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Researchers focusing solely on whether their results are statistically significant might report findings that are not substantive and not replicable. There is also a difference between statistical significance and practical significance. A study that is found to be statistically significant may not
576:
than a one-tailed test, because the rejection region for a one-tailed test is concentrated on one end of the null distribution and is twice the size (5% vs. 2.5%) of each rejection region for a two-tailed test. As a result, the null hypothesis can be rejected with a less extreme result if a
704:
A statistically significant result may not be easy to reproduce. In particular, some statistically significant results will in fact be false positives. Each failed attempt to reproduce a result increases the likelihood that the result was a false positive.
802:-values as continuous indices, thereby discarding thresholds and statistical significance. Additionally, the change to 0.005 would increase the likelihood of false negatives, whereby the effect being studied is real, but the test fails to show it.
418:
should be rejected or retained. The null hypothesis is the hypothesis that no effect exists in the phenomenon being studied. For the null hypothesis to be rejected, an observed result has to be statistically significant, i.e. the observed
1934:"Conclusions about statistical significance are possible with the help of the confidence interval. If the confidence interval does not include the value of zero effect, it can be assumed that there is a statistically significant result."
786: †0.05') as a license for making a claim of a scientific finding (or implied truth) leads to considerable distortion of the scientific process". In 2017, a group of 72 authors proposed to enhance reproducibility by changing the
810:
We conclude, based on our review of the articles in this special issue and the broader literature, that it is time to stop using the term "statistically significant" entirely. Nor should variants such as "significantly different,"
730:=5%, was being relied on too heavily as the primary measure of validity of a hypothesis. Some journals encouraged authors to do more detailed analysis than just a statistical significance test. In social psychology, the journal
577:
one-tailed test was used. The one-tailed test is only more powerful than a two-tailed test if the specified direction of the alternative hypothesis is correct. If it is wrong, however, then the one-tailed test has no power.
669:
Effect size is a measure of a study's practical significance. A statistically significant result may have a weak effect. To gauge the research significance of their result, researchers are encouraged to always report an
141:-value of an observed effect is less than (or equal to) the significance level, an investigator may conclude that the effect reflects the characteristics of the whole population, thereby rejecting the null hypothesis.
805:
In 2019, over 800 statisticians and scientists signed a message calling for the abandonment of the term "statistical significance" in science, and the ASA published a further official statement declaring (page 2):
3238:
2856:
Ioannidis, John P. A.; Ware, Jennifer J.; Wagenmakers, Eric-Jan; Simonsohn, Uri; Chambers, Christopher D.; Button, Katherine S.; Bishop, Dorothy V. M.; Nosek, Brian A.; MunafĂČ, Marcus R. (January 2017).
743:-values, as Basic and Applied Social Psychology recently did, is not going to solve the problem because it is merely treating a symptom of the problem. There is nothing wrong with hypothesis testing and
3171:. There is growing determination to reform statistical analysis... Some suggest changing statistical methods, whereas others would do away with a threshold for defining "significant" results." (p. 63.)
1622:
2615:
790:-value threshold for statistical significance from 0.05 to 0.005. Other researchers responded that imposing a more stringent significance threshold would aggravate problems such as
450:-value, which is the probability of observing an effect of the same magnitude or more extreme given that the null hypothesis is true. The null hypothesis is rejected if the
112:
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instead. This is the probability of not rejecting the null hypothesis given that it is true. Confidence levels and confidence intervals were introduced by Neyman in 1937.
2001:
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53:
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747:-values per se as long as authors, reviewers, and action editors use them correctly." Some statisticians prefer to use alternative measures of evidence, such as
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81:
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banned the use of significance testing altogether from papers it published, requiring authors to use other measures to evaluate hypotheses and impact.
759:
can avoid confidence levels, but also requires making additional assumptions, and may not necessarily improve practice regarding statistical testing.
4836:
205:
5275:
5712:
986:
Myers, Jerome L.; Well, Arnold D.; Lorch, Robert F. Jr. (2010). "Developing fundamentals of hypothesis testing using the binomial distribution".
678:-values. An effect size measure quantifies the strength of an effect, such as the distance between two means in units of standard deviation (cf.
114:. The significance level for a study is chosen before data collection, and is typically set to 5% or much lowerâdepending on the field of study.
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Despite his initial suggestion of 0.05 as a significance level, Fisher did not intend this cutoff value to be fixed. In his 1956 publication
3295:. The earth is round (p<.05). American Psychologist. Vol 49, p. 997-1003. Reviews problems with null hypothesis statistical testing.
3698:
3398:
1495:
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732:
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209:. Fisher suggested a probability of one in twenty (0.05) as a convenient cutoff level to reject the null hypothesis. In a 1933 paper,
3186:
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316:
below which the null hypothesis is rejected even though by assumption it were true, and something else is going on. This means that
1142:. Wiley Reference Series in Biostatistics (3rd ed.). West Sussex, United Kingdom: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. pp. 35â36.
5263:
5137:
775:
541:-value is less than (or equal to) 5%. When drawing data from a sample, this means that the rejection region comprises 5% of the
5321:
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4727:
4098:
3688:
4312:
5372:
4584:
4391:
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4238:
2701:
1219:
Sham, Pak C.; Purcell, Shaun M (17 April 2014). "Statistical power and significance testing in large-scale genetic studies".
884:
370:
20:
3477:
3359:
3366:" (February 1994): article by Bruce Thompon hosted by the ERIC Clearinghouse on Assessment and Evaluation, Washington, D.C.
724:
Starting in the 2010s, some journals began questioning whether significance testing, and particularly using a threshold of
5615:
4574:
2960:
635:
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is also the probability of mistakenly rejecting the null hypothesis, if the null hypothesis is true. This is also called
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895:
687:
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4290:
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3423:
84:, is the probability of obtaining a result at least as extreme, given that the null hypothesis is true. The result is
5395:
5362:
1408:
Compassionate
Statistics: Applied Quantitative Analysis for Social Services (With exercises and instructions in SPSS)
414:
Statistical significance plays a pivotal role in statistical hypothesis testing. It is used to determine whether the
152:
is not the same as research significance, theoretical significance, or practical significance. For example, the term
144:
This technique for testing the statistical significance of results was developed in the early 20th century. The term
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905:
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5127:
4895:
4616:
4470:
4399:
4319:
4177:
4158:
3866:
3587:
3111:
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1892:
Neyman, J.; Pearson, E.S. (1933). "The testing of statistical hypotheses in relation to probabilities a priori".
396:
386:
341:
203:
advanced the idea of statistical hypothesis testing, which he called "tests of significance", in his publication
55:, is the probability of the study rejecting the null hypothesis, given that the null hypothesis is true; and the
5240:
1835:. Essays in Cognitive Psychology (1st ed.). East Sussex, United Kingdom: Psychology Press. pp. 29â48.
5610:
5377:
4925:
4890:
4854:
4639:
4081:
3990:
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881:
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Principles, Problems, Practices, and
Prospects Reproducibility: Principles, Problems, Practices, and Prospects
5519:
5132:
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5009:
4369:
4231:
4221:
4071:
3985:
3373:" (no date): an article from the Statistical Assessment Service at George Mason University, Washington, D.C.
3142:
Lydia
Denworth, "A Significant Problem: Standard scientific methods are under fire. Will anything change?",
1615:"An argument for Divine Providence, taken from the constant regularity observed in the births of both sexes"
526:
5280:
5217:
1466:
Myers, Jerome L.; Well, Arnold D.; Lorch, Robert F. Jr. (2010). "The t distribution and its applications".
837:," and "nonsignificant" survive, whether expressed in words, by asterisks in a table, or in some other way.
5557:
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4859:
3856:
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3660:
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3418:
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890:
872:
542:
407:
165:
153:
126:
5661:
4551:
3207:
2986:
Amrhein, Valentin; Greenland, Sander (2017). "Remove, rather than redefine, statistical significance".
2726:
849:
1999:(1937). "Outline of a Theory of Statistical Estimation Based on the Classical Theory of Probability".
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2010:
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175:
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Clarke, GM; Anderson, CA; Pettersson, FH; Cardon, LR; Morris, AP; Zondervan, KT (February 6, 2011).
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3683:
3639:
3557:
3482:
3384:
3144:
756:
612:
590:
122:
91:
5227:
2462:"The earth is flat (p > 0.05): significance thresholds and the crisis of unreplicable research"
1138:
Redmond, Carol; Colton, Theodore (2001). "Clinical significance versus statistical significance".
