Stem rust - Knowledge (XXG)

435: 404:. The "war against barberries" was waged and called upon the help of citizens through radio and newspaper advertisements, pamphlets, and fair booths asking for help from all in the attempt to rid the barberry bushes of their existence. Later, in 1975–1980, the program was reestablished under state jurisdiction. Once this happened, a federal quarantine was established against the sale of stem rust susceptible barberry in those states that were part of the program. A barberry testing program was created to ensure that only those species and varieties of barberry that are immune to stem rust will be grown in the quarantine area. 1629:. These have a worty appearance and are formed in chains – unlike the urediniospores that are spiny and are produced on individual stalks. The chains of aeciospores are surrounded by a bell-like enclosure of fungal cells. The aeciospores are able to germinate on the cereal host but not on the alternative host (they are produced on the alternative host, which is usually barberry). They are carried by wind to the cereal host where they germinate and the germ tubes penetrate into the plant. The fungus grows inside the plant as a dikaryotic mycelium. Within 1–2 weeks the mycelium produces uredinia and the cycle is complete. 1348: 326:), the rust god. They would perform this ritual in the spring during a festival known as the Robigalia in hopes of the wheat crop being spared from the destruction caused by the rust. Weather records from that time have been reexamined and it has been speculated that the fall of the Roman Empire was due to a string of rainy seasons in which the rust would have been more harsh, resulting in reduced wheat harvests. Laws banning barberry were established in 1660 in 62: 1436: 617: 4882:

Jamie; Millet, Eitan; Minz-Dub, Anna; Ronen, Moshe; Avni, Raz; Sharon, Amir; Patpour, Mehran; Justesen, Annemarie F.; Jayakodi, Murukarthick; Himmelbach, Axel; Stein, Nils; Wu, Shuangye; Poland, Jesse; Ens, Jennifer; Pozniak, Curtis; Karafiátová, Miroslava; Molnár, István; Doležel, Jaroslav; Ward, Eric R.; Reuber, T. Lynne; Jones, Jonathan D. G.; Mascher, Martin; Steffenson, Brian J.; Wulff, Brande B. H. (2022).

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season to another. In other cases the fungus passes between winter wheat and spring wheat, meaning that it has a cereal host all year round. Since the urediniospores are wind dispersed, this can occur over large distances. Note that this cycle consists simply of vegetative propagation – urediniospores infect one wheat plant, leading to the production of more urediniospores that then infect other wheat plants.

1560:. They are spiny and brick-red. Urediniospores are the only type of spores in the rust fungus life cycle that are capable of infecting the host on which they are produced, and this is therefore referred to as the 'repeating stage' of the life cycle. It is the spread of urediniospores that allows infection to spread from one cereal plant to another. This phase can rapidly spread the infection over a wide area. 3633:

A.; Lucas, S. M.; Mago, R.; Mauceli, E.; Morin, E.; Murat, C.; Pangilinan, J. L.; Park, R.; Pearson, M.; Quesneville, H.; Rouhier, N.; Sakthikumar, S.; Salamov, A. A.; Schmutz, J.; Selles, B.; Shapiro, H.; Tanguay, P.; Tuskan, G. A.; Henrissat, B.; Van de Peer, Y.; Rouze, P.; Ellis, J. G.; Dodds, P. N.; Schein, J. E.; Zhong, S.; Hamelin, R. C.; Grigoriev, I. V.; Szabo, L. J.; Martin, F. (2011-05-02).

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Hu, Zhaorong; Guo, Weilong; Li, Guoqiang; Ma, Xin; Li, Junming; Han, Fangpu; Fu, Xiangdong; Ma, Zhengqiang; Wang, Daowen; Zhang, Xueyong; Ling, Hong-Qing; Xia, Guangmin; Tong, Yiping; Liu, Zhiyong; He, Zhonghu; Jia, Jizeng; Chong, Kang (2022). "Wheat genomic study for genetic improvement of traits in China".

