:cumulative distribution function
1309:-value is less than or equal to
1253:{\displaystyle H_{0}:\mu \leq 0}
1198:-value is less than or equal to
68:, under the assumption that the
7384:Least-squares spectral analysis
2365:That is, rather than computing
1621:Checking whether a coin is fair
7775:Statistical hypothesis testing
6365:Mean-unbiased minimum-variance
5103:Hubbard R, Lindsay RM (2008).
5059:Journal of Marketing Education
4621:, pp. 78â79, 98, Chapter
4533:10.1016/j.chemolab.2021.104264
4351:Statisticians of the Centuries
4087:Goodman, Steven (2008-07-01).
2310:and notated as capital P. The
1771:
1760:
1745:
1734:
1725:
1714:
1626:Testing the fairness of a coin
1367:statistical hypothesis testing
1138:-values is sometimes called a
799:
782:
774:
766:
758:
754:
738:is symmetric about zero, then
702:
677:
668:
643:
603:
578:
547:
522:
294:
282:
1:
7678:Geographic information system
6894:Simultaneous equations models
4683:National Institutes of Health
4515:Brereton, Richard G. (2021).
4034:Colquhoun D (December 2017).
3830:10.1080/00273171.2015.1099032
3812:Stern HS (16 February 2016).
3751:Schimmack U (30 April 2015).
3512:Colquhoun D (November 2014).
3127:10.1080/09332480.2021.2003631
3074:10.1080/00031305.2016.1154108
2938:10.1080/00031305.2016.1154108
2718:Fisher's method of combining
2650:positive false discovery rate
2402:(1935), Fisher presented the
2059:If we use the test statistic
379:Definition and interpretation
6861:Coefficient of determination
6472:Uniformly most powerful test
5295:Annals of Applied Statistics
4353:. Springer. pp. 39â42.
3634:Osteoarthritis and Cartilage
3299:10.1371/journal.pbio.1002106
2750:Multiple comparisons problem
2675:numerical equivalent of the
1298:{\displaystyle \alpha =0.05}
30:Not to be confused with the
7430:Proportional hazards models
7374:Spectral density estimation
7356:Vector autoregression (VAR)
6790:Maximum posterior estimator
6022:Randomized controlled trial
4997:Fisher RA, Yates F (1938).
4982:(9th ed.). Macmillan.
3183:10.1007/978-1-4612-4380-9_6
2654:multiple hypothesis testing
2648:-value with respect to the
2172:-value would mean that the
1996:: 14 heads out of 20 flips.
7791:
7190:Multivariate distributions
5610:Average absolute deviation
4044:Royal Society Open Science
3861:Murtaugh PA (March 2014).
3647:10.1016/j.joca.2012.04.001
3597:10.4097/kjae.2016.69.6.555
3518:Royal Society Open Science
2687:Second-generation p-values
2665:Probability of Direction (
2304:Pearson's chi-squared test
1618:
1574:Pearson's chi-squared test
1400:
1163:simple or point hypothesis
1119:-value in each iteration.
412:from unknown distribution
140:in some study is called a
29:
7704:
7507:
7494:
7178:Structural equation model
7086:
7061:
6832:
6808:
6540:
6514:Score/Lagrange multiplier
6120:
6107:
5929:Sample size determination
5890:
5877:
5507:
5494:
5476:
5335:10.1038/s41562-017-0189-z
5216:10.1007/s11999-009-1164-4
5179:10.1007/s00144-008-0033-3
5162:"Fisher and the 5% level"
4980:The Design of Experiments
4552:The American Statistician
4476:10.1007/s11999-009-1164-4
4445:10.1080/14786440009463897
4005:10.1038/s41562-017-0224-0
3687:10.1136/bmj.322.7295.1184
3628:Ranstam J (August 2012).
3380:The American Statistician
3230:10.1038/s41562-017-0189-z
3061:The American Statistician
2925:The American Statistician
2826:To be more specific, the
2399:The Design of Experiments
1538:with known variance, the
1365:-value is widely used in
233:statistically significant
72:is correct. A very small
7673:Environmental statistics
7195:Elliptical distributions
6988:Generalized linear model
6917:Simple linear regression
6687:HodgesâLehmann estimator
6144:Probability distribution
6053:Stochastic approximation
5615:Coefficient of variation
5269:; De Veaux, Richard D.;
5128:10.1177/0959354307086923
5071:10.1177/0273475306288399
4877:statistical significance
4807:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02767
4702:The Annals of Statistics
3863:"In defense of P values"
3669:Perneger TV (May 2001).
3579:Lee DK (December 2016).
3421:(Submitted manuscript).
3349:10.1177/1745691614553988
2972:10.1177/0959354307086923
2352:statistical significance
2316:chi-squared distribution
2308:chi-squared distribution
2265:Sign test § History
2123:for one-sided left-tail
1941:This probability is the
205:statistical significance
118:probability distribution
66:result actually observed
7333:Cross-correlation (XCF)
6941:Non-standard predictors
6375:LehmannâScheffĂ© theorem
6048:Adaptive clinical trial
5116:Theory & Psychology
4794:Frontiers in Psychology
4756:10.1073/pnas.1530509100
4679:"Definition of E-value"
3015:10.1038/s41562-016-0021
2959:Theory & Psychology
2387:Fisher & Yates 1938
1211:{\displaystyle \alpha }
1187:{\displaystyle \alpha }
1069:{\displaystyle \theta }
925:{\displaystyle \alpha }
905:{\displaystyle \alpha }
880:{\displaystyle \alpha }
7729:Mathematics portal
7550:Engineering statistics
7458:NelsonâAalen estimator
7035:Analysis of covariance
6922:Ordinary least squares
6846:Pearson product-moment
6250:Statistical functional
6161:Empirical distribution
5994:Controlled experiments
5723:Frequency distribution
5501:Descriptive statistics
5323:Nature Human Behaviour
4944:10.1093/biomet/10.1.85
4922:10.1093/biomet/1.2.155
4889:reproducibility crises
4715:10.1214/aos/1074290335
4586:, p. 47, Chapter
4433:Philosophical Magazine
4237:10.1098/rstl.1710.0011
4093:Seminars in Hematology
3993:Nature Human Behaviour
3218:Nature Human Behaviour
3002:Nature Human Behaviour
2745:HolmâBonferroni method
2681:posterior distribution
2580:
2510:
2499:Fisher reiterated the
2489:
2292:
2232:
2222:
2212:
2202:
2160:
2117:
2085:
2003:-value of observation
1972:In the above example:
1965:-value: the two-sided
1932:
1675:
1655:
1495:
1373:) and the alpha level
1347:
1323:
1299:
1254:
1212:
1188:
1122:Usually only a single
1105:
1070:
1050:
1001:
977:
926:
906:
881:
856:
833:
809:
732:
712:
610:
554:
497:
470:
450:
426:
406:
368:
348:
330:is not 0, or (ii) the
324:
304:
259:
221:
190:
170:
142:statistical hypothesis
134:
56:
7645:Population statistics
7587:System identification
7321:Autocorrelation (ACF)
7249:Exponential smoothing
7163:Discriminant analysis
7158:Canonical correlation
7022:Partition of variance
6884:Regression validation
6728:(JonckheereâTerpstra)
6627:Likelihood-ratio test
6316:Frequentist inference
6228:Locationâscale family
6149:Sampling distribution
6114:Statistical inference
6081:Cross-sectional study
6068:Observational studies
6027:Randomized experiment
5856:Stem-and-leaf display
5658:Central limit theorem
4627:Table III. Table of Ï
4564:10.1198/0003130031856
2708:Bonferroni correction
2644:is the analog of the
2623:optional continuation
2581:
2490:
2280:binomial distribution
2274:, who instead used a
2259:âŠ", specifically the
2228:
2218:
2208:
2198:
2161:
2118:
2116:{\displaystyle 19/32}
2086:
1955:binomial distribution
1933:
1692:binomial coefficients
1676:
1656:
1570:central limit theorem
1496:
1348:
1333:type-1 error rate of
1324:
1300:
1255:
1213:
1189:
1106:
1104:{\displaystyle H_{0}}
1082:uniformly distributed
1071:
1051:
1002:
978:
927:
907:
882:
857:
855:{\displaystyle H_{0}}
810:
733:
713:
611:
555:
498:
496:{\displaystyle H_{0}}
471:
451:
427:
407:
369:
349:
325:
305:
265:follows the standard
260:
222:
191:
171:
135:
86:academic publications
57:
7568:Probabilistic design
7153:Principal components
6996:Exponential families
6948:Nonlinear regression
6927:General linear model
6889:Mixed effects models
6879:Errors and residuals
6856:Confounding variable
6758:Bayesian probability
6736:Van der Waerden test
6726:Ordered alternative
6491:Multiple comparisons
6370:RaoâBlackwellization
6333:Estimating equations
6289:Statistical distance
6007:Factorial experiment
5540:Arithmetic-Geometric
4378:. Wiley. p. 65.
4230:(325â336): 186â190.
4213:Arbuthnot J (1710).
3935:"The earth is flat (
3722:. pp. 119â152.