782:-values, saying that "the widespread use of 'statistical significance' (generally interpreted as '
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5477:
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4933:
4910:
4687:
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3011:
2539:
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2034:
2026:
1917:
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855:
714:
604:
586:
2222:
877:
814:
3282:
Vol. 506, p. 150-152 (open access). Highlights common misunderstandings about the p value.
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5534:
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5042:
5017:
4905:
4846:
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4700:
4326:
4243:
4187:
4110:
3954:
3876:
3655:
3529:
3330:
3252:
3199:
3184:
The Cult of
Statistical Significance: How the Standard Error Costs Us Jobs, Justice, and Lives
3178:
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3003:
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2820:
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1967:
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1811:
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1708:
1704:
1680:
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1593:
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1471:
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1411:
1386:
1361:
1328:
1303:
1275:
1236:
1201:
1143:
1120:
1027:
991:
963:
935:
762:
The widespread abuse of statistical significance represents an important topic of research in
573:
557:
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1807:
1801:
1357:
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508:
477:
457:
426:
319:
279:
244:
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38:
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4523:
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2523:
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2429:
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2380:
2343:
2333:
2292:
2284:
2018:
1957:
1949:
1909:
1779:. Multivariate Applications Series. East Sussex, United Kingdom: Routledge. pp. 21â52.
1631:
1560:
1544:
1228:
1191:
1110:
1100:
1019:
748:
596:
348:
2765:
1614:
5514:
5258:
5120:
5047:
4722:
4596:
4569:
4546:
4515:
4142:
4137:
4091:
3821:
3472:
3363:
3292:
3242:
3190:
3183:
3164:
1984:
1354:
Handbook of
Research Methods: A Guide for Practitioners and Students in the Social Science
1271:
699:
550:
546:
415:
374:
186:
28:
2527:
189:
at birth, assuming a null hypothesis of equal probability of male and female births; see
3316:
3073:
2676:
2384:
2014:
1905:
1096:
5463:
5458:
3921:
3851:
3497:
3174:
2885:
2858:
2833:
2800:
2488:
2461:
2434:
2407:
2348:
2321:
2297:
2272:
2215:
2104:
1962:
1937:
1777:
Understanding The New
Statistics: Effect Sizes, Confidence Intervals, and Meta-Analysis
1565:
1532:
1433:
1165:
Understanding The New
Statistics: Effect Sizes, Confidence Intervals, and Meta-Analysis
1115:
1080:
299:
171:
134:
66:
446:
To determine whether a result is statistically significant, a researcher calculates a
5706:
5620:
5587:
5450:
5411:
5222:
5191:
4655:
4609:
4214:
3916:
3743:
3507:
3502:
1921:
1733:
791:
600:
200:
133:, there is always the possibility that an observed effect would have occurred due to
3773:
3015:
2392:
2038:
1775:
Cumming, Geoff (2011). "From null hypothesis significance to testing effect sizes".
1588:
Brian, Ăric; Jaisson, Marie (2007). "Physico-Theology and
Mathematics (1710â1794)".
1248:
268:
he recommended that significance levels be set according to specific circumstances.
5562:
5495:
5472:
5387:
4717:
4013:
3911:
3846:
3788:
3710:
3665:
3271:
3265:
Beyond
Significance Testing: Reforming Data Analysis Methods in Behavioral Research
2543:
1996:
752:
530:
499:
498:, and is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis given that it is true (a
214:
210:
3125:
3106:
2784:
679:
3356:
3213:
Thompson, Bruce (2004). "The "significance" crisis in psychology and education".
2745:
2424:
2338:
2250:(1st ed.). Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press. pp. IiâIii.
1533:"Balancing statistical and clinical significance in evaluating treatment effects"
1264:
5605:
5567:
5250:
5151:
5013:
4826:
4793:
4285:
4202:
4197:
3841:
3798:
3778:
3758:
3748:
3517:
3226:
2801:"Thou Shalt Not Bear False Witness Against Null Hypothesis Significance Testing"
1729:
1441:(1st ed.). Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp.
1023:
900:
863:
671:
664:
620:
3325:
3300:
3082:
3057:
2371:
Carver, Ronald P. (1978). "The Case
Against Statistical Significance Testing".
2217:
Risk, Chance, and Causation: Investigating the Origins and Treatment of Disease
1936:
Prel, Jean-Baptist du; Hommel, Gerhard; Röhrig, Bernd; Blettner, Maria (2009).
4451:
3931:
3631:
3562:
3512:
3487:
3407:
3352:" contains an entry on Significance that provides some historical information.
3156:
2999:
2972:
2926:
2909:
2591:
1953:
1913:
1058:
845:
545:. These 5% can be allocated to one side of the sampling distribution, as in a
118:
2824:
2816:
2189:(1st ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 146â152.
1556:
1410:(1st ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. pp. 127â138.
934:(3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. pp. 271â316.
4604:
4456:
4076:
3871:
3783:
3768:
3763:
3728:
3160:
2875:
2248:
Shifting Standards: Experiments in Particle Physics in the Twentieth Century
1323:
Craparo, Robert M. (2007). "Significance level". In Salkind, Neil J. (ed.).
1105:
739:
Other editors, commenting on this ban have noted: "Banning the reporting of
553:, with each tail (or rejection region) containing 2.5% of the distribution.
391:
3334:
3091:
3007:
2945:
2894:
2842:
2535:
2514:
Hojat, Mohammadreza; Xu, Gang (2004). "A Visitor's Guide to Effect Sizes".
2497:
2443:
2357:
2306:
2288:
2022:
1985:
StatNews #73: Overlapping Confidence Intervals and Statistical Significance
1971:
1760:
Hald, Anders (1998), "Chapter 4. Chance or Design: Tests of Significance",
1636:
1574:
1548:
1240:
1205:
1124:
3259:â argues that statistical significance is useful in certain circumstances.
2727:"On doing better science: From thrill of discovery to policy implications"
1503:
University of Alberta, Department of Mathematical and Statistical Sciences
615:, with significance thresholds set at a much stricter level (for example 5
537:, is 5%, and a statistically significant result is one where the observed
4120:
3738:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3577:
3264:
3105:
Wasserstein, Ronald L.; Schirm, Allen L.; Lazar, Nicole A. (2019-03-20).
867:
2936:
5625:
5326:
3168:
3149:
2478:
1327:. Vol. 3. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. pp. 889â891.
1196:
1179:
908:(gives examples of tests where the significance level was set too high)
382:
190:
179:
56:
2561:(Student ed.). New York, NY: Psychology Press. pp. 180â210.
646:
are not uncommonâas the number of tests performed is extremely large.
5547:
4528:
4502:
4482:
3733:
3524:
2620:-values and the Null Hypothesis Significance Testing (NHST) paradigm"
2030:
1701:
The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty Before 1900
1406:
Faherty, Vincent (2008). "Probability and statistical significance".
3349:
2685:
2660:
2509:
2507:
2110:(1st ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp.
1867:(1st ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp.
1232:
1014:
Dalgaard, Peter (2008). "Power and the computation of sample size".
962:(3rd ed.). Milwaukee, WI: ASQ Quality Press. pp. 418â472.
27:
when a result at least as "extreme" would be very infrequent if the
3299:
Amrhein, Valentin; Greenland, Sander; McShane, Blake (2019-03-20).
3056:
McShane, Blake; Greenland, Sander; Amrhein, Valentin (March 2019).
2460:
Amrhein, Valentin; Korner-Nievergelt, FrÀnzi; Roth, Tobias (2017).
2320:
Barsh, GS; Copenhaver, GP; Gibson, G; Williams, SM (July 5, 2012).
794:; alternative propositions are thus to select and justify flexible
170:
Statistical significance dates to the 18th century, in the work of
1385:(13th ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning. pp. 185â226.
603:, statistical significance is often expressed in multiples of the
3371:
What does it mean for a result to be "statistically significant"?
2137:
An Introduction To Experimental Design And Statistics For Biology
2081:(2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning. pp. 177â205.
1018:. Statistics and Computing. New York: Springer. pp. 155â56.
3467:
2766:"The ASA's Statement on p-Values: Context, Process, and Purpose"
2056:(3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning. pp. 189â209.
1302:(8th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning. pp. 300â344.