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Xiao, Jun; Liu, Bao; Yao, Yingyin; Guo, Zifeng; Jia, Haiyan; Kong, Lingrang; Zhang, Aimin; Ma, Wujun; Ni, Zhongfu; Xu, Shengbao; Lu, Fei; Jiao, Yuannian; Yang, Wuyun; Lin, Xuelei; Sun, Silong; Lu, Zefu; Gao, Lifeng; Zhao, Guangyao; Cao, Shuanghe; Chen, Qian; Zhang, Kunpu; Wang, Mengcheng; Wang, Meng;

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lifestyle involves the dramatic up-regulation of particular gene transcriptions, constituting its biotrophy genomic features. These genomic regions have parallels in other eukaryotic plant pathogens. These parallels – between these independently evolved and unrelated sets of genes – show a strong and

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million towards research into Ug99, to be spent on critical infrastructure in Africa. Scientists are working on breeding strains of wheat that are resistant to UG99. However, wheat is grown in a broad range of environments. This means that breeding programs would have extensive work remaining to get

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later conducted experiments to observe the beliefs of European farmers regarding the relationship between the rust and barberry plants, and after connecting the basidiospores of the basidia stage to barberry, he also identified that the aeciospores in the aecia stage reinfect the wheat host. Upon de

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Olivera, Pablo; Newcomb, Maria; Szabo, Les J.; Rouse, Matthew; Johnson, Jerry; Gale, Samuel; Luster, Douglas G.; Hodson, David; Cox, James A.; Burgin, Laura; Hort, Matt; Gilligan, Christopher A.; Patpour, Mehran; Justesen, Annemarie F.; Hovmøller, Mogens S.; Woldeab, Getaneh; Hailu, Endale; Hundie,

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Duplessis, S.; Cuomo, C. A.; Lin, Y.-C.; Aerts, A.; Tisserant, E.; Veneault-Fourrey, C.; Joly, D. L.; Hacquard, S.; Amselem, J.; Cantarel, B. L.; Chiu, R.; Coutinho, P. M.; Feau, N.; Field, M.; Frey, P.; Gelhaye, E.; Goldberg, J.; Grabherr, M. G.; Kodira, C. D.; Kohler, A.; Kues, U.; Lindquist, E.

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discovered the characteristic five-spore stage that is known in some stem rust species. The brothers were also able to make a connection between the red (urediniospore) and black (teliospore) spores as different stages within the life cycle of the same organism, but the rest of the stages remained

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This can occur unassisted (the robust nature of the spores allows them to be carried long distances in the air and then deposited by rain-scrubbing) or assisted (typically on human clothing or infected plant material that is transported between regions). This type of dispersal is rare and is very

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Yu, Guotai; Matny, Oadi; Champouret, Nicolas; Steuernagel, Burkhard; Moscou, Matthew J.; Hernández-Pinzón, Inmaculada; Green, Phon; Hayta, Sadiye; Smedley, Mark; Harwood, Wendy; Kangara, Ngonidzashe; Yue, Yajuan; Gardener, Catherine; Banfield, Mark J.; Olivera, Pablo D.; Welchin, Cole; Simmons,

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Since the urediniospores are produced on the cereal host and can infect the cereal host, it is possible for the infection to pass from one year's crop to the next without infecting the alternate host (barberry). For example, infected volunteer wheat plants can serve as a bridge from one growing

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Upadhyaya, Narayana M.; Mago, Rohit; Panwar, Vinay; Hewitt, Tim; Luo, Ming; Chen, Jian; Sperschneider, Jana; Nguyen-Phuc, Hoa; Wang, Aihua; Ortiz, Diana; Hac, Luch; Bhatt, Dhara; Li, Feng; Zhang, Jianping; Ayliffe, Michael; Figueroa, Melania; Kanyuka, Kostya; Ellis, Jeffrey G.; Dodds, Peter N.

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s on wheat in 1997 in the United States – being absent only from the southern Great Plains and the west, but then was down to 10% in 1998. In the upper Great Plains it was already declining – to 26% of samples in 1997, and 12% in 1998. In the most fertile areas of the eastern US it was 96% of

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by European colonists. Barberry was used for many things like making wine and jams from the berries to tool handles from the wood. Ultimately, as they did in Europe, the colonists began to notice a relationship between barberry and stem rust epidemics in wheat. Laws were enacted in many

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Singh, Ravi P.; Hodson, David P.; Huerta-Espino, Julio; Jin, Yue; Bhavani, Sridhar; Njau, Peter; Herrera-Foessel, Sybil; Singh, Pawan K.; Singh, Sukhwinder; Govindan, Velu (2011-09-08). "The Emergence of Ug99 Races of the Stem Rust Fungus is a Threat to World Wheat Production".

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Singh, Ravi P.; Hodson, David P.; Huerta-Espino, Julio; Jin, Yue; Bhavani, Sridhar; Njau, Peter; Herrera-Foessel, Sybil; Singh, Pawan K.; Singh, Sukhwinder; Govindan, Velu (2011). "The Emergence of Ug99 Races of the Stem Rust Fungus is a Threat to World Wheat Production".