3392:10.1198/000313002146
2891:on 25 September 2019
2520:
2429:
2322:were calculated in (
2272:Pierre-Simon Laplace
2210:Pierre-Simon Laplace
2159:{\displaystyle 1/2.}
2142:
2099:
2095:-value, and exactly
2063:
1701:
1665:
1645:
1485:
1436:confidence intervals
1381:-value is less than
1346:{\displaystyle 0.05}
1337:
1322:{\displaystyle 0.05}
1313:
1283:
1225:
1202:
1178:
1167:composite hypothesis
1088:
1060:
1011:
991:
967:
916:
896:
871:
839:
742:
722:
622:
566:
510:
503:were true. That is:
480:
460:
440:
416:
396:
358:
338:
314:
272:
249:
211:
180:
160:
146:null hypothesis test
124:
46:
7640:Official statistics
7563:Methods engineering
7244:Seasonal adjustment
7012:Poisson regressions
6932:Bayesian regression
6871:Regression analysis
6851:Partial correlation
6823:Regression analysis
6422:Prediction interval
6417:Likelihood interval
6407:Confidence interval
6399:Interval estimation
6360:Unbiased estimators
6178:Model specification
6058:Up-and-down designs
5746:Partial correlation
5702:Index of dispersion
5620:Interquartile range
5388:-values calculators
5308:10.1214/21-AOAS1501
5283:Stigler, Stephen M.
5241:Reinhart A (2015).
4859:Scientific American
4747:2003PNAS..100.9440S
4389:Stigler SM (1986).
4312:Stigler SM (1986).
4056:10.1098/rsos.171085
3879:2014Ecol...95..611M
3757:Replicability-Index
3681:(7295): 1184â1185.
3548:10.1098/rsos.140216
3540:2014RSOS....140216C
3481:2014Natur.506..150N
2658:false positive rate
2621:that can deal with
2419:Fisher's exact test
1536:normal distribution
983:and is therefore a
862:is rejected if the
476:if null hypothesis
354:is not 1, or (iii)
267:normal distribution
7660:Spatial statistics
7540:Medical statistics
7440:First hitting time
7394:Whittle likelihood
7045:Degrees of freedom
7040:Multivariate ANOVA
6973:Heteroscedasticity
6785:Bayesian estimator
6750:Bayesian inference
6599:KolmogorovâSmirnov
6484:Randomization test
6454:Testing hypotheses
6427:Tolerance interval
6338:Maximum likelihood
6233:Exponential family
6166:Density estimation
6126:Statistical theory
6086:Natural experiment
6032:Scientific control
5949:Survey methodology
5635:Standard deviation
5187:Dallal GE (2012).
5001:. London, England.
4696:Storey JD (2003).
4588:III. Distributions
4152:10.3758/BF03194105
3956:10.7717/peerj.3544
3785:(452): 1316â1320.
2576:
2485:
2257:nonparametric test
2233:
2223:
2213:
2203:
2156:
2138:-value is exactly
2113:
2081:
1928:
1926:
1671:
1651:
1491:
1403:Misuse of p-values
1343:
1319:
1295:
1250:
1208:
1184:
1101:
1066:
1046:
997:
973:
922:
902:
890:significance level
877:
852:
805:
728:
708:
606:
550:
493:
466:
446:
422:
402:
364:
344:
320:
300:
255:
217:
186:
166:
130:
90:misuse of p-values
52:
7762:
7761:
7700:
7699:
7696:
7695:
7635:National accounts
7605:Actuarial science
7597:Social statistics
7490:
7489:
7486:
7485:
7482:
7481:
7417:Survival function
7402:
7401:
7264:Granger causality
7105:Contingency table
7080:Survival analysis
7057:
7056:
7053:
7052:
6909:Linear regression
6804:
6803:
6800:
6799:
6775:Credible interval
6744:
6743:
6527:
6526:
6343:Method of moments
6212:Parametric family
6173:Statistical model
6103:
6102:
6099:
6098:
6017:Random assignment
5939:Statistical power
5873:
5872:
5869:
5868:
5718:Contingency table
5688:
5687:
5555:Generalized/power
5160:(December 2008).
5038:978-0-674-40340-6
4989:978-0-02-844690-5
4967:978-0-05-002170-5
4893:scientific fields
4866:(4): 62â67 (63).
4741:(16): 9440â9445.
4360:978-0-387-95329-8
4298:978-0-412-44980-2
4287:Sprent P (1989).
4273:978-0-471-16068-7
4199:978-1-4020-6036-6
3887:10.1890/13-0590.1
3475:(7487): 150â152.
3463:(February 2014).
3192:978-1-4612-4380-9
2856:"ASA House Style"
2545:
2454:
2326:), collected in (
2263:; see details at
2079:
2069:
2034:Optional stopping
1976:Null hypothesis (
1969:-value is 0.115.
1916:
1876:
1845:
1820:
1799:
1769:
1743:
1723:
1674:{\displaystyle T}
1654:{\displaystyle X}
1609:quantile function
1579:Thus computing a
1494:{\displaystyle T}
1440:likelihood ratios
1407:According to the
1000:{\displaystyle T}
976:{\displaystyle T}
731:{\displaystyle T}
469:{\displaystyle t}
449:{\displaystyle p}
425:{\displaystyle T}
405:{\displaystyle t}
367:{\displaystyle T}
347:{\displaystyle T}
323:{\displaystyle T}
258:{\displaystyle T}
220:{\displaystyle T}
189:{\displaystyle T}
169:{\displaystyle X}
133:{\displaystyle X}
55:{\displaystyle p}
16:(Redirected from
7782:
7750:
7749:
7738:
7737:
7727:
7726:
7712:
7711:
7615:Crime statistics
7509:
7496:
7413:
7379:Fourier analysis
7366:Frequency domain
7346:
7293:
7259:Structural break
7219:
7168:Cluster analysis
7115:Log-linear model
7088:
7063:
7004:
6978:Homoscedasticity
6834:
6810:
6729:
6721:
6713:
6712:(KruskalâWallis)
6697:
6682:
6637:Cross validation
6622:
6604:AndersonâDarling
6551:
6538:
6509:Likelihood-ratio
6501:Parametric tests
6479:Permutation test
6462:1- & 2-tails
6353:Minimum distance
6325:Point estimation
6321:
6272:Optimal decision
6223:
6122:
6109:
6091:Quasi-experiment
6041:Adaptive designs
5892:
5879:
5756:Rank correlation
5518:
5509:
5496:
5463:
5456:
5449:
5440:
5421:
5410:
5372:
5354:
5312:
5310:
5301:(3): 1084â1085.
5262:
5237:
5227:
5194:
5183:
5181:
5153:
5151:
5150:
5144:
5138:. Archived from
5113:
5099:
5098:on May 18, 2006.
5097:
5091:. Archived from
5082:
5056:
5042:
5030:
5016:
5010:
5002:
4993:
4971:
4947:
4925:
4897:
4842:
4836:
4830:
4829:
4819:
4809:
4785:
4779:
4778:
4768:
4758:
4726:
4720:
4719:
4717:
4708:(6): 2013â2035.
4693:
4687:
4686:
4675:
4669:
4663:
4657:
4651:
4642:
4636:
4630:
4616:
4610:
4600:
4591:
4581:
4575:
4574:
4543:
4537:
4536:
4512:
4506:
4505:
4495:
4455:
4449:
4448:
4439:(302): 157â175.
4430:
4418:
4409:
4408:
4404:978-0-67440341-3
4386:
4380:
4379:
4371:
4365:
4364:
4338:
4332:
4331:
4327:978-0-67440341-3
4309:
4303:
4302:
4284:
4278:
4277:
4259:
4250:
4249:
4239:
4219:
4210:
4204:
4203:
4187:
4170:
4164:
4163:
4131:
4125:
4124:
4084:
4078:
4077:
4067:
4031:
4025:
4024:
3985:
3979:
3978:
3968:
3958:
3927:
3921:
3920:
3911:(7 March 2016).
3905:
3899:
3898:
3858:
3852:
3851:
3841:
3809:
3803:
3802:
3774:
3768:
3767:
3765:
3763:
3748:
3742:
3741:
3715:
3709:
3708:
3698:
3666:
3660:
3659:
3649:
3625:
3619:
3618:
3608:
3576:
3570:
3569:
3559:
3533:
3509:
3503:
3502:
3492:
3457:
3451:
3450:
3410:
3404:
3403:
3375:
3369:
3368:
3328:
3322:
3321:
3311:
3301:
3277:
3268:
3267:
3249:
3208:
3202:
3201:
3200:
3199:
3166:
3160:
3159:
3146:
3140:
3139:
3129:
3104:
3095:
3094:
3076:
3052:
3046:
3045:
3027:
3017:
2990:
2984:
2983:
2949:
2943:
2942:
2940:
2916:
2901:
2900:
2898:
2896:
2887:. Archived from
2873:
2867:
2866:
2860:
2852:
2835:
2824:
2818:
2815:
2809:
2800:value", and the
2782:
2703:Student's t-test
2693:as significant.