5436:
5003:
4750:
4049:
3819:
3436:
3380:
3155:
for nearly a century to determine statistical significance of
2702:"P value ban: small step for a journal, giant leap for science"
2582:
Stahel, Werner (2016). "Statistical Issue in Reproducibility".
2221:(1st ed.). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. pp.
2106:
Statistics Explained: An Introductory Guide for Life Scientists
1894:
Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society
1439:
Statistics Explained: An Introductory Guide for Life Scientists
3148:, vol. 321, no. 4 (October 2019), pp. 62â67. "The use of
3376:
2273:"Basic statistical analysis in genetic case-control studies"
2246:
Franklin, Allan (2013). "Prologue: The rise of the sigmas".
2052:
Meier, Kenneth J.; Brudney, Jeffrey L.; Bohte, John (2011).
1180:"Points of significance: Significance, P values and t-tests"
564:
specifies a direction such as whether a group of objects is
549:, or partitioned to both sides of the distribution, as in a
3350:
Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics (S)
2160:
Hinton, Perry R. (2010). "Significance, error, and power".
1470:(3rd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 124â153.
1356:(2nd ed.). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, Inc. pp.
1300:
Probability and Statistics for Engineering and the Sciences
2054:
Applied Statistics for Public and Nonprofit Administration
1434:"Probability helps you make a decision about your results"
798:-value thresholds before collecting data, or to interpret
572:. A two-tailed test may still be used but it will be less
410:
and makes up 5% of the area under the curve (white areas).
156:
refers to the practical importance of a treatment effect.
3236:
Statistical Significance: Rationale, Validity and Utility
2559:
Measurement, Design, and Analysis: An Integrated Approach
2164:(3rd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 79â90.
2139:(1st ed.). Boston, MA: CRC press. pp. 123â154.
1831:
Poletiek, Fenna H. (2001). "Formal theories of testing".
1623:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
990:(3rd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 65â90.
958:
Borror, Connie M. (2009). "Statistical decision making".
556:
The use of a one-tailed test is dependent on whether the
454:-value is less than (or equal to) a predetermined level,
423:-value is less than the pre-specified significance level
2079:
The Essentials of Statistics: A Tool for Social Research
1592:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 1â25.
2961:"'One-size-fits-all' threshold for P values under fire"
2764:
Wasserstein, Ronald L.; Lazar, Nicole A. (2016-04-02).
2759:
2757:
2755:
1762:
A History of Mathematical Statistics from 1750 to 1930
3301:"Scientists rise up against statistical significance"
3058:"Scientists rise up against statistical significance"
1178:
Krzywinski, Martin; Altman, Naomi (30 October 2013).
817:
511:
480:
460:
429:
322:
302:
282:
247:
227:
94:
69:
41:
5289:
Autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity (ARCH)
1864:
Experimental Design and Data Analysis for Biologists
1651:
Conover, W.J. (1999), "Chapter 3.4: The Sign Test",
261:
be set ahead of time, prior to any data collection.
5596:
5533:
5486:
5449:
5404:
5386:
5353:
5344:
5302:
5249:
5210:
5159:
5150:
5071:
5028:
4958:
4924:
4878:
4845:
4807:
4774:
4686:
4595:
4514:
4469:
4437:
4390:
4335:
4261:
4252:
4062:
4004:
3978:
3930:
3885:
3832:
3719:
3674:
3648:
3630:
3586:
3538:
3458:
3449:
3268:
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
568:or the performance of students on an assessment is
399:, the rejection region for a significance level of
2214:
2103:
1432:
1270:. New York, USA: Chapman & Hall/CRC. pp.
1263:
829:
517:
486:
466:
435:
328:
308:
288:
253:
233:
106:
75:
47:
2557:Pedhazur, Elazar J.; Schmelkin, Liora P. (1991).
2002:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A
1381:Babbie, Earl R. (2013). "The logic of sampling".
981:
979:
2408:"Why most published research findings are false"
2322:"Guidelines for Genome-Wide Association Studies"
4837:Multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS)
3357:The Concept of Statistical Significance Testing
1861:Quinn, Geoffrey R.; Keough, Michael J. (2002).
1085:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
808:
634:In other fields of scientific research such as
2646:"Psychology Journal Bans Significance Testing"
1728:Bellhouse, David (2001), "John Arbuthnot", in
930:Sirkin, R. Mark (2005). "Two-sample t tests".
3392:
266:Statistical Methods and Scientific Inference,
148:does not imply importance here, and the term
31:were true. More precisely, a study's defined
8:
2455:
2453:
1081:"Revised standards for statistical evidence"
1806:. Edinburgh, UK: Oliver and Boyd. pp.
1655:(Third ed.), Wiley, pp. 157â176,
1167:. New York, USA: Routledge. pp. 27â28.
5446:
5433:
5350:
5156:
5025:
5000:
4771:
4747:
4475:
4258:
4059:
4046:
3829:
3816:
3455:
3446:
3433:
3399:
3385:
3377:
3159:results has contributed to an illusion of
2626:. School of Education, University of Leeds
2208:
2206:
1325:Encyclopedia of Measurement and Statistics
1009:
1007:
581:Significance thresholds in specific fields
3324:
3124:
3081:
2935:
2925:
2884:
2874:
2832:
2805:Educational and Psychological Measurement
2783:
2684:
2616:"CSSME Seminar Series: The argument over
2487:
2477:
2433:
2423:
2347:
2337:
2296:
1961:
1677:Applied Nonparametric Statistical Methods
1635:
1564:
1293:
1291:
1266:Practical Statistics for Medical Research
1195:
1114:
1104:
816:
510:
479:
459:
428:
321:
301:
281:
246:
226:
93:
68:
40:
3107:"Moving to a World Beyond "p < 0.05""
3031:"Moving Science's Statistical Goalposts"
2187:Scientific Inference: Learning from Data
1856:
1854:
1852:
1803:Statistical Methods for Research Workers
1468:Research Design and Statistical Analysis
988:Research design and statistical analysis
953:
951:
925:
923:
921:
655:necessarily be practically significant.
390:
206:Statistical Methods for Research Workers
1679:(Second ed.), Chapman & Hall,
1590:The Descent of Human Sex Ratio at Birth
960:The Certified Quality Engineer Handbook
917:
623:particle's existence was based on the 5
5363:KaplanâMeier estimator (product limit)
2908:Benjamin, Daniel; et al. (2018).
2859:"A manifesto for reproducible science"
2799:GarcĂa-PĂ©rez, Miguel A. (2016-10-05).
619:). For instance, the certainty of the
535:given that the null hypothesis is true
365:Role in statistical hypothesis testing
3276:Scientific method: Statistical errors
2644:Novella, Steven (February 25, 2015).
2516:Advances in Health Sciences Education
1703:. Harvard University Press. pp.
1489:
1487:
1079:Johnson, Valen E. (October 9, 2013).
502:). It is usually set at or below 5%.
347:Sometimes researchers talk about the
7:
5673:
5373:Accelerated failure time (AFT) model
1045:
1043:
88:by the standards of the study, when
5685:
4968:Analysis of variance (ANOVA, anova)
2910:"Redefine statistical significance"
2385:10.17763/haer.48.3.t490261645281841
733:Basic and Applied Social Psychology
406:is partitioned to both ends of the
5063:CochranâMantelâHaenszel statistics
3689:Pearson product-moment correlation
2661:"Psychology journal bans P values"
2528:10.1023/B:AHSE.0000038173.00909.f6
1653:Practical Nonparametric Statistics
932:Statistics for the Social Sciences
631:-value of about 1 in 3.5 million.
627:criterion, which corresponds to a
14:
2725:Antonakis, John (February 2017).
1938:"Confidence Interval or P-Value?"
1738:in Statisticians of the Centuries
16:Concept in inferential statistics
5684:
5672:
5660:
5647:
5646:
3249:Introducing Statistical Methods,
1140:Biostatistics in Clinical Trials
1051:"Statistical Hypothesis Testing"
848:
776:American Statistical Association
638:, significance levels as low as
5322:Least-squares spectral analysis
1383:The Practice of Social Research
778:(ASA) published a statement on
636:genome-wide association studies
5713:Statistical hypothesis testing
4303:Mean-unbiased minimum-variance
3029:Vyse, Stuart (November 2017).
2659:Woolston, Chris (2015-03-05).