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and the receptive hyphae. The pycniospores are produced in a sticky honeydew that attracts insects. The insects carry pycniospores from one leaf to another. Splashing raindrops can also spread pycniospores. A pycniospore can fertilise a receptive hypha of the opposite

2038:, Australia, rapidly produced virulence between 1982 and 1984 – the first virulence on this gene in the world. (This was especially associated with the cultivar Coorong.) Therefore, CIMMYT's triticale offerings were tested and many were found to depend solely on 4302:

Hatta, Muhammad Asyraf Muhammad; Ghosh, Sreya; Athiyannan, Naveenkumar; Richardson, Terese; Steuernagel, Burkhard; Yu, Guotai; Rouse, Matthew N.; Ayliffe, Michael; Lagudah, Evans S.; Radhakrishnan, Guru V.; Periyannan, Sambasivam K.; Wulff, Brande B. H. (2020).

1590:. This is an important source of genetic recombination in the life cycle. Basidiospores are thin-walled and colourless. They cannot infect the cereal host, but can infect the alternative host (barberry). They are usually carried to the alternative host by wind. 247:. These diseases have affected cereal farming throughout history. The annual recurrence of stem rust of wheat in North Indian plains was discovered by K.C. Mehta. Since the 1950s, wheat strains bred to be resistant to stem rust have become available. 4708:

Periyannan, Sambasivam; Moore, John; Ayliffe, Michael; Bansal, Urmil; Wang, Xiaojing; Huang, Li; Deal, Karin; Luo, Mingcheng; Kong, Xiuying; Bariana, Harbans; Mago, Rohit; McIntosh, Robert; Dodds, Peter; Dvorak, Jan; Lagudah, Evans (2013-06-27).

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The rust is sometimes termed "red rust" or "red dust" owing to the spores on the leaf surfaces that range from orange to dark-red in color. Later, the spores change and become dark in color, which gives rise to another common name, "black rust".

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Salcedo, Andres; Rutter, William; Wang, Shichen; Akhunova, Alina; Bolus, Stephen; Chao, Shiaoman; Anderson, Nickolas; De Soto, Monica Fernandez; Rouse, Matthew; Szabo, Les; Bowden, Robert L.; Dubcovsky, Jorge; Akhunov, Eduard (2017-12-21).

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Kumar, Sachin; Fetch, Tom G.; Knox, Ron E.; Singh, Asheesh K.; Clarke, John M.; Depauw, Ron M.; Cuthbert, Richard D.; Campbell, Heather L.; Singh, Davinder; Bhavani, Sridhar; Pozniak, Curtis J.; Meyer, Brad; Clarke, Fran R. (2020-11-19).

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Stem rust on wheat is characterized by the presence of uredinia on the plant, which are brick-red, elongated, blister-like pustules that are easily shaken off. They most frequently occur on the leaf sheaths, but are also found on

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and set fewer seed, and in cases of severe infection the plant may die. Infection can reduce what is an apparently healthy crop about three weeks before harvest into a black tangle of broken stems and shriveled grains by harvest.

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s on barley in the United States. Also afflicted wheat until a mass switch away from vulnerable cultivars resulted in complete absence in 1997 or 1998. Barley virulence is temperature-sensitive: from 18–20 °C (64–68 °F)

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Spores are typically deposited close to the source, but long-distance dispersal is also well documented commonly out to hundreds of kilometres/miles. The following three categories of long-distance dispersal are known to occur:

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was introgressed into wheat, which provides an additional asset for wheat improvement to mitigate yield losses caused by stem rust. Singh et al. (2011) provide a list of known Sr genes and their effectiveness against Ug99.

330:, France. This was due to the fact that European farmers noticed a correlation between barberry and stem rust epidemics in wheat. The law banned the planting of barberry near wheat fields and was the first of its kind. 5098:

Singh, Ravi; Hodson, David; Jin, Yue; Lagudah, Evans; Ayliffe, Michael; Bhavani, Sridhar; Rouse, Matthew; Pretorius, Zacharias; Szabo, Les; Huerta-Espino, Julio; Basnet, Bhoja; Lan, Caixia; Hovmoller, Mogens (2015).