2652:. It is used in
2615:multiple testing
2585:
2583:
2582:
2577:
2563:
2552:
2551:
2550:
2537:
2530:
2494:
2492:
2491:
2486:
2472:
2461:
2460:
2459:
2446:
2439:
2404:lady tasting tea
2314:-values for the
2165:
2163:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2122:
2120:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2090:
2088:
2087:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2070:
2067:
1937:
1935:
1934:
1929:
1927:
1917:
1915:
1902:
1893:
1888:
1884:
1883:
1882:
1881:
1868:
1852:
1851:
1850:
1837:
1827:
1826:
1825:
1812:
1800:
1798:
1797:
1785:
1777:
1770:
1767:
1744:
1741:
1724:
1721:
1707:
1680:
1678:
1677:
1672:
1660:
1658:
1657:
1652:
1500:
1498:
1497:
1492:
1352:
1350:
1349:
1344:
1328:
1326:
1325:
1320:
1304:
1302:
1301:
1296:
1259:
1257:
1256:
1251:
1237:
1236:
1217:
1215:
1214:
1209:
1193:
1191:
1190:
1185:
1110:
1108:
1107:
1102:
1100:
1099:
1075:
1073:
1072:
1067:
1055:
1053:
1052:
1047:
1042:
1041:
1023:
1022:
1007:precisely (e.g.
1006:
1004:
1003:
998:
982:
980:
979:
974:
931:
929:
928:
923:
911:
909:
908:
903:
886:
884:
883:
878:
861:
859:
858:
853:
851:
850:
831:
814:
812:
811:
806:
798:
797:
785:
777:
769:
761:
737:
735:
734:
729:
717:
715:
714:
709:
701:
700:
667:
666:
615:
613:
612:
607:
602:
601:
559:
557:
556:
551:
546:
545:
502:
500:
499:
494:
492:
491:
475:
473:
472:
467:
455:
453:
452:
447:
431:
429:
428:
423:
411:
409:
408:
403:
373:
371:
370:
365:
353:
351:
350:
345:
329:
327:
326:
321:
309:
307:
306:
301:
281:
280:
264:
262:
261:
256:
227:. The lower the
226:
224:
223:
218:
195:
193:
192:
187:
175:
173:
172:
167:
139:
137:
136:
131:
61:
59:
58:
53:
21:
7790:
7789:
7785:
7784:
7783:
7781:
7780:
7779:
7765:
7764:
7763:
7758:
7721:
7692:
7654:
7591:
7577:quality control
7544:
7526:Clinical trials
7503:
7478:
7462:
7450:Hazard function
7444:
7398:
7360:
7344:
7307:
7303:BreuschâGodfrey
7291:
7268:
7208:
7183:Factor analysis
7129:
7110:Graphical model
7082:
7049:
7016:
7002:
6982:
6936:
6903:
6865:
6828:
6827:
6796:
6740:
6727:
6719:
6711:
6695:
6680:
6659:Rank statistics
6653:
6632:Model selection
6620:
6578:Goodness of fit
6572:
6549:
6523:
6495:
6448:
6393:
6382:Median unbiased
6310:
6221:
6154:Order statistic
6116:
6095:
6062:
6036:
5988:
5943:
5886:
5884:Data collection
5865:
5777:
5732:
5706:
5684:
5644:
5596:
5513:Continuous data
5503:
5490:
5472:
5467:
5419:
5408:
5380:
5375:
5315:
5267:Benjamini, Yoav
5265:
5259:
5251:. p. 176.
5249:No Starch Press
5240:
5197:
5186:
5156:
5148:
5146:
5142:
5111:
5102:
5095:
5054:
5045:
5039:
5019:
5003:
4996:
4990:
4974:
4968:
4950:
4928:
4900:
4855:
4851:
4849:Further reading
4846:
4845:
4837:
4833:
4787:
4786:
4782:
4728:
4727:
4723:
4695:
4694:
4690:
4677:
4676:
4672:
4664:
4660:
4652:
4645:
4637:
4633:
4617:
4613:
4601:
4594:
4582:
4578:
4558:(3): 171â178 ,
4545:
4544:
4540:
4514:
4513:
4509:
4457:
4456:
4452:
4428:
4420:
4419:
4412:
4405:
4388:
4387:
4383:
4373:
4372:
4368:
4361:
4340:
4339:
4335:
4328:
4311:
4310:
4306:
4299:
4286:
4285:
4281:
4274:
4261:
4260:
4253:
4217:
4212:
4211:
4207:
4200:
4172:
4171:
4167:
4133:
4132:
4128:
4086:
4085:
4081:
4033:
4032:
4028:
3987:
3986:
3982:
3929:
3928:
3924:
3917:FiveThirtyEight
3907:
3906:
3902:
3860:
3859:
3855:
3811:
3810:
3806:
3791:10.2307/2669779
3776:
3775:
3771:
3761:
3759:
3750:
3749:
3745:
3738:
3717:
3716:
3712:
3668:
3667:
3663:
3627:
3626:
3622:
3578:
3577:
3573:
3511:
3510:
3506:
3490:10.1038/506150a
3459:
3458:
3454:
3431:10.2307/2533093
3412:
3411:
3407:
3377:
3376:
3372:
3330:
3329:
3325:
3292:(3): e1002106.
3279:
3278:
3271:
3210:
3209:
3205:
3197:
3195:
3193:
3168:
3167:
3163:
3148:
3147:
3143:
3106:
3105:
3098:
3054:
3053:
3049:
2992:
2991:
2987:
2951:
2950:
2946:
2918:
2917:
2904:
2894:
2892:
2885:FiveThirtyEight
2875:
2874:
2870:
2858:
2854:
2853:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2838:
2825:
2821:
2816:
2812:
2783:
2779:
2774:
2699:
2607:
2605:Related indices
2532:
2518:
2517:
2441:
2427:
2426:
2356:68â95â99.7 rule
2240:human sex ratio
2193:
2140:
2139:
2097:
2096:
2061:
2060:
2036:
2013:
1982:
1947:one-tailed test
1925:
1924:
1903:
1894:
1863:
1832:
1807:
1805:
1801:
1789:
1775:
1774:
1699:
1698:
1663:
1662:
1643:
1642:
1628:
1623:
1617:
1611:(inverse CDF).
1589:two-tailed test
1585:one-tailed test
1483:
1482:
1479:
1405:
1399:
1387:null hypothesis
1371:null hypothesis
1359:
1335:
1334:
1311:
1310:
1281:
1280:
1228:
1223:
1222:
1200:
1199:
1176:
1175:
1159:
1091:
1086:
1085:
1058:
1057:
1033:
1014:
1009:
1008:
989:
988:
985:random variable
965:
964:
957:
914:
913:
894:
893:
869:
868:
842:
837:
836:
832:
829:
821:
819:Interpretations
789:
740:
739:
720:
719:
692:
658:
620:
619:
593:
564:
563:
537:
508:
507:
483:
478:
477:
458:
457:
438:
437:
414:
413:
394:
393:
386:
381:
356:
355:
336:
335:
312:
311:
270:
269:
247:
246:
209:
208:
178:
177:
158:
157:
153:null hypothesis
122:
121:
114:
70:null hypothesis
44:
43:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7788:
7786:
7778:
7777:
7767:
7766:
7760:
7759:
7757:
7756:
7744:
7732:
7718:
7705:
7702:
7701:
7698:
7697:
7694:
7693:
7691:
7690:
7685:
7680:
7675:
7670:
7664:
7662:
7656:
7655:
7653:
7652:
7647:
7642:
7637:
7632:
7627:
7622:
7617:
7612:
7607:
7601:
7599:
7593:
7592:
7590:
7589:
7584:
7579:
7570:
7565:
7560:
7554:
7552:
7546:
7545:
7543:
7542:
7537:
7532:
7523:
7521:Bioinformatics
7517:
7515:
7505:
7504:
7499:
7492:
7491:
7488:
7487:
7484:
7483:
7480:
7479:
7477:
7476:
7470:
7468:
7464:
7463:
7461:
7460:
7454:
7452:
7446:
7445:
7443:
7442:
7437:
7432:
7427:
7421:
7419:
7410:
7404:
7403:
7400:
7399:
7397:
7396:
7391:
7386:
7381:
7376:
7370:
7368:
7362:
7361:
7359:
7358:
7353:
7348:
7340:
7335:
7330:
7329:
7328:
7326:partial (PACF)
7317:
7315:
7309:
7308:
7306:
7305:
7300:
7295:
7287:
7282:
7276:
7274:
7273:Specific tests
7270:
7269:
7267:
7266:
7261:
7256:
7251:
7246:
7241:
7236:
7231:
7225:
7223:
7216:
7210:
7209:
7207:
7206:
7205:
7204:
7203:
7202:
7187:
7186:
7185:
7175:
7173:Classification
7170:
7165:
7160:
7155:
7150:
7145:
7139:
7137:
7131:
7130:
7128:
7127:
7122:
7120:McNemar's test
7117:
7112:
7107:
7102:
7096:
7094:
7084:
7083:
7066:
7059:
7058:
7055:
7054:
7051:
7050:
7048:
7047:
7042:
7037:
7032:
7026:
7024:
7018:
7017:
7015:
7014:
6998:
6992:
6990:
6984:
6983:
6981:
6980:
6975:
6970:
6965:
6960:
6958:Semiparametric
6955:
6950:
6944:
6942:
6938:
6937:
6935:
6934:
6929:
6924:
6919:
6913:
6911:
6905:
6904:
6902:
6901:
6896:
6891:
6886:
6881:
6875:
6873:
6867:
6866:
6864:
6863:
6858:
6853:
6848:
6842:
6840:
6830:
6829:
6826:
6825:
6820:
6814:
6813:
6806:
6805:
6802:
6801:
6798:
6797:
6795:
6794:
6793:
6792:
6782:
6777:
6772:
6771:
6770:
6765:
6754:
6752:
6746:
6745:
6742:
6741:
6739:
6738:
6733:
6732:
6731:
6723:
6715:
6699:
6696:(MannâWhitney)
6691:
6690:
6689:
6676:
6675:
6674:
6663:
6661:
6655:
6654:
6652:
6651:
6650:
6649:
6644:
6639:
6629:
6624:
6621:(ShapiroâWilk)
6616:
6611:
6606:
6601:
6596:
6588:
6582:
6580:
6574:
6573:
6571:
6570:
6562:
6553:
6541:
6535:
6533:Specific tests
6529:
6528:
6525:
6524:
6522:
6521:
6516:
6511:
6505:
6503:
6497:
6496:
6494:
6493:
6488:
6487:
6486:
6476:
6475:
6474:
6464:
6458:
6456:
6450:
6449:
6447:
6446:
6445:
6444:
6439:
6429:
6424:
6419:
6414:
6409:
6403:
6401:
6395:
6394:
6392:
6391:
6386:
6385:
6384:
6379:
6378:
6377:
6372:
6357:
6356:
6355:
6350:
6345:
6340:
6329:
6327:
6318:
6312:
6311:
6309:
6308:
6303:
6298:
6297:
6296:
6286:
6281:
6280:
6279:
6269:
6268:
6267:
6262:
6257:
6247:
6242:
6237:
6236:
6235:
6230:
6225:
6209:
6208:
6207:
6202:
6197:
6187:
6186:
6185:
6180:
6170:
6169:
6168:
6158:
6157:
6156:
6146:
6141:
6136:
6130:
6128:
6118:
6117:
6112:
6105:
6104:
6101:
6100:
6097:
6096:
6094:
6093:
6088:
6083:
6078:
6072:
6070:
6064:
6063:
6061:
6060:
6055:
6050:
6044:
6042:
6038:
6037:
6035:
6034:
6029:
6024:
6019:
6014:
6009:
6004:
5998:
5996:
5990:
5989:
5987:
5986:
5984:Standard error
5981:
5976:
5971:
5970:
5969:
5964:
5953:
5951:
5945:
5944:
5942:
5941:
5936:
5931:
5926:
5921:
5916:
5914:Optimal design
5911:
5906:
5900:
5898:
5888:
5887:
5882:
5875:
5874:
5871:
5870:
5867:
5866:
5864:
5863:
5858:
5853:
5848:
5843:
5838:
5833:
5828:
5823:
5818:
5813:
5808:
5803:
5798:
5793:
5787:
5785:
5779:
5778:
5776:
5775:
5770:
5769:
5768:
5763:
5753:
5748:
5742:
5740:
5734:
5733:
5731:
5730:
5725:
5720:
5714:
5712:
5711:Summary tables
5708:
5707:
5705:
5704:
5698:
5696:
5690:
5689:
5686:
5685:
5683:
5682:
5681:
5680:
5675:
5670:
5660:
5654:
5652:
5646:
5645:
5643:
5642:
5637:
5632:
5627:
5622:
5617:
5612:
5606:
5604:
5598:
5597:
5595:
5594:
5589:
5584:
5583:
5582:
5577:
5572:
5567:
5562:
5557:
5552:
5547:
5545:Contraharmonic
5542:
5537:
5526:
5524:
5515:
5505:
5504:
5499:
5492:
5491:
5489:
5488:
5483:
5477:
5474:
5473:
5468:
5466:
5465:
5458:
5451:
5443:
5437:
5436:
5427:
5416:
5405:
5394:Understanding
5391:
5379:
5378:External links
5376:
5374:
5373:
5313:
5287:Kafadar, Karen
5271:Efron, Bradley
5263:
5258:978-1593276201
5257:
5238:
5210:(3): 885â892.
5195:
5184:
5154:
5100:
5065:(2): 114â120.
5043:
5037:
5017:
4994:
4988:
4972:
4966:
4948:
4926:
4916:(2): 155â163.
4898:
4852:
4850:
4847:
4844:
4843:
4831:
4780:
4721:
4688:
4670:
4658:
4643:
4631:
4611:
4592:
4576:
4538:
4507:
4470:(3): 885â892.
4450:
4410:
4403:
4381:
4366:
4359:
4333:
4326:
4304:
4297:
4279:
4272:
4251:
4205:
4198:
4165:
4146:(5): 779â804.
4126:
4099:(3): 135â140.
4079:
4050:(12): 171085.
4026:
3980:
3922:
3900:
3873:(3): 611â617.
3853:
3804:
3769:
3743:
3736:
3710:
3661:
3640:(8): 805â808.
3620:
3591:(6): 555â562.
3571:
3504:
3452:
3405:
3370:
3343:(6): 666â681.
3323:
3269:
3203:
3191:
3161:
3141:
3096:
3067:(2): 129â133.
3047:
2985:
2944:
2931:(2): 129â133.
2902:
2879:(2015-11-24).
2868:
2846:
2845:
2843:
2840:
2837:
2836:
2819:
2810:
2776:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2769:
2768:
2766:-value fallacy
2760:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2736:Harmonic mean
2733:
2724:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2698:
2695:
2606:
2603:
2575:
2572:
2569:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2555:
2549:
2544:
2541:
2536:
2529:
2525:
2484:
2481:
2478:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2464:
2458:
2453:
2450:
2445:
2438:
2434:
2415:Muriel Bristol
2244:John Arbuthnot
2200:John Arbuthnot
2192:
2189:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2074:
2050:
2049:
2046:
2035:
2032:
2016:
2015:
2011:
1997:
1990:
1987:
1984:
1980:
1939:
1938:
1923:
1920:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1901:
1897:
1891:
1887:
1880:
1875:
1872:
1867:
1861:
1858:
1855:
1849:
1844:
1841:
1836:
1830:
1824:
1819:
1816:
1811:
1804:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1765:
1762:
1759:
1756:
1753:
1750:
1747:
1739:
1736:
1733:
1730:
1727:
1719:
1716:
1713:
1710:
1708:
1706:
1670:
1650:
1627:
1624:
1619:Main article:
1616:
1613:
1503:test statistic
1490:
1478:
1475:
1401:Main article:
1398:
1395:
1358:
1355:
1342:
1318:
1294:
1291:
1288:
1249:
1246:
1243:
1240:
1235:
1231:
1207:
1183:
1158:
1155:
1098:
1094:
1065:
1045:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1029:
1026:
1021:
1017:
996:
972:
956:
953:
921:
901:
876:
849:
845:
827:
820:
817:
816:
815:
804:
801:
796:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
753:
750:
747:
727:
707:
704:
699:
695:
691:
688:
685:
682:
679:
676:
673:
670:
665:
661:
657:
654:
651:
648:
645:
642:
639:
636:
633:
630:
627:
617:
605:
600:
596:
592:
589:
586:
583:
580:
577:
574:
571:
561:
549:
544:
540:
536:
533:
530:
527:
524:
521:
518:
515:
490:
486:
465:
445:
421:
401:
385:
382:
380:
377:
363:
343:
319:
299:
296:
293:
290:
287:
284:
279:
254:
216:
185:
165:
129:
113:
112:Basic concepts
110:
51:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7787:
7776:
7773:
7772:
7770:
7755:
7754:
7745:
7743:
7742:
7733:
7731:
7730:
7725:
7719:
7717:
7716:
7707:
7706:
7703:
7689:
7686:
7684:
7683:Geostatistics
7681:
7679:
7676:
7674:
7671:
7669:
7666:
7665:
7663:
7661:
7657:
7651:
7650:Psychometrics
7648:
7646:
7643:
7641:
7638:
7636:
7633:
7631:
7628:
7626:
7623:
7621:
7618:
7616:
7613:
7611:
7608:
7606:
7603:
7602:
7600:
7598:
7594:
7588:
7585:
7583:
7580:
7578:
7574:
7571:
7569:
7566:
7564:
7561:
7559:
7556:
7555:
7553:
7551:
7547:
7541:
7538:
7536:
7533:
7531:
7527:
7524:
7522:
7519:
7518:
7516:
7514:
7513:Biostatistics
7510:
7506:
7502:
7497:
7493:
7475:
7474:Log-rank test
7472:
7471:
7469:
7465:
7459:
7456:
7455:
7453:
7451:
7447:
7441:
7438:
7436:
7433:
7431:
7428:
7426:
7423:
7422:
7420:
7418:
7414:
7411:
7409:
7405:
7395:
7392:
7390:
7387:
7385:
7382:
7380:
7377:
7375:
7372:
7371:
7369:
7367:
7363:
7357:
7354:
7352:
7349:
7347:
7345:(BoxâJenkins)
7341:
7339:
7336:
7334:
7331:
7327:
7324:
7323:
7322:
7319:
7318:
7316:
7314:
7310:
7304:
7301:
7299:
7298:DurbinâWatson
7296:
7294:
7288:
7286:
7283:
7281:
7280:DickeyâFuller
7278:
7277:
7275:
7271:
7265:
7262:
7260:
7257:
7255:
7254:Cointegration
7252:
7250:
7247:
7245:
7242:
7240:
7237:
7235:
7232:
7230:
7229:Decomposition
7227:
7226:
7224:
7220:
7217:
7215:
7211:
7201:
7198:
7197:
7196:
7193:
7192:
7191:
7188:
7184:
7181:
7180:
7179:
7176:
7174:
7171:
7169:
7166:
7164:
7161:
7159:
7156:
7154:
7151:
7149:
7146:
7144:
7141:
7140:
7138:
7136:
7132:
7126:
7123:
7121:
7118:
7116:
7113:
7111:
7108:
7106:
7103:
7101:
7100:Cohen's kappa
7098:
7097:
7095:
7093:
7089:
7085:
7081:
7077:
7073:
7069:
7064:
7060:
7046:
7043:
7041:
7038:
7036:
7033:
7031:
7028:
7027:
7025:
7023:
7019:
7013:
7009:
7005:
6999:
6997:
6994:
6993:
6991:
6989:
6985:
6979:
6976:
6974:
6971:
6969:
6966:
6964:
6961:
6959:
6956:
6954:
6953:Nonparametric
6951:
6949:
6946:
6945:
6943:
6939:
6933:
6930:
6928:
6925:
6923:
6920:
6918:
6915:
6914:
6912:
6910:
6906:
6900:
6897:
6895:
6892:
6890:
6887:
6885:
6882:
6880:
6877:
6876:
6874:
6872:
6868:
6862:
6859:
6857:
6854:
6852:
6849:
6847:
6844:
6843:
6841:
6839:
6835:
6831:
6824:
6821:
6819:
6816:
6815:
6811:
6807:
6791:
6788:
6787:
6786:
6783:
6781:
6778:
6776:
6773:
6769:
6766:
6764:
6761:
6760:
6759:
6756:
6755:
6753:
6751:
6747:
6737:
6734:
6730:
6724:
6722:
6716:
6714:
6708:
6707:
6706:
6703:
6702:Nonparametric
6700:
6698:
6692:
6688:
6685:
6684:
6683:
6677:
6673:
6672:Sample median
6670:
6669:
6668:
6665:
6664:
6662:
6660:
6656:
6648:
6645:
6643:
6640:
6638:
6635:
6634:
6633:
6630:
6628:
6625:
6623:
6617:
6615:
6612:
6610:
6607:
6605:
6602:
6600:
6597:
6595:
6593:
6589:
6587:
6584:
6583:
6581:
6579:
6575:
6569:
6567:
6563:
6561:
6559:
6554:
6552:
6547:
6543:
6542:
6539:
6536:
6534:
6530:
6520:
6517:
6515:
6512:
6510:
6507:
6506:
6504:
6502:
6498:
6492:
6489:
6485:
6482:
6481:
6480:
6477:
6473:
6470:
6469:
6468:
6465:
6463:
6460:
6459:
6457:
6455:
6451:
6443:
6440:
6438:
6435:
6434:
6433:
6430:
6428:
6425:
6423:
6420:
6418:
6415:
6413:
6410:
6408:
6405:
6404:
6402:
6400:
6396:
6390:
6387:
6383:
6380:
6376:
6373:
6371:
6368:
6367:
6366:
6363:
6362:
6361:
6358:
6354:
6351:
6349:
6346:
6344:
6341:
6339:
6336:
6335:
6334:
6331:
6330:
6328:
6326:
6322:
6319:
6317:
6313:
6307:
6304:
6302:
6299:
6295:
6292:
6291:
6290:
6287:
6285:
6282:
6278:
6277:loss function
6275:
6274:
6273:
6270:
6266:
6263:
6261:
6258:
6256:
6253:
6252:
6251:
6248:
6246:
6243:
6241:
6238:
6234:
6231:
6229:
6226:
6224:
6218:
6215:
6214:
6213:
6210:
6206:
6203:
6201:
6198:
6196:
6193:
6192:
6191:
6188:
6184:
6181:
6179:
6176:
6175:
6174:
6171:
6167:
6164:
6163:
6162:
6159:
6155:
6152:
6151:
6150:
6147:
6145:
6142:
6140:
6137:
6135:
6132:
6131:
6129:
6127:
6123:
6119:
6115:
6110:
6106:
6092:
6089:
6087:
6084:
6082:
6079:
6077:
6074:
6073:
6071:
6069:
6065:
6059:
6056:
6054:
6051:
6049:
6046:
6045:
6043:
6039:
6033:
6030:
6028:
6025:
6023:
6020:
6018:
6015:
6013:
6010:
6008:
6005:
6003:
6000:
5999:
5997:
5995:
5991:
5985:
5982:
5980:
5979:Questionnaire
5977:
5975:
5972:
5968:
5965:
5963:
5960:
5959:
5958:
5955:
5954:
5952:
5950:
5946:
5940:
5937:
5935:
5932:
5930:
5927:
5925:
5922:
5920:
5917:
5915:
5912:
5910:
5907:
5905:
5902:
5901:
5899:
5897:
5893:
5889:
5885:
5880:
5876:
5862:
5859:
5857:
5854:
5852:
5849:
5847:
5844:
5842:
5839:
5837:
5834:
5832:
5829:
5827:
5824:
5822:
5819:
5817:
5814:
5812:
5809:
5807:
5806:Control chart
5804:
5802:
5799:
5797:
5794:
5792:
5789:
5788:
5786:
5784:
5780:
5774:
5771:
5767:
5764:
5762:
5759:
5758:
5757:
5754:
5752:
5749:
5747:
5744:
5743:
5741:
5739:
5735:
5729:
5726:
5724:
5721:
5719:
5716:
5715:
5713:
5709:
5703:
5700:
5699:
5697:
5695:
5691:
5679:
5676:
5674:
5671:
5669:
5666:
5665:
5664:
5661:
5659:
5656:
5655:
5653:
5651:
5647:
5641:
5638:
5636:
5633:
5631:
5628:
5626:
5623:
5621:
5618:
5616:
5613:
5611:
5608:
5607:
5605:
5603:
5599:
5593:
5590:
5588:
5585:
5581:
5578:
5576:
5573:
5571:
5568:
5566:
5563:
5561:
5558:
5556:
5553:
5551:
5548:
5546:
5543:
5541:
5538:
5536:
5533:
5532:
5531:
5528:
5527:
5525:
5523:
5519:
5516:
5514:
5510:
5506:
5502:
5497:
5493:
5487:
5484:
5482:
5479:
5478:
5475:
5471:
5464:
5459:
5457:
5452:
5450:
5445:
5444:
5441:
5435:
5433:
5428:
5426:
5422:
5417:
5415:
5411:
5406:
5403:
5399:
5397:
5392:
5389:
5387:
5382:
5381:
5377:
5370:
5366:
5362:
5358:
5353:
5348:
5344:
5340:
5336:
5332:
5328:
5324:
5320:
5314:
5309:
5304:
5300:
5296:
5292:
5288:
5284:
5280:
5276:
5275:Meng, Xiao-Li
5272:
5268:
5264:
5260:
5254:
5250:
5246:
5245:
5239:
5235:
5231:
5226:
5221:
5217:
5213:
5209:
5205:
5201:
5196:
5192:
5191:
5185:
5180:
5175:
5171:
5167:
5163:
5159:
5155:
5145:on 2016-10-21
5141:
5137:
5133:
5129:
5125:
5121:
5117:
5110:
5108:
5101:
5094:
5090:
5086:
5081:
5076:
5072:
5068:
5064:
5060:
5053:
5049:
5044:
5040:
5034:
5029:
5028:
5022:
5018:
5014:
5008:
5000:
4995:
4991:
4985:
4981:
4977:
4973:
4969:
4963:
4959:
4958:
4953:
4949:
4945:
4941:
4937:
4933:
4927:
4923:
4919:
4915:
4911:
4907:
4903:
4899:
4896:
4894:
4890:
4886:
4882:
4878:
4874:
4872:
4865:
4861:
4860:
4854:
4853:
4848:
4841:
4835:
4832:
4827:
4823:
4818:
4813:
4808:
4803:
4799:
4795:
4791:
4784:
4781:
4776:
4772:
4767:
4762:
4757:
4752:
4748:
4744:
4740:
4736:
4732:
4725:
4722:
4716:
4711:
4707:
4703:
4699:
4692:
4689:
4684:
4680:
4674:
4671:
4667:
4662:
4659:
4655:
4650:
4648:
4644:
4640:
4635:
4632:
4628:
4624:
4620:
4615:
4612:
4608:
4604:
4599:
4597:
4593:
4589:
4585:
4580:
4577:
4573:
4569:
4565:
4561:
4557:
4553:
4549:
4542:
4539:
4534:
4530:
4526:
4522:
4518:
4511:
4508:
4503:
4499:
4494:
4489:
4485:
4481:
4477:
4473:
4469:
4465:
4461:
4454:
4451:
4446:
4442:
4438:
4434:
4427:
4423:
4417:
4415:
4411:
4406:
4400:
4396:
4392:
4385:
4382:
4377:
4370:
4367:
4362:
4356:
4352:
4348:
4344:
4337:
4334:
4329:
4323:
4319:
4315:
4308:
4305:
4300:
4294:
4290:
4283:
4280:
4275:
4269:
4265:
4258:
4256:
4252:
4247:
4243:
4238:
4233:
4229:
4225:
4224:
4216:
4209:
4206:
4201:
4195:
4191:
4186:
4185:
4179:
4175:
4169:
4166:
4161:
4157:
4153:
4149:
4145:
4141:
4137:
4130:
4127:
4122:
4118:
4114:
4110:
4106:
4102:
4098:
4094:
4090:
4083:
4080:
4075:
4071:
4066:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4041:
4039:
4030:
4027:
4022:
4018:
4014:
4010:
4006:
4002:
3998:
3994:
3990:
3984:
3981:
3976:
3972:
3967:
3962:
3957:
3952:
3948:
3944:
3940:
3938:
3932:
3926:
3923:
3918:
3914:
3910:
3904:
3901:
3896:
3892:
3888:
3884:
3880:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3864:
3857:
3854:
3849:
3845:
3840:
3835:
3831:
3827:
3823:
3819:
3815:
3808:
3805:
3800:
3796:
3792:
3788:
3784:
3780:
3773:
3770:
3758:
3754:
3747:
3744:
3739:
3737:9780226789576
3733:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3714:
3711:
3706:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3688:
3684:
3680:
3676:
3672:
3665:
3662:
3657:
3653:
3648:
3643:
3639:
3635:
3631:
3624:
3621:
3616:
3612:
3607:
3602:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3575:
3572:
3567:
3563:
3558:
3553:
3549:
3545:
3541:
3537:
3532:
3527:
3524:(3): 140216.