2406:Ioannidis, John P. A. (2005).
1016:Introductory Statistics with R
371:Statistical hypothesis testing
21:statistical hypothesis testing
1:
5616:Geographic information system
4832:Simultaneous equations models
3126:10.1080/00031305.2019.1583913
2785:10.1080/00031305.2016.1154108
2700:Siegfried, Tom (2015-03-17).
107:{\displaystyle p\leq \alpha }
4799:Coefficient of determination
4410:Uniformly most powerful test
3196:University of Michigan Press
2746:10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.01.006
2425:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124
2339:10.1371/journal.pgen.1002812
2213:Bracken, Michael B. (2013).
1833:Hypothesis-testing Behaviour
1740:, Springer, pp. 39â42,
1699:Stigler, Stephen M. (1986).
1537:Postgraduate Medical Journal
1348:Sproull, Natalie L. (2002).
896:Multiple comparisons problem
5368:Proportional hazards models
5312:Spectral density estimation
5294:Vector autoregression (VAR)
4728:Maximum posterior estimator
3960:Randomized controlled trial
3227:10.1016/j.socec.2004.09.034
1942:Deutsches Ărzteblatt Online
1531:Leung, W.-C. (2001-03-01).
1262:Altman, Douglas G. (1999).
1024:10.1007/978-0-387-79054-1_9
595:In specific fields such as
5729:
5128:Multivariate distributions
3548:Average absolute deviation
3326:10.1038/d41586-019-00857-9
3215:Journal of Socio-Economics
3083:10.1038/d41586-019-00857-9
2373:Harvard Educational Review
1800:Fisher, Ronald A. (1925).
906:Texas sharpshooter fallacy
830:{\displaystyle p\leq 0.05}
712:
697:
662:
584:
368:
163:
86:statistically significant,
5642:
5445:
5432:
5116:Structural equation model
5024:
4999:
4770:
4746:
4478:
4452:Score/Lagrange multiplier
4058:
4045:
3867:Sample size determination
3828:
3815:
3445:
3432:
3414:
3206:. Reviews and reception:
3112:The American Statistician
3000:10.1038/s41562-017-0224-0
2973:10.1038/nature.2017.22625
2927:10.1038/s41562-017-0189-z
2771:The American Statistician
2648:. Science-Based Medicine.
2624:www.education.leeds.ac.uk
2592:10.1002/9781118865064.ch5
2077:Healy, Joseph F. (2009).
1954:10.3238/arztebl.2009.0335
1914:10.1017/S030500410001152X
686:between two variables or
387:Type I and type II errors
5611:Environmental statistics
5133:Elliptical distributions
4926:Generalized linear model
4855:Simple linear regression
4625:HodgesâLehmann estimator
4082:Probability distribution
3991:Stochastic approximation
3553:Coefficient of variation
2959:Chawla, Dalmeet (2017).
2817:10.1177/0013164416668232
2734:The Leadership Quarterly
2102:McKillup, Steve (2006).
1431:McKillup, Steve (2006).
720:Overuse in some journals
241:. They recommended that
150:statistical significance
125:that involves drawing a
25:statistical significance
5271:Cross-correlation (XCF)
4879:Non-standard predictors
4313:LehmannâScheffĂ© theorem
3986:Adaptive clinical trial
3251:Sage Publications Ltd,
2876:10.1038/s41562-016-0021
2185:Vaughan, Simon (2013).
1613:John Arbuthnot (1710).
1298:Devore, Jay L. (2011).
1221:Nature Reviews Genetics
1163:Cumming, Geoff (2012).
1106:10.1073/pnas.1313476110
770:Redefining significance
684:correlation coefficient
527:conditional probability
518:{\displaystyle \alpha }
487:{\displaystyle \alpha }
467:{\displaystyle \alpha }
436:{\displaystyle \alpha }
329:{\displaystyle \alpha }
289:{\displaystyle \alpha }
276:The significance level
254:{\displaystyle \alpha }
234:{\displaystyle \alpha }
217:called this cutoff the
48:{\displaystyle \alpha }
5667:Mathematics portal
5488:Engineering statistics
5396:NelsonâAalen estimator
4973:Analysis of covariance
4860:Ordinary least squares
4784:Pearson product-moment
4188:Statistical functional
4099:Empirical distribution
3932:Controlled experiments
3661:Frequency distribution
3439:Descriptive statistics
3285:Cohen, Joseph (1994).
3233:Chow, Siu L., (1996).
3165:reproducibility crises
2988:Nature Human Behaviour
2914:Nature Human Behaviour
2863:Nature Human Behaviour
2289:10.1038/nprot.2010.182
2135:Health, David (1995).
2023:10.1098/rsta.1937.0005
1637:10.1098/rstl.1710.0011
1549:10.1136/pmj.77.905.201
839:
831:
690:, and other measures.
562:alternative hypothesis
519:
488:
468:
437:
411:
379:Alternative hypothesis
330:
310:
290:
255:
235:
108:
77:
49:
5583:Population statistics
5525:System identification
5259:Autocorrelation (ACF)
5187:Exponential smoothing
5101:Discriminant analysis
5096:Canonical correlation
4960:Partition of variance
4822:Regression validation
4666:(JonckheereâTerpstra)
4565:Likelihood-ratio test
4254:Frequentist inference
4166:Locationâscale family
4087:Sampling distribution
4052:Statistical inference
4019:Cross-sectional study
4006:Observational studies
3965:Randomized experiment
3794:Stem-and-leaf display
3596:Central limit theorem
891:Look-elsewhere effect
873:Estimation statistics
832:
585:Further information:
543:sampling distribution
520:
489:
469:
438:
408:sampling distribution
394:
331:
311:
296:is the threshold for
291:
256:
236:
194:-value § History
166:History of statistics
154:clinical significance
109:
78:
50:
5506:Probabilistic design
5091:Principal components
4934:Exponential families
4886:Nonlinear regression
4865:General linear model
4827:Mixed effects models
4817:Errors and residuals
4794:Confounding variable
4696:Bayesian probability
4674:Van der Waerden test
4664:Ordered alternative
4429:Multiple comparisons
4308:RaoâBlackwellization
4271:Estimating equations
4227:Statistical distance
3945:Factorial experiment
3478:Arithmetic-Geometric
3262:Kline, Rex, (2004).
3208:(compiled by Ziliak)
2162:Statistics explained
1630:(325â336): 186â190.
1350:"Hypothesis testing"
815:
509:
478:
458:
427:
320:
300:
280:
245:
225:
176:Pierre-Simon Laplace
92:
67:
39:
5578:Official statistics
5501:Methods engineering
5182:Seasonal adjustment
4950:Poisson regressions
4870:Bayesian regression
4809:Regression analysis
4789:Partial correlation
4761:Regression analysis
4360:Prediction interval
4355:Likelihood interval
4345:Confidence interval
4337:Interval estimation
4298:Unbiased estimators
4116:Model specification
3996:Up-and-down designs
3684:Partial correlation
3640:Index of dispersion
3558:Interquartile range
3317:2019Natur.567..305A
3247:Volume 1 of series
3145:Scientific American
3074:2019Natur.567..305A
2677:2015Natur.519....9W
2015:1937RSPTA.236..333N
1906:1933PCPS...29..492N
1764:, Wiley, p. 65
1675:Sprent, P. (1989),
1097:2013PNAS..11019313J
1091:(48): 19313â19317.
757:Bayesian statistics
613:normal distribution
591:Normal distribution
494:is also called the
221:, which they named
178:, who computed the
5598:Spatial statistics
5478:Medical statistics
5378:First hitting time
5332:Whittle likelihood
4983:Degrees of freedom
4978:Multivariate ANOVA
4911:Heteroscedasticity
4723:Bayesian estimator
4688:Bayesian inference
4537:KolmogorovâSmirnov
4422:Randomization test
4392:Testing hypotheses
4365:Tolerance interval
4276:Maximum likelihood
4171:Exponential family
4104:Density estimation
4064:Statistical theory
4024:Natural experiment
3970:Scientific control
3887:Survey methodology
3573:Standard deviation
3362:2022-09-07 at the
3291:2017-07-13 at the
3241:2013-12-03 at the
3189:2010-06-08 at the
2479:10.7717/peerj.3544
1496:"What is P-value?"