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colonies, but as the farmers moved west, the problem with stem rust moved with them and began to spread to many areas, creating a devastating epidemic in 1916. It was not until two years later in 1918 that the

1601:) that directly penetrates the epidermis and colonises the leaf. Once inside the leaf the mycelium produces specialised infection structures called pycnia. The pycnia produce two types of haploid gametes, the 1307:

The stem rust fungus attacks the parts of the plant that are above ground. Spores that land on green wheat plants form a pustule that invades the outer layers of the stalk. Infected plants produce fewer

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The virulent new race, against which most current wheat strains show no resistance, was identified in 1999. The race was named TTKSK (e.g. isolate Ug99), named after the country where it was identified

308:, "Stem rust destroyed more than 20% of U.S. wheat crops several times between 1917 and 1935, and losses reached 9% twice in the 1950s," with the last U.S. outbreak in 1962 destroying 5.2% of the crop. 303:

The fungal ancestors of stem rust have infected grasses for millions of years and wheat crops for as long as they have been grown. According to Jim Peterson, professor of wheat breeding and genetics at

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Hodson, D. P.; Jaleta, M.; Tesfaye, K.; Yirga, C.; Beyene, H.; Kilian, A.; Carling, J.; Disasa, T.; Alemu, S. K.; Daba, T.; Alemayehu, Y.; Badebo, A.; Abeyo, B.; Erenstein, O. (2020-10-28).

1692:– typically temperate regions where hosts are absent during either the winter or summer. Spores overwinter or oversummer in another region and then recolonise when conditions are favorable. 967:

s in 1997 but then suddenly fell to 29% in 1998. In a few other locations in the US, and overall across the US, this race declined 97–98 in favor of other races, and not because of overall

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The North American race nomenclature system was introduced in 1988 by Roelfs and Martens. This nomenclature is a series of letters each of which indicate virulence/avirulence against one

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resistance into regionally adapted germplasms even after resistance is identified. Similarly, in 2014, a Ug99 race called "Digalu" emerged and devastated the Digalu variety in Ethiopia.

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created a program to remove barberry. The program was one that was supported by state and federal entities and was partly prompted by the threat it posed to food supplies during

5220: 4804: 4732: 3189: 1379:. On leaves they develop mostly on the underside but may penetrate to the upperside. On leaf sheaths and glumes pustules rupture the epidermis, giving a ragged appearance. 2672:

Saunders, Diane G. O.; Wulff, Brande B. H.; Thomas, Jane; Fenwick, Paul M.; Visser, Botma; Steffenson, Brian; Singh, Ravi P.; Sela, Hanan; Roohparvar, Ramin (2018-02-08).

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samples, and 67% in 1990. Afflicted spring-sown barley in the northern Great Plains in 1990. Was the first barley stem rust to show up in the United States in 1991, in

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are highly effective, but above 27 °C (81 °F) they are ineffective. Not necessarily distinguishable from QCCJ, used synonymously by some practitioners.

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on stems and leaves is typical of a general stem rust as well as any variation of this type of fungus. Different from most fungi, the rust variations have five

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Steffenson, B. J.; Case, A. J.; Pretorius, Z. A.; Coetzee, V.; Kloppers, F. J.; Zhou, H.; Chai, Y.; Wanyera, R.; Macharia, G.; Bhavani, S.; Grando, S. (2017).

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Visser, Botma; Meyer, Marcel; Park, Robert F.; Gilligan, Christopher A.; Burgin, Laura E.; Hort, Matthew C.; Hodson, David P.; Pretorius, Zacharias A. (2019).

5078: 4305:"Extensive Genetic Variation at the Sr22 Wheat Stem Rust Resistance Gene Locus in the Grasses Revealed Through Evolutionary Genomics and Functional Analyses" 2381: 254:

In 1999 a new virulent race of stem rust was identified against which most current wheat strains show no resistance. The race was named TTKSK (e.g. isolate

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Fetch, Thomas; Park, Robert; Pretorius, Zacharias; Depauw, Ronald (2021), "Stem rust: its history in Kenya and research to combat a global wheat threat",

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Raccolta di tutte le opere del chiarissimo cavaliere Giuseppe Maria Giovene con note dell'editore Luigi Marinelli Giovene: Memorie fisico agrarie

4017: 315:'s time (384–322 BC). An early ancient practice by the Romans was one where they would sacrifice red animals such as foxes, dogs, and cows to 5193: 4118:

Wessels, Elsabet; Prins, Renee; Boshoff, Willem; Zurn, Jason; Acevedo, Maricelis; Pretorius, Zacharias (2019), "Mapping a Resistance Gene to

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still are which is diagnostic for the presence of various races of stem rust – but the complete absence of Ug99 specifically – from Lebanon.

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The fungus weakens the stems, which can lead to lodging (falling over). In severe cases lodging can make mechanical harvesting impossible.

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Towards the end of the cereal host's growing season, the mycelia produce structures called telia. Telia produce a type of spore called

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s afflicting wheat in the US in 1995, 1% in 1996, and not at all in 1997 or 1998. Not found on barley in 1997 but found again in 1998.