3523:
3519:
3515:
3508:
3505:
3500:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3462:
3456:
3453:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3409:
3406:
3401:
3397:
3393:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3374:
3371:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3327:
3324:
3319:
3315:
3310:
3305:
3300:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3276:
3274:
3270:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3248:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3207:
3204:
3194:
3188:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3165:
3162:
3157:
3156:
3151:
3150:Neyman, Jerzy
3145:
3142:
3137:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3103:
3101:
3097:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3051:
3048:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2989:
2986:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2960:
2955:
2948:
2945:
2939:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2915:
2913:
2911:
2909:
2907:
2903:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2878:
2872:
2869:
2864:
2857:
2851:
2848:
2841:
2833:
2829:
2823:
2820:
2814:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2781:
2778:
2771:
2767:
2765:
2761:
2759:
2757:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2739:
2734:
2732:
2730:
2725:
2723:
2721:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2700:
2696:
2694:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2668:
2661:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2641:
2635:
2633:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2604:
2602:
2600:
2596:
2591:
2589:
2573:
2570:
2567:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2553:
2542:
2539:
2527:
2523:
2515:
2509:
2504:
2502:
2497:
2482:
2479:
2476:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2462:
2451:
2448:
2436:
2432:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2411:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2400:
2395:
2390:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2359:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2344:
2339:
2335:
2334:Ronald Fisher
2331:
2329:
2325:
2324:Elderton 1902
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2291:
2289:
2283:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2268:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2231:
2230:Ronald Fisher
2227:
2221:
2217:
2211:
2207:
2201:
2197:
2190:
2188:
2186:
2182:
2177:
2175:
2171:
2166:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2137:
2132:
2130:
2126:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2094:
2072:
2057:
2055:
2047:
2044:
2043:
2042:
2038:
2033:
2031:
2029:
2024:
2022:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1995:
1991:
1988:
1985:
1979:
1975:
1974:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1921:
1918:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1899:
1895:
1889:
1885:
1873:
1870:
1859:
1856:
1853:
1842:
1839:
1828:
1817:
1814:
1802:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1781:
1779:
1763:
1754:
1751:
1748:
1737:
1728:
1717:
1709:
1697:
1696:
1695:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1668:
1648:
1639:
1637:
1633:
1625:
1622:
1614:
1612:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1577:
1575:
1571:
1566:
1565:-distribution
1564:
1560:based on the
1559:
1557:
1552:
1551:-distribution
1550:
1544:
1542:
1537:
1533:
1531:
1524:
1522:
1520:
1515:
1513:
1508:
1504:
1488:
1476:
1474:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1455:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1444:Bayes factors
1441:
1437:
1433:
1428:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1404:
1396:
1394:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1356:
1354:
1340:
1332:
1316:
1308:
1292:
1289:
1286:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1264:
1247:
1244:
1241:
1238:
1233:
1229:
1219:
1205:
1197:
1181:
1173:
1168:
1164:
1156:
1154:
1152:
1150:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1120:
1118:
1114:
1096:
1092:
1083:
1079:
1063:
1043:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1027:
1024:
1019:
1015:
994:
986:
970:
962:
954:
952:
950:
946:
941:
939:
935:
919:
899:
891:
887:
874:
865:
847:
843:
826:
818:
802:
794:
790:
786:
778:
770:
762:
748:
745:
725:
697:
693:
689:
686:
683:
680:
671:
663:
659:
655:
652:
649:
646:
631:
628:
625:
618:
598:
594:
590:
587:
584:
581:
572:
569:
562:
542:
538:
534:
531:
528:
525:
516:
513:
506:
505:
504:
488:
484:
463:
443:
435:
419:
399:
391:
383:
378:
376:
361:
341:
333:
317:
297:
291:
288:
285:
268:
252:
243:
240:
238:
234:
230:
214:
206:
202:
197:
183:
163:
154:
149:
147:
143:
127:
119:
111:
109:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
49:
40:
33:
19:
7751:
7739:
7720:
7713:
7625:Econometrics
7575: /
7558:Chemometrics
7535:Epidemiology
7528: /
7501:Applications
7343:ARIMA model
7290:Q-statistic
7239:Stationarity
7135:Multivariate
7078: /
7074: /
7072:Multivariate
7070: /
7010: /
7006: /
6780:Bayes factor
6679:Signed rank
6591:
6565:
6557:
6545:
6240:Completeness
6076:Cohort study
5974:Opinion poll
5909:Missing data
5896:Study design
5851:Scatter plot
5773:Scatter plot
5766:Spearman's Ï
5728:Grouped data
5431:
5401:
5395:
5385:
5384:Free online
5352:10281/184094
5326:
5322:
5298:
5294:
5243:
5207:
5203:
5189:
5169:
5165:
5147:. Retrieved
5140:the original
5122:(1): 69â88.
5119:
5115:
5106:
5093:the original
5062:
5058:
5048:Armstrong JS
5026:
4998:
4979:
4956:
4935:
4931:
4913:
4909:
4881:experimental
4870:
4867:
4863:
4857:
4834:
4797:
4793:
4783:
4738:
4734:
4724:
4705:
4701:
4691:
4682:
4673:
4661:
4634:
4614:
4579:
4555:
4551:
4547:
4541:
4524:
4520:
4510:
4467:
4463:
4453:
4436:
4435:. Series 5.
4432:
4390:
4384:
4375:
4369:
4350:
4336:
4313:
4307:
4288:
4282:
4263:
4227:
4221:
4208:
4183:
4168:
4143:
4139:
4129:
4096:
4092:
4082:
4047:
4043:
4037:
4029:
3996:
3992:
3983:
3946:
3942:
3936:
3925:
3916:
3909:Aschwanden C
3903:
3870:
3866:
3856:
3824:(1): 23â29.
3821:
3817:
3807:
3782:
3778:
3772:
3760:. Retrieved
3756:
3746:
3719:
3713:
3678:
3674:
3664:
3637:
3633:
3623:
3588:
3584:
3574:
3521:
3517:
3507:
3472:
3468:
3455:
3425:(1): 11â22.
3422:
3418:
3408:
3386:(3): 202â6.
3383:
3379:
3373:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3326:
3289:
3286:PLOS Biology
3285:
3247:10281/184094
3221:
3217:
3206:
3196:, retrieved
3174:
3164:
3154:
3144:
3117:
3113:
3064:
3060:
3050:
3005:
3001:
2988:
2966:(1): 69â88.