1197:10.1038/nmeth.2698
856:Mathematics portal
827:
715:Misuse of p-values
605:standard deviation
587:Standard deviation
525:is set to 5%, the
515:
505:For example, when
496:significance level
484:
464:
433:
412:
326:
306:
286:
251:
231:
219:significance level
137:alone. But if the
104:
73:
45:
33:significance level
5700:
5699:
5638:
5637:
5634:
5633:
5573:National accounts
5543:Actuarial science
5535:Social statistics
5428:
5427:
5424:
5423:
5420:
5419:
5355:Survival function
5340:
5339:
5202:Granger causality
5043:Contingency table
5018:Survival analysis
4995:
4994:
4991:
4990:
4847:Linear regression
4742:
4741:
4738:
4737:
4713:Credible interval
4682:
4681:
4465:
4464:
4281:Method of moments
4150:Parametric family
4111:Statistical model
4041:
4040:
4037:
4036:
3955:Random assignment
3877:Statistical power
3811:
3810:
3807:
3806:
3656:Contingency table
3626:
3625:
3493:Generalized/power
3311:(7748): 305â307.
3257:978-0-7619-5205-3
3204:978-0-472-07007-7
3179:Deirdre McCloskey
3169:scientific fields
3068:(7748): 305â307.
2601:978-1-118-86497-5
2568:978-0-8058-1063-9
2257:978-0-8229-4430-0
2232:978-0-300-18884-4
2196:978-1-107-02482-3
2171:978-1-84872-312-2
2146:978-1-85728-132-3
2121:978-0-521-54316-3
2088:978-0-495-60143-2
2063:978-1-111-34280-7
1878:978-0-521-00976-8
1842:978-1-84169-159-6
1817:978-0-05-002170-5
1786:978-0-415-87968-2
1747:978-0-387-95329-8
1714:978-0-674-40341-3
1686:978-0-412-44980-2
1662:978-0-471-16068-7
1599:978-1-4020-6036-6
1512:on March 31, 2020
1477:978-0-8058-6431-1
1452:978-0-521-54316-3
1417:978-1-4129-3982-9
1392:978-1-133-04979-1
1367:978-0-8108-4486-5
1334:978-1-4129-1611-0
1309:978-0-538-73352-6
1281:978-0-412-27630-9
1190:(11): 1041â1042.
1149:978-0-471-82211-0
1055:www.dartmouth.edu
1033:978-0-387-79053-4
997:978-0-8058-6431-1
969:978-0-87389-745-7
941:978-1-4129-0546-6
749:likelihood ratios
558:research question
309:{\displaystyle p}
76:{\displaystyle p}
5720:
5688:
5687:
5676:
5675:
5665:
5664:
5650:
5649:
5553:Crime statistics
5447:
5434:
5351:
5317:Fourier analysis
5304:Frequency domain
5284:
5231:
5197:Structural break
5157:
5106:Cluster analysis
5053:Log-linear model
5026:
5001:
4942:
4916:Homoscedasticity
4772:
4748:
4667:
4659:
4651:
4650:(KruskalâWallis)
4635:
4620:
4575:Cross validation
4560:
4542:AndersonâDarling
4489:
4476:
4447:Likelihood-ratio
4439:Parametric tests
4417:Permutation test
4400:1- & 2-tails
4291:Minimum distance
4263:Point estimation
4259:
4210:Optimal decision
4161:
4060:
4047:
4029:Quasi-experiment
3979:Adaptive designs
3830:
3817:
3694:Rank correlation
3456:
3447:
3434:
3401:
3394:
3387:
3378:
3338:
3328:
3230:
3131:
3130:
3128:
3102:
3096:
3095:
3085:
3053:
3047:
3046:
3044:
3042:
3026:
3020:
3019:
2983:
2977:
2976:
2956:
2950:
2949:
2939:
2929:
2905:
2899:
2898:
2888:
2878:
2853:
2847:
2846:
2836:
2796:
2790:
2789:
2787:
2761:
2750:
2749:
2731:
2722:
2716:
2715:
2713:
2712:
2697:
2691:
2690:
2688:
2656:
2650:
2649:
2641:
2635:
2634:
2632:
2631:
2612:
2606:
2605:
2579:
2573:
2572:
2554:
2548:
2547:
2511:
2502:
2501:
2491:
2481:
2457:
2448:
2447:
2437:
2427:
2403:
2397:
2396:
2368:
2362:
2361:
2351:
2341:
2317:
2311:
2310:
2300:
2277:Nature Protocols
2268:
2262:
2261:
2243:
2237:
2236:
2220:
2210:
2201:
2200:
2182:
2176:
2175:
2157:
2151:
2150:
2132:
2126:
2125:
2109:
2099:
2093:
2092:
2074:
2068:
2067:
2049:
2043:
2042:
2009:(767): 333â380.
1993:
1987:
1982:
1976:
1975:
1965:
1932:
1926:
1925:
1889:
1883:
1882:
1858:
1847:
1846:
1828:
1822:
1821:
1797:
1791:
1790:
1772:
1766:
1765:
1757:
1751:
1750:
1725:
1719:
1718:
1696:
1690:
1689:
1672:
1666:
1665:
1648:
1642:
1641:
1639:
1619:
1610:
1604:
1603:
1585:
1579:
1578:
1568:
1543:(905): 201â204.
1528:
1522:
1521:
1519:
1517:
1511:
1505:. Archived from
1500:
1491:
1482:
1481:
1463:
1457:
1456:
1436:
1428:
1422:
1421:
1403:
1397:
1396:
1378:
1372:
1371:
1345:
1339:
1338:
1320:
1314:
1313:
1295:
1286:
1285:
1269:
1259:
1253:
1252:
1216:
1210:
1209:
1199:
1175:
1169:
1168:
1160:
1154:
1153:
1135:
1129:
1128:
1118:
1108:
1076:
1070:
1069:
1067:
1066:
1057:. Archived from
1047:
1038:
1037:
1011:
1002:
1001:
983:
974:
973:
955:
946:
945:
927:
858:
853:
852:
836:
834:
833:
828:
729:
645:
643:
597:particle physics
524:
522:
521:
516:
493:
491:
490:
485:
473:
471:
470:
465:
442:
440:
439:
434:
405:
360:
349:confidence level
335:
333:
332:
327:
315:
313:
312:
307:
295:
293:
292:
287:
272:Related concepts
260:
258:
257:
252:
240:
238:
237:
232:
113:
111:
110:
105:
82:
80:
79:
74:
54:
52:
51:
46:
5728:
5727:
5723:
5722:
5721:
5719:
5718:
5717:
5703:
5702:
5701:
5696:
5659:
5630:
5592:
5529:
5515:quality control
5482:
5464:Clinical trials
5441:
5416:
5400:
5388:Hazard function
5382:
5336:
5298:
5282:
5245:
5241:BreuschâGodfrey
5229:
5206:
5146:
5121:Factor analysis
5067:
5048:Graphical model
5020:
4987:
4954:
4940:
4920:
4874:
4841:
4803:
4766:
4765:
4734:
4678:
4665:
4657:
4649:
4633:
4618:
4597:Rank statistics
4591:
4570:Model selection
4558:
4516:Goodness of fit
4510:
4487:
4461:
4433:
4386:
4331:
4320:Median unbiased
4248:
4159:
4092:Order statistic
4054:
4033:
4000:
3974:
3926:
3881:
3824:
3822:Data collection
3803:
3715:
3670:
3644:
3622:
3582:
3534:
3451:Continuous data
3441:
3428:
3410:
3405:
3364:Wayback Machine
3345:
3298:
3293:Wayback Machine
3243:Wayback Machine
3212:
3191:Wayback Machine
3175:Ziliak, Stephen
3139:
3137:Further reading
3134:
3104:
3103:
3099:
3055:
3054:
3050:
3040:
3038:
3028:
3027:
3023:
2985:
2984:
2980:
2958:
2957:
2953:
2907:
2906:
2902:
2855:
2854:
2850:
2798:
2797:
2793:
2763:
2762:
2753:
2729:
2724:
2723:
2719:
2710:
2708:
2699:
2698:
2694:
2686:10.1038/519009f
2658:
2657:
2653:
2643:
2642:
2638:
2629:
2627:
2614:
2613:
2609:
2602:
2581:
2580:
2576:
2569:
2556:
2555:
2551:
2513:
2512:
2505:
2459:
2458:
2451:
2405:
2404:
2400:
2370:
2369:
2365:
2332:(7): e1002812.
2319:
2318:
2314:
2270:
2269:
2265:
2258:
2245:
2244:
2240:
2233:
2212:
2211:
2204:
2197:
2184:
2183:
2179:
2172:
2159:
2158:
2154:
2147:
2134:
2133:
2129:
2122:
2101:
2100:
2096:
2089:
2076:
2075:
2071:
2064:
2051:
2050:
2046:
1995:
1994:
1990:
1983:
1979:
1935:
1933:
1929:
1891:
1890:
1886:
1879:
1860:
1859:
1850:
1843:
1830:
1829:
1825:
1818:
1799:
1798:
1794:
1787:
1774:
1773:
1769:
1759:
1758:
1754:
1748:
1727:
1726:
1722:
1715:
1698:
1697:
1693:
1687:
1674:
1673:
1669:
1663:
1650:
1649:
1645:
1617:
1612:
1611:
1607:
1600:
1587:
1586:
1582:
1530:
1529:
1525:
1515:
1513:
1509:
1498:
1494:Hooper, Peter.
1493:
1492:
1485:
1478:
1465:
1464:
1460:
1453:
1430:
1429:
1425:
1418:
1405:
1404:
1400:
1393:
1380:
1379:
1375:
1368:
1347:
1346:
1342:
1335:
1322:
1321:
1317:
1310:
1297:
1296:
1289:
1282:
1261:
1260:
1256:
1233:10.1038/nrg3706
1218:
1217:
1213:
1177:
1176:
1172:
1162:
1161:
1157:
1150:
1137:
1136:
1132:
1078:
1077:
1073:
1064:
1062:
1049:
1048:
1041:
1034:
1013:
1012:
1005:
998:
985:
984:
977:
970:
957:
956:
949:
942:
929:
928:
919:
915:
887:of significance
878:Fisher's method
854:
847:
844:
813:
812:
772:
725:
722:
717:
711:
702:
700:Reproducibility
696:
694:Reproducibility
667:
661:
652:
641:
639:
593:
583:
551:two-tailed test
547:one-tailed test
507:
506:
476:
475:
456:
455:
425:
424:
416:null hypothesis
400:
397:two-tailed test
389:
375:Null hypothesis
369:Main articles:
367:
351:
318:
317:
298:
297:
278:
277:
274:
243:
242:
223:
222:
187:human sex ratio
168:
162:
90:
89:
65:
64:
37:
36:
29:null hypothesis
23:, a result has
17:
12:
11:
5:
5726:
5724:
5716:
5715:
5705:
5704:
5698:
5697:
5695:
5694:
5682:
5670:
5656:
5643:
5640:
5639:
5636:
5635:
5632:
5631:
5629:
5628:
5623:
5618:
5613:
5608:
5602:
5600:
5594:
5593:
5591:
5590:
5585:
5580:
5575:
5570:
5565:
5560:
5555:
5550:
5545:
5539:
5537:
5531:
5530:
5528:
5527:
5522:
5517:
5508:
5503:
5498:
5492:
5490:
5484:
5483:
5481:
5480:
5475:
5470:
5461:
5459:Bioinformatics
5455:
5453:
5443:
5442:
5437:
5430:
5429:
5426:
5425:
5422:
5421:
5418:
5417:
5415:
5414:
5408:
5406:
5402:
5401:
5399:
5398:
5392:
5390:
5384:
5383:
5381:
5380:
5375:
5370:
5365:
5359:
5357:
5348:
5342:
5341:
5338:
5337:
5335:
5334:
5329:
5324:
5319:
5314:
5308:
5306:
5300:
5299:
5297:
5296:
5291:
5286:
5278:
5273:
5268:
5267:
5266:
5264:partial (PACF)
5255:
5253:
5247:
5246:
5244:
5243:
5238:
5233:
5225:
5220:
5214:
5212:
5211:Specific tests
5208:
5207:
5205:
5204:
5199:
5194:
5189:
5184:
5179:
5174:
5169:
5163:
5161:
5154:
5148:
5147:
5145:
5144:
5143:
5142:
5141:
5140:
5125:
5124:
5123:
5113:
5111:Classification
5108:
5103:
5098:
5093:
5088:
5083:
5077:
5075:
5069:
5068:
5066:
5065:
5060:
5058:McNemar's test
5055:
5050:
5045:
5040:
5034:
5032:
5022:
5021:
5004:
4997:
4996:
4993:
4992:
4989:
4988:
4986:
4985:
4980:
4975:
4970:
4964:
4962:
4956:
4955:
4953:
4952:
4936:
4930:
4928:
4922:
4921:
4919:
4918:
4913:
4908:
4903:
4898:
4896:Semiparametric
4893:
4888:
4882:
4880:
4876:
4875:
4873:
4872:
4867:
4862:
4857:
4851:
4849:
4843:
4842:
4840:
4839:
4834:
4829:
4824:
4819:
4813:
4811:
4805:
4804:
4802:
4801:
4796:
4791:
4786:
4780:
4778:
4768:
4767:
4764:
4763:
4758:
4752:
4751:
4744:
4743:
4740:
4739:
4736:
4735:
4733:
4732:
4731:
4730:
4720:
4715:
4710:
4709:
4708:
4703:
4692:
4690:
4684:
4683:
4680:
4679:
4677:
4676:
4671:
4670:
4669:
4661:
4653:
4637:
4634:(MannâWhitney)
4629:
4628:
4627:
4614:
4613:
4612:
4601:
4599:
4593:
4592:
4590:
4589:
4588:
4587:
4582:
4577:
4567:
4562:
4559:(ShapiroâWilk)
4554:
4549:
4544:
4539:
4534:
4526:
4520:
4518:
4512:
4511:
4509:
4508:
4500:
4491:
4479:
4473:
4471:Specific tests
4467:
4466:
4463:
4462:
4460:
4459:
4454:
4449:
4443:
4441:
4435:
4434:
4432:
4431:
4426:
4425:
4424:
4414:
4413:
4412:
4402:
4396:
4394:
4388:
4387:
4385:
4384:
4383:
4382:
4377:
4367:
4362:
4357:
4352:
4347:
4341:
4339:
4333:
4332:
4330:
4329:
4324:
4323:
4322:
4317:
4316:
4315:
4310:
4295:
4294:
4293:
4288:
4283:
4278:
4267:
4265:
4256:
4250:
4249:
4247:
4246:
4241:
4236:
4235:
4234:
4224:
4219:
4218:
4217:
4207:
4206:
4205:
4200:
4195:
4185:
4180:
4175:
4174:
4173:
4168:
4163:
4147:
4146:
4145:
4140:
4135:
4125:
4124:
4123:
4118:
4108:
4107:
4106:
4096:
4095:
4094:
4084:
4079:
4074:
4068:
4066:
4056:
4055:
4050:
4043:
4042:
4039:
4038:
4035:
4034:
4032:
4031:
4026:
4021:
4016:
4010:
4008:
4002:
4001:
3999:
3998:
3993:
3988:
3982:
3980:
3976:
3975:
3973:
3972:
3967:
3962:
3957:
3952:
3947:
3942:
3936:
3934:
3928:
3927:
3925:
3924:
3922:Standard error
3919:
3914:
3909:
3908:
3907:
3902:
3891:
3889:
3883:
3882:
3880:
3879:
3874:
3869:
3864:
3859:
3854:
3852:Optimal design
3849:
3844:
3838:
3836:
3826:
3825:
3820:
3813:
3812:
3809:
3808:
3805:
3804:
3802:
3801:
3796:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3751:
3746:
3741:
3736:
3731:
3725:
3723:
3717:
3716:
3714:
3713:
3708:
3707:
3706:
3701:
3691:
3686:
3680:
3678:
3672:
3671:
3669:
3668:
3663:
3658:
3652:
3650:
3649:Summary tables
3646:
3645:
3643:
3642:
3636:
3634:
3628:
3627:
3624:
3623:
3621:
3620:
3619:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3598:
3592:
3590:
3584:
3583:
3581:
3580:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3544:
3542:
3536:
3535:
3533:
3532:
3527:
3522:
3521:
3520:
3515:
3510:
3505:
3500:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3483:Contraharmonic
3480:
3475:
3464:
3462:
3453:
3443:
3442:
3437:
3430:
3429:
3427:
3426:
3421:
3415:
3412:
3411:
3406:
3404:
3403:
3396:
3389:
3381:
3375:
3374:
3367:
3353:
3344:
3343:External links
3341:
3340:
3339:
3296:
3283:
3269:
3260:
3231:
3221:(5): 607â613.