2963:
2957:
2953:
2947:
2928:
2924:
2893:. Retrieved
2889:the original
2884:
2877:Aschwanden C
2871:
2862:
2850:
2831:
2827:
2822:
2813:
2805:
2797:
2789:
2780:
2763:
2755:
2737:
2728:
2727:Generalized
2719:
2691:effect sizes
2685:
2676:
2666:
2662:
2645:
2639:
2636:
2631:
2622:
2610:
2608:
2598:
2594:
2592:
2587:
2513:
2511:
2506:
2500:
2498:
2422:
2412:
2407:
2397:
2393:
2391:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2360:
2347:
2341:
2337:
2332:
2328:Pearson 1914
2319:
2311:
2306:, using the
2300:Karl Pearson
2295:
2293:
2287:
2285:
2275:
2269:
2252:
2248:
2235:
2234:
2220:Karl Pearson
2184:
2180:
2178:
2173:
2169:
2167:
2135:
2133:
2128:
2124:
2092:
2058:
2053:
2051:
2039:
2037:
2027:
2025:
2020:
2017:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1993:
1992:Observation
1977:
1971:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1950:
1942:
1940:
1687:
1683:
1640:
1629:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1580:
1578:
1562:
1555:
1548:
1540:
1529:
1525:
1518:
1511:
1480:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1456:
1451:
1447:
1431:
1429:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1406:
1390:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1362:
1360:
1330:
1306:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1262:
1220:
1195:
1171:
1166:
1162:
1160:
1148:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1121:
1116:
1112:
1077:
960:
958:
955:Distribution
944:
942:
863:
834:
823:
433:
389:
387:
244:
241:
236:
232:
228:
200:
198:
150:
141:
115:
105:
101:
97:
81:
73:
42:
36:
7753:WikiProject
7668:Cartography
7630:Jurimetrics
7582:Reliability
7313:Time domain
7292:(LjungâBox)
7214:Time-series
7092:Categorical
7076:Time-series
7068:Categorical
7003:(Bernoulli)
6838:Correlation
6818:Correlation
6614:JarqueâBera
6586:Chi-squared
6348:M-estimator
6301:Asymptotics
6245:Sufficiency
6012:Interaction
5924:Replication
5904:Effect size
5861:Violin plot
5841:Radar chart
5821:Forest plot
5811:Correlogram
5761:Kendall's Ï
5329:(1): 6â10.
5279:Reid, Nancy
5046:Hubbard R,
4902:Elderton WP
4868:The use of
4666:Fisher 1971
4654:Fisher 1971
4639:Fisher 1971
4619:Fisher 1925
4607:Why P=0.05?
4605:, Note 31:
4603:Dallal 2012
4584:Fisher 1925
3224:(1): 6â10.
3008:(1): 0021.
2863:Amstat News
2713:Counternull
2425:-value was
1999:Two-tailed
1768: heads
1742: heads
1722: heads
1477:Calculation
432:. Then the
94:metascience
7620:Demography
7338:ARMA model
7143:Regression
6720:(Friedman)
6681:(Wilcoxon)
6619:Normality
6609:Lilliefors
6556:Student's
6432:Resampling
6306:Robustness
6294:divergence
6284:Efficiency
6222:(monotone)
6217:Likelihood
6134:Population
5967:Stratified
5919:Population
5738:Dependence
5694:Count data
5625:Percentile
5602:Dispersion
5535:Arithmetic
5470:Statistics
5149:2015-08-28
5021:Stigler SM
4938:: 85â154.
4932:Biometrika
4910:Biometrika
4527:: 104264.
3419:Biometrics
3198:2024-07-07
2895:11 October
2842:References
2516:-value of
2421:, and the
2276:parametric
1547:Student's
1521:-statistic
1514:-statistic
1265:-statistic
1142:-curve. A
1080:-value is
943:Different
384:Definition
7001:Logistic
6768:posterior
6694:Rank sum
6442:Jackknife
6437:Bootstrap
6255:Bootstrap
6190:Parameter
6139:Statistic
5934:Statistic
5846:Run chart
5831:Pie chart
5826:Histogram
5816:Fan chart
5791:Bar chart
5673:L-moments
5560:Geometric
5369:256726352
5343:2397-3374
5172:(4): 12.
5158:Stigler S
5136:143487211
5007:cite book
4978:(1971) .
4976:Fisher RA
4952:Fisher RA
4885:certainty
4484:0009-921X
4422:Pearson K
4246:186209819
4178:Jaisson M
4160:1069-9384
4113:0037-1963
3989:Amrhein V
3949:: e3544.
3931:Amrhein V
3531:1407.5296
3264:256726352
3238:2397-3374
3136:0933-2480
3091:124084622
3083:0003-1305
2994:MunafĂČ MR
2980:143487211
2794:APA style
2786:AMA style
2617:. First,
2477:≈
2302:, in his
2261:sign test
1919:≈
1857:⋯
1752:⋯
1632:coin flip
1545:based on
1481:Usually,
1287:α
1245:≤
1242:μ
1206:α
1182:α
1064:θ
1035:θ
1028:θ
920:α
900:α
875:α
787:∣
771:≥
690:∣
684:≤
656:∣
650:≥
591:∣
585:≤
535:∣
529:≥
7769:Category
7715:Category
7408:Survival
7285:Johansen
7008:Binomial
6963:Isotonic
6550:(normal)
6195:location
6002:Blocking
5957:Sampling
5836:QâQ plot
5801:Box plot
5783:Graphics
5678:Skewness
5668:Kurtosis
5640:Variance
5570:Heronian
5565:Harmonic
5361:30980045
5289:(2021).
5234:19921345
5089:34729227
5080:2092/413
5050:(2006).
5023:(1986).
4954:(1925).
4904:(1902).
4891:in many
4826:31920819
4800:: 2767.
4775:12883005
4572:55671953
4502:19921345
4424:(1900).
4349:(eds.).
4347:Seneta E
4343:Heyde CC
4121:18582619
4074:29308247
4040:-values"
4021:46814177
4013:30980046
3999:(1): 4.
3975:28698825
3895:24804441
3848:26881954
3705:11379590
3656:22503814
3615:27924194
3566:26064558
3499:24522584
3400:33812107
3365:39975518
3357:26186117
3318:25768323
3256:30980045
3034:33954258
2792:value",
2697:See also
2673:Bayesian
2634:-value.
2627:expected
2410:-value.
2131:-value.
1688:at least
1151:-hacking
828:â
332:variance
32:P-factor
7741:Commons
7688:Kriging
7573:Process
7530:studies
7389:Wavelet
7222:General
6389:Plug-in
6183:L space
5962:Cluster
5663:Moments
5481:Outline
5425:YouTube
5414:YouTube
5398:-values
5225:2816758
4817:6914840
4743:Bibcode
4493:2816758
4318:225â226
4174:Brian E
4065:5750014
3966:5502092
3875:Bibcode
3867:Ecology
3839:4809350
3799:2669779
3762:7 March
3696:1120301
3606:5133225
3557:4448847
3536:Bibcode
3477:Bibcode
3461:Nuzzo R
3447:9147587
3439:2533093
3309:4359000
3042:6326747
3025:7610724
2722:-values
2671:is the
2611:E-value
2191:History
2185:planned
1615:Example
1331:maximum
436:-value
78:outcome
18:P-Value
7610:Census
7200:Normal
7148:Manova
6968:Robust
6718:2-way
6710:1-way
6548:-test
6219:
5796:Biplot
5587:Median
5580:Lehmer
5522:Center
5367:
5359:
5341:
5255:
5232:
5222:
5166:Chance
5134:
5087:
5035:
4986:
4964:
4873:values
4824:
4814:
4773:
4766:170937
4763:
4570:
4500:
4490:
4482:
4401:
4357:
4324:
4295:
4270:
4244:
4196:
4158:
4119:
4111:
4072:
4062:
4019:
4011:
3973:
3963:
3893:
3846:
3836:
3797:
3734:
3703:
3693:
3654:
3613:
3603:
3564:
3554:
3497:
3469:Nature
3445:
3437:
3398:
3363:
3355:
3316:
3306:
3262:
3254:
3236:
3189:
3134:
3114:Chance
3089:
3081:
3040:
3032:
3022:
2978:
2804:uses "
2796:uses "
2788:uses "
2740:-value
2731:-value
2642:-value
2007:given
1922:0.058.
1516:or an
1507:scalar
1397:Misuse
1111:, the
1056:where
934:Fisher
62:-value
41:, the
7234:Trend
6763:prior
6705:anova
6594:-test
6568:-test
6560:-test
6467:Power
6412:Pivot
6205:shape
6200:scale
5650:Shape
5630:Range
5575:Heinz
5550:Cubic
5486:Index
5365:S2CID
5339:eISSN
5143:(PDF)
5132:S2CID
5112:(PDF)
5105:"Why
5096:(PDF)
5085:S2CID
5055:(PDF)
4887:and
4568:S2CID
4429:(PDF)
4242:S2CID
4218:(PDF)
4192:â25.