3210:
3172:
3138:
3135:
3133:
3132:
3119:(sup1): 1â19.
3097:
3048:
3021:
2978:
2951:
2900:
2848:
2811:(4): 631â662.
2791:
2778:(2): 129â133.
2751:
2717:
2692:
2651:
2636:
2607:
2600:
2574:
2567:
2549:
2503:
2449:
2398:
2379:(3): 378â399.
2363:
2312:
2263:
2256:
2238:
2231:
2202:
2195:
2177:
2170:
2152:
2145:
2127:
2120:
2094:
2087:
2069:
2062:
2044:
1988:
1977:
1927:
1900:(4): 492â510.
1884:
1877:
1848:
1841:
1823:
1816:
1792:
1785:
1767:
1752:
1746:
1720:
1713:
1691:
1685:
1667:
1661:
1643:
1605:
1598:
1580:
1523:
1483:
1476:
1458:
1451:
1423:
1416:
1398:
1391:
1373:
1366:
1340:
1333:
1315:
1308:
1287:
1280:
1254:
1227:(5): 335â346.
1211:
1184:Nature Methods
1170:
1155:
1148:
1130:
1071:
1039:
1032:
1003:
996:
975:
968:
947:
940:
916:
914:
911:
910:
909:
903:
898:
893:
888:
880:for combining
875:
870:
860:
859:
843:
840:
826:
823:
820:
771:
768:
721:
718:
710:
707:
698:Main article:
695:
692:
663:Main article:
660:
657:
651:
648:
582:
579:
514:
483:
463:
432:
366:
363:
338:false positive
325:
305:
285:
273:
270:
250:
230:
172:John Arbuthnot
164:Main article:
161:
158:
135:sampling error
103:
100:
97:
72:
44:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5725:
5714:
5711:
5710:
5708:
5693:
5692:
5683:
5681:
5680:
5671:
5669:
5668:
5663:
5657:
5655:
5654:
5645:
5644:
5641:
5627:
5624:
5622:
5621:Geostatistics
5619:
5617:
5614:
5612:
5609:
5607:
5604:
5603:
5601:
5599:
5595:
5589:
5588:Psychometrics
5586:
5584:
5581:
5579:
5576:
5574:
5571:
5569:
5566:
5564:
5561:
5559:
5556:
5554:
5551:
5549:
5546:
5544:
5541:
5540:
5538:
5536:
5532:
5526:
5523:
5521:
5518:
5516:
5512:
5509:
5507:
5504:
5502:
5499:
5497:
5494:
5493:
5491:
5489:
5485:
5479:
5476:
5474:
5471:
5469:
5465:
5462:
5460:
5457:
5456:
5454:
5452:
5451:Biostatistics
5448:
5444:
5440:
5435:
5431:
5413:
5412:Log-rank test
5410:
5409:
5407:
5403:
5397:
5394:
5393:
5391:
5389:
5385:
5379:
5376:
5374:
5371:
5369:
5366:
5364:
5361:
5360:
5358:
5356:
5352:
5349:
5347:
5343:
5333:
5330:
5328:
5325:
5323:
5320:
5318:
5315:
5313:
5310:
5309:
5307:
5305:
5301:
5295:
5292:
5290:
5287:
5285:
5283:(BoxâJenkins)
5279:
5277:
5274:
5272:
5269:
5265:
5262:
5261:
5260:
5257:
5256:
5254:
5252:
5248:
5242:
5239:
5237:
5236:DurbinâWatson
5234:
5232:
5226:
5224:
5221:
5219:
5218:DickeyâFuller
5216:
5215:
5213:
5209:
5203:
5200:
5198:
5195:
5193:
5192:Cointegration
5190:
5188:
5185:
5183:
5180:
5178:
5175:
5173:
5170:
5168:
5167:Decomposition
5165:
5164:
5162:
5158:
5155:
5153:
5149:
5139:
5136:
5135:
5134:
5131:
5130:
5129:
5126:
5122:
5119:
5118:
5117:
5114:
5112:
5109:
5107:
5104:
5102:
5099:
5097:
5094:
5092:
5089:
5087:
5084:
5082:
5079:
5078:
5076:
5074:
5070:
5064:
5061:
5059:
5056:
5054:
5051:
5049:
5046:
5044:
5041:
5039:
5038:Cohen's kappa
5036:
5035:
5033:
5031:
5027:
5023:
5019:
5015:
5011:
5007:
5002:
4998:
4984:
4981:
4979:
4976:
4974:
4971:
4969:
4966:
4965:
4963:
4961:
4957:
4951:
4947:
4943:
4937:
4935:
4932:
4931:
4929:
4927:
4923:
4917:
4914:
4912:
4909:
4907:
4904:
4902:
4899:
4897:
4894:
4892:
4891:Nonparametric
4889:
4887:
4884:
4883:
4881:
4877:
4871:
4868:
4866:
4863:
4861:
4858:
4856:
4853:
4852:
4850:
4848:
4844:
4838:
4835:
4833:
4830:
4828:
4825:
4823:
4820:
4818:
4815:
4814:
4812:
4810:
4806:
4800:
4797:
4795:
4792:
4790:
4787:
4785:
4782:
4781:
4779:
4777:
4773:
4769:
4762:
4759:
4757:
4754:
4753:
4749:
4745:
4729:
4726:
4725:
4724:
4721:
4719:
4716:
4714:
4711:
4707:
4704:
4702:
4699:
4698:
4697:
4694:
4693:
4691:
4689:
4685:
4675:
4672:
4668:
4662:
4660:
4654:
4652:
4646:
4645:
4644:
4641:
4640:Nonparametric
4638:
4636:
4630:
4626:
4623:
4622:
4621:
4615:
4611:
4610:Sample median
4608:
4607:
4606:
4603:
4602:
4600:
4598:
4594:
4586:
4583:
4581:
4578:
4576:
4573:
4572:
4571:
4568:
4566:
4563:
4561:
4555:
4553:
4550:
4548:
4545:
4543:
4540:
4538:
4535:
4533:
4531:
4527:
4525:
4522:
4521:
4519:
4517:
4513:
4507:
4505:
4501:
4499:
4497:
4492:
4490:
4485:
4481:
4480:
4477:
4474:
4472:
4468:
4458:
4455:
4453:
4450:
4448:
4445:
4444:
4442:
4440:
4436:
4430:
4427:
4423:
4420:
4419:
4418:
4415:
4411:
4408:
4407:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4398:
4397:
4395:
4393:
4389:
4381:
4378:
4376:
4373:
4372:
4371:
4368:
4366:
4363:
4361:
4358:
4356:
4353:
4351:
4348:
4346:
4343:
4342:
4340:
4338:
4334:
4328:
4325:
4321:
4318:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4305:
4304:
4301:
4300:
4299:
4296:
4292:
4289:
4287:
4284:
4282:
4279:
4277:
4274:
4273:
4272:
4269:
4268:
4266:
4264:
4260:
4257:
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4245:
4242:
4240:
4237:
4233:
4230:
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4225:
4223:
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4216:
4215:loss function
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3918:
3917:Questionnaire
3915:
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3896:
3893:
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3745:
3744:Control chart
3742:
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3348:The article "
3347:
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3310:
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3302:
3297:
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3272:Nuzzo, Regina
3270:
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3197:
3194:. Ann Arbor,
3193:
3192:
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2413:
2412:PLOS Medicine
2409:
2402:
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2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2367:
2364:
2359:
2355:
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2327:
2326:PLOS Genetics
2323:
2316:
2313:
2308:
2304:
2299:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2283:(2): 121â33.
2282:
2278:
2274:
2267:
2264:
2259:
2253:
2249:
2242:
2239:
2234:
2228:
2224:
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2209:
2207:
2203:
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2138:
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2128:
2123:
2117:
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2108:
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2098:
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2084:
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2073:
2070:
2065:
2059:
2055:
2048:
2045:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2003:
1998:
1992:
1989:
1986:
1981:
1978:
1973:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1948:(19): 335â9.
1947:
1943:
1939:
1931:
1928:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
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1082:
1075:
1072:
1061:on 2020-08-02
1060:
1056:
1052:
1046:
1044:
1040:
1035:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1010:
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999:
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861:
857:
851:
846:
841:
838:
824:
821:
818:
807:
803:
801:
797:
793:
792:data dredging
789:
785:
781:
777:
774:In 2016, the
769:
767:
765:
760:
758:
754:
753:Bayes factors
750:
746:
742:
737:
735:
734:
728:
719:
716:
708:
706:
701:
693:
691:
689:
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666:
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656:
649:
647:
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632:
630:
626:
622:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
601:manufacturing
598:
592:
588:
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575:
571:
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559:
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536:
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512:
503:
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453:
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444:
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417:
409:
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398:
393:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
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362:
358:
354:
350:
345:
343:
339:
323:
303:
283:
271:
269:
267:
262:
248:
228:
220:
216:
212:
208:
207:
202:
201:Ronald Fisher
197:
196:for details.
195:
193:
188:
184:
182:
177:
173:
167:
159:
157:
155:
151:
147:
142:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
115:
101:
98:
95:
87:
83:
70:
62:of a result,
61:
59:
42:
35:, denoted by
34:
30:
26:
22:
5689:
5677:
5658:
5651:
5563:Econometrics
5513: /
5496:Chemometrics
5473:Epidemiology
5466: /
5439:Applications
5281:ARIMA model
5228:Q-statistic
5177:Stationarity
5073:Multivariate
5016: /
5012: /
5010:Multivariate
5008: /
4948: /
4944: /
4718:Bayes factor
4617:Signed rank
4529:
4503:
4495:
4483:
4178:Completeness
4014:Cohort study
3912:Opinion poll
3847:Missing data
3834:Study design
3789:Scatter plot
3711:Scatter plot
3704:Spearman's Ï
3666:Grouped data
3308:
3304:
3279:
3263:
3248:
3234:
3218:
3214:
3182:
3157:experimental
3150:
3143:
3116:
3110:
3100:
3065:
3061:
3051:
3039:. Retrieved
3034:
3024:
2991:
2987:
2981:
2964:
2954:
2937:10281/184094
2917:
2913:
2903:
2866:
2862:
2851:
2808:
2804:
2794:
2775:
2769:
2737:
2733:
2720:
2709:. Retrieved
2706:Science News
2705:
2695:
2668:
2664:
2654:
2639:
2628:. Retrieved
2623:
2617:
2610:
2583:
2577:
2558:
2552:
2522:(3): 241â9.
2519:
2515:
2469:
2465:
2415:
2411:
2401:
2376:
2372:
2366:
2329:
2325:
2315:
2280:
2276:
2266:
2247:
2241:
2216:
2186:
2180:
2161:
2155:
2136:
2130:
2105:
2097:
2078:
2072:
2053:
2047:
2006:
2000:
1991:
1980:
1945:
1941:
1930:
1897:
1893:
1887:
1863:
1832:
1826:
1802:
1795:
1776:
1770:
1761:
1755:
1737:
1723:
1700:
1694:
1676:
1670:
1652:
1646:
1627:
1621:
1608:
1589:
1583:
1540:
1536:
1526:
1516:November 10,
1514:. Retrieved
1507:the original
1502:
1467:
1461:
1438:
1426:
1407:
1401:
1382:
1376:
1353:
1343:
1324:
1318:
1299:
1265:
1257:
1224:
1220:
1214:
1187:
1183:
1173:
1164:
1158:
1139:
1133:
1088:
1084:
1074:
1063:. Retrieved
1059:the original
1054:
1015:
987:
959:
931:
809:
804:
799:
795:
787:
783:
779:
773:
761:
744:
740:
738:
731:
726:
723:
703:
675:
668:
653:
633:
628:
624:
616:
608:
594:
569:
565:
555:
538:
534:
531:type I error
504:
500:type I error
495:
451:
447:
445:
420:
413:
401:
356:
352:
346:
342:type I error
275:
265:
263:
218:
215:Egon Pearson
211:Jerzy Neyman
204:
198:
191:
180:
169:
149:
146:significance
145:
143:
138:
116:
85:
63:
57:
32:
24:
18:
5691:WikiProject
5606:Cartography
5568:Jurimetrics
5520:Reliability
5251:Time domain
5230:(LjungâBox)
5152:Time-series
5030:Categorical
5014:Time-series
5006:Categorical
4941:(Bernoulli)
4776:Correlation
4756:Correlation
4552:JarqueâBera
4524:Chi-squared
4286:M-estimator
4239:Asymptotics
4183:Sufficiency
3950:Interaction
3862:Replication
3842:Effect size
3799:Violin plot
3779:Radar chart
3759:Forest plot
3749:Correlogram
3699:Kendall's Ï
2994:(1): 0224.
2920:(1): 6â10.
2869:(1): 0021.
2740:(1): 5â21.
2671:(7541): 9.
2418:(8): e124.
901:Sample size
882:independent
864:A/B testing
764:metascience
674:along with
672:effect size
665:Effect size
659:Effect size
650:Limitations
621:Higgs boson
123:observation
5558:Demography
5276:ARMA model
5081:Regression
4658:(Friedman)
4619:(Wilcoxon)
4557:Normality
4547:Lilliefors
4494:Student's
4370:Resampling
4244:Robustness
4232:divergence
4222:Efficiency
4160:(monotone)
4155:Likelihood
4072:Population
3905:Stratified
3857:Population
3676:Dependence
3632:Count data
3563:Percentile
3540:Dispersion
3473:Arithmetic
3408:Statistics
3035:csicop.org
2711:2016-12-01
2630:2016-12-01
2586:: 87â114.
1997:Neyman, J.
1730:C.C. Heyde
1065:2019-11-11
913:References
713:See also:
709:Challenges
688:its square
607:or sigma (
131:population
119:experiment
4939:Logistic
4706:posterior
4632:Rank sum
4380:Jackknife
4375:Bootstrap
4193:Bootstrap
4128:Parameter
4077:Statistic
3872:Statistic
3784:Run chart
3769:Pie chart
3764:Histogram
3754:Fan chart
3729:Bar chart
3611:L-moments
3498:Geometric
3161:certainty
2825:0013-1644
2472:: e3544.
1922:119855116
1734:E. Seneta
1557:0032-5473
822:≤
680:Cohen's d
513:α
482:α
462:α
431:α
324:α
284:α
249:α
229:α
199:In 1925,
102:α
99:≤
43:α
5707:Category
5653:Category
5346:Survival
5223:Johansen
4946:Binomial
4901:Isotonic
4488:(normal)
4133:location
3940:Blocking
3895:Sampling
3774:QâQ plot
3739:Box plot
3721:Graphics
3616:Skewness
3606:Kurtosis
3578:Variance
3508:Heronian
3503:Harmonic
3360:Archived
3335:30894741
3289:Archived
3274:(2014).
3239:Archived
3198:, 2009.
3187:Archived
3181:(2008),
3167:in many
3092:30894741
3016:46814177
3008:30980046
2946:30980045
2895:33954258
2843:30034024
2536:15316274
2498:28698825
2444:16060722
2393:16355113
2358:22792080
2307:21293453
2039:19584450
1972:19547734
1736:(eds.),
1575:11222834
1249:10961123
1241:24739678
1206:24344377
1125:24218581
868:ABX test
842:See also
755:. Using
574:powerful
185:for the
5679:Commons
5626:Kriging
5511:Process
5468:studies
5327:Wavelet
5160:General
4327:Plug-in
4121:L space
3900:Cluster
3601:Moments
3419:Outline
3313:Bibcode
3070:Bibcode
3041:10 July
2886:7610724
2834:5991793
2673:Bibcode
2544:8045624
2489:5502092
2435:1182327
2349:3390399
2298:3154648
2223:260â276
2011:Bibcode
1963:2689604
1902:Bibcode
1705:225â226
1566:1741942
1116:3845140
1093:Bibcode
682:), the
611:) of a
566:heavier
383:p-value
355:= (1 â
160:History
129:from a
117:In any
5548:Census
5138:Normal
5086:Manova
4906:Robust
4656:2-way
4648:1-way
4486:-test
4157:
3734:Biplot
3525:Median
3518:Lehmer
3460:Center
3333:
3305:Nature
3280:Nature
3255:
3202:
3153:values
3090:
3062:Nature
3014:
3006:
2965:Nature
2944:
2893:
2883:
2841:
2831:
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