4017:S2CID
3943:PeerJ
3795:JSTOR
3526:arXiv
3435:JSTOR
3396:S2CID
3361:S2CID
3260:S2CID
3234:eISSN
3087:S2CID
3038:S2CID
2976:S2CID
2859:(PDF)
2772:Notes
2480:0.014
2078:tails
2068:heads
1587:or a
1558:-test
1543:-test
1532:-test
1501:is a
1442:, or
1357:Usage
7467:Test
6667:Sign
6519:Wald
5592:Mode
5530:Mean
5357:PMID
5253:ISBN
5230:PMID
5033:ISBN
5013:link
4984:ISBN
4962:ISBN
4822:PMID
4771:PMID
4498:PMID
4480:ISSN
4399:ISBN
4355:ISBN
4322:ISBN
4293:ISBN
4268:ISBN
4194:ISBN
4156:ISSN
4117:PMID
4109:ISSN
4070:PMID
4009:PMID
3971:PMID
3891:PMID
3844:PMID
3764:2017
3732:ISBN
3701:PMID
3652:PMID
3611:PMID
3562:PMID
3495:PMID
3443:PMID
3353:PMID
3314:PMID
3252:PMID
3187:ISBN
3132:ISSN
3079:ISSN
3030:PMID
2897:2019
2758:-rep
2663:The
2637:The
2609:The
2571:0.05
2294:The
1636:fair
1361:The
1341:0.05
1317:0.05
1293:0.05
959:The
388:The
199:The
6647:BIC
6642:AIC
5423:on
5412:on
5347:hdl
5331:doi
5303:doi
5220:PMC
5212:doi
5208:468
5174:doi
5124:doi
5075:hdl
5067:doi
4940:doi
4918:doi
4879:of
4864:321
4812:PMC
4802:doi
4761:PMC
4751:doi
4739:100
4710:doi
4560:doi
4529:doi
4525:210
4488:PMC
4472:doi
4468:468
4441:doi
4395:134
4232:doi
4148:doi
4101:doi
4060:PMC
4052:doi
4001:doi
3961:PMC
3951:doi
3883:doi
3834:PMC
3826:doi
3787:doi
3724:doi
3691:PMC
3683:doi
3679:322
3675:BMJ
3642:doi
3601:PMC
3593:doi
3552:PMC
3544:doi
3485:doi
3473:506
3427:doi
3388:doi
3345:doi
3304:PMC
3294:doi
3242:hdl
3226:doi
3179:doi
3122:doi
3069:doi
3020:PMC
3010:doi
2968:doi
2933:doi
2358:).
1913:576
1909:048
1900:460
1694:as
1634:is
1409:ASA
635:min
334:of
37:In
7771::
5363:.
5355:.
5345:.
5337:.
5325:.
5321:.
5299:15
5297:.
5293:.
5281:;
5277:;
5247:.
5228:.
5218:.
5206:.
5202:.
5170:21
5168:.
5164:.
5130:.
5120:18
5118:.
5114:.
5083:.
5073:.
5063:28
5061:.
5057:.
5009:}}
5005:{{
4936:10
4934:.
4912:.
4908:.
4862:.
4820:.
4810:.
4798:10
4796:.
4792:.
4769:.
4759:.
4749:.
4737:.
4733:.
4706:31
4704:.
4700:.
4681:.
4646:^
4625:,
4595:^
4566:,
4556:57
4554:,
4523:.
4519:.
4496:.
4486:.
4478:.
4466:.
4462:.
4437:50
4431:.
4413:^
4397:.
4345:,
4320:.
4254:^
4240:.
4228:27
4226:.
4220:.
4176:,
4154:.
4144:14
4142:.
4138:.
4115:.
4107:.
4097:45
4091:.
4068:.
4058:.
4046:.
4042:.
4015:.
4007:.
3995:.
3969:.
3959:.
3945:.
3941:.
3915:.
3889:.
3881:.
3871:95
3869:.
3865:.
3842:.
3832:.
3822:51
3820:.
3816:.
3793:.
3783:95
3781:.
3755:.
3730:.
3699:.
3689:.
3677:.
3673:.
3650:.
3638:20
3636:.
3632:.
3609:.
3599:.
3589:69
3587:.
3583:.
3560:.
3550:.
3542:.
3534:.
3520:.
3516:.
3493:.
3483:.
3471:.
3467:.
3441:.
3433:.
3423:53
3417:.
3394:.
3384:56
3382:.
3359:.
3351:.
3339:.
3312:.
3302:.
3290:13
3288:.
3284:.
3272:^
3258:.
3250:.
3240:.
3232:.
3220:.
3216:.
3185:,
3173:,
3130:.
3118:34
3116:.
3112:.
3099:^
3085:.
3077:.
3065:70
3063:.
3059:.
3036:.
3028:.
3018:.
3004:.
3000:.
2974:.
2964:18
2962:.
2929:70
2927:.
2923:.
2905:^
2883:.
2861:.
2667:pd
2660:.
2588:p,
2565:20
2474:70
2363:p.
2320:P,
2282::
2267:.
2154:2.
2111:32
2103:19
1896:60
1874:20
1871:20
1843:15
1840:20
1818:14
1815:20
1795:20
1764:20
1758:Pr
1738:15
1732:Pr
1718:14
1712:Pr
1576:.
1438:,
1353:.
1218:.
1153:.
951:.
892:.
752:Pr
675:Pr
641:Pr
576:Pr
520:Pr
148:.
6592:G
6566:F
6558:t
6546:Z
6265:V
6260:U
5462:e
5455:t
5448:v
5432:p
5402:p
5396:p
5386:p
5371:.
5349::
5333::
5327:2
5311:.
5305::
5261:.
5236:.
5214::
5193:.
5182:.
5176::
5152:.
5126::
5107:P
5077::
5069::
5041:.
5015:)
4992:.
4970:.
4946:.
4942::
4924:.
4920::
4914:1
4871:p
4828:.
4804::
4777:.
4753::
4745::
4718:.
4712::
4685:.
4629:.
4609:.
4590:.
4562::
4548:p
4535:.
4531::
4504:.
4474::
4447:.
4443::
4407:.
4363:.
4330:.
4301:.
4276:.
4248:.
4234::
4202:.
4190:1
4162:.
4150::
4123:.
4103::
4076:.
4054::
4048:4
4038:p
4023:.
4003::
3997:2
3977:.
3953::
3947:5
3937:p
3919:.
3897:.
3885::
3877::
3850:.
3828::
3801:.
3789::
3766:.
3740:.
3726::
3707:.
3685::
3658:.
3644::
3617:.
3595::
3568:.
3546::
3538::
3528::
3522:1
3501:.
3487::
3479::
3449:.
3429::
3402:.
3390::
3367:.
3347::
3341:9
3333:p
3320:.
3296::
3266:.
3244::
3228::
3222:2
3181::
3138:.
3124::
3093:.
3071::
3044:.
3012::
3006:1
2982:.
2970::
2954:P
2941:.
2935::
2899:.
2832:p
2828:p
2806:p
2798:p
2790:P
2764:p
2756:p
2738:p
2729:p
2720:p
2677:p
2669:)
2646:p
2640:q
2632:p
2599:p
2595:p
2574:,
2568:=
2561:/
2557:1
2554:=
2548:)
2543:3
2540:6
2535:(
2528:/
2524:1
2514:p
2501:p
2483:,
2470:/
2466:1
2463:=
2457:)
2452:4
2449:8
2444:(
2437:/
2433:1
2423:p
2408:p
2394:p
2383:p
2379:p
2375:p
2371:n
2367:p
2348:p
2338:p
2312:p
2296:p
2288:p
2253:p
2249:p
2236:P
2181:p
2174:p
2170:p
2150:/
2146:1
2136:p
2129:p
2125:p
2107:/
2093:p
2073:/
2054:p
2028:p
2021:p
2012:0
2009:H
2005:O
2001:p
1994:O
1981:0
1978:H
1967:p
1963:p
1959:p
1951:p
1943:p
1905:1
1890:=
1886:]
1879:)
1866:(
1860:+
1854:+
1848:)
1835:(
1829:+
1823:)
1810:(
1803:[
1791:2
1787:1
1782:=
1772:)
1761:(
1755:+
1749:+
1746:)
1735:(
1729:+
1726:)
1715:(
1684:p
1669:T
1649:X
1605:p
1601:p
1597:p
1581:p
1563:F
1556:F
1549:t
1541:t
1530:z
1519:F
1512:t
1489:T
1471:p
1467:p
1463:p
1459:p
1452:p
1448:p
1432:p
1425:p
1421:p
1417:p
1413:p
1391:p
1383:α
1379:p
1375:α
1363:p
1307:p
1290:=
1277:p
1273:Z
1269:Z
1263:Z
1248:0
1239::
1234:0
1230:H
1196:p
1172:p
1149:p
1144:p
1140:p
1136:p
1132:p
1128:p
1124:p
1117:p
1113:p
1097:0
1093:H
1078:p
1044:,
1039:0
1031:=
1025::
1020:0
1016:H
995:T
971:T
961:p
945:p
864:p
848:0
844:H
803:.
800:)
795:0
791:H
783:|
779:t
775:|
767:|
763:T
759:|
755:(
749:=
746:p
726:T
706:}
703:)
698:0
694:H
687:t
681:T
678:(
672:,
669:)
664:0
660:H
653:t
647:T
644:(
638:{
632:2
629:=
626:p
604:)
599:0
595:H
588:t
582:T
579:(
573:=
570:p
548:)
543:0
539:H
532:t
526:T
523:(
517:=
514:p
489:0
485:H
464:t
444:p
434:p
420:T
400:t
390:p
362:T
342:T
318:T
298:,
295:)
292:1
289:,
286:0
283:(
278:N
253:T
237:p
229:p
215:T
201:p
184:T
164:X
128:X
106:p
102:p
98:p
82:p
74:p
50:p
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