5114: 4318: 4137: 3505: 3439: 3367: 3275: 3058: 3002: 2819: 5283: 4555: 4018:"Press release: Rust-resistant bread wheat varieties widely adopted in Ethiopia, study shows » CGIAR Research Program on WHEAT" 3195: 2405: 2184:

was introgressed into wheat, which provides an additional asset for wheat improvement to mitigate yield losses caused by stem rust.

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South Africa itself has an ongoing problem with various stem rust outbreaks which requires better response, including an indigenous

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Watson, I A.; Cass Smith, W. P.; Shipton, W. A. (1966). "Strains of stem and leaf rust on wheat in Western Australia since 1951".

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difficult to predict. This is especially known to rarely occur across thousands of km/mi from South Africa to Western Australia.

2498: 1419: in) from the leaf surface. So important is its role in maintenance of prevalence that since the near extermination of the 5259: 4669: 4617: 4573: 4413: 3907: 3842: 1918:, 2019 find the Ug99 resistance of cv. 'Matlabas' is probably due to this gene. Wessels finds it is present in less than 5% of 467: 4074: 293:, combined with plant pathology and climate data, has pointed out the potential of the re-emergence of stem wheat rust in UK. 4386: 3793: 5490: 1618:. This is the sexual stage of the life cycle and cross-fertilisation provides an important source of genetic recombination. 3172: 5524: 3226: 2205: 1984: 1982:

and rarely in hexaploid wheat. Located on the 3A chromosome arm, originally from 3R. Virulence has been observed in field

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are produced. For this reason stem rust is also known as "black rust". The telia are firmly attached to the plant tissue.

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None of the Sr genes provide resistance to all races of stem rust. For instance many of them are ineffective against the

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break through the lower leaf surface. The aecial cups are yellow and sometimes elongate to extend up to 5 millimetres (

482: 5472: 5074: 5029: 2228: 718:, causing major concern due to the large numbers of people dependent on wheat for sustenance, thus threatening global 530: 443: 274:, causing major concern due to the large numbers of people dependent on wheat for sustenance, thus threatening global 493: 914:

Found in the US on wheat in 1997 and 1998 – but only in the West across both years. On barley in 1997 but not 1998.

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This is probably the most common mode of long-distance dispersal and usually occurs within a country or region.

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Miura, Flora of Manchuria and East Mongolia, III Cryptogams, Fungi (Industr. Contr. S. Manch. Rly 27): 283 (1928)

61: 5611: 5105: 4084:(DAY 2) - Phytosanitary Safety for Transboundary pest prevention - Yellow and Black rust population variability 3358: 3266: 3049: 2993: 2810: 2331: 822: 648: 1240:

A.L. Guyot, Massenot & Saccas, Annales de l'École Nationale d'Agriculture de Grignon, sér. 3 5: 145 (1946)

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A.L. Guyot, Massenot & Saccas, Annales de l'École Nationale d'Agriculture de Grignon, sér. 3 5: 142 (1946)

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Sharma Poudel, Roshan; Richards, Jonathan; Shrestha, Subidhya; Solanki, Shyam; Brueggeman, Robert (2019).

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developed Operation Steelyard, a plan to drop wheat stem rust mixed with feathers over wheat farms in the

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McIntosh, R. A.; Brown, G. N. (1997). "Anticipatory Breeding for Resistance to Rust Diseases in Wheat".

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in a sticky honeydew. Five to ten days later, cup-shaped structures filled with orange-yellow, powdery

1351: 360: 1771:, which was effective against all previous stem rust races. Recently, a new stem rust resistance gene 5552: 5425: 5394: 4979: 4905: 4808: 4736: 4483: 4194: 3734: 3598: 2564: 1541:

Due to its cyclical nature, there is no true 'start point' for this process. Here, the production of

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plants in the spring, usually in the upper leaf surfaces. They are often in small clusters and exude

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Pustules break through epidermis, which disrupt the plant's control of transpiration and can lead to

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Bhardwaj, S.C.; Nyar, S.K.; Prashar, M.; Kumar, J; Menon, M.K.; Singh, S.B. (1990). "A pathotype of

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Jin, Y; Steffenson, BJ; Miller, JD (1994). "Inheritance of resistance to pathotypes QCC and MCC of

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and Kansas in 1990/91, and so was expected to thereafter be a permanent part of the North American

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over Soviet farms, with the intention of destroying up to 50% of the Soviet winter wheat harvest.

1975: 1914:, both in 2010, already had virulence when retested against this new gene. Both Rouse and Wessels 1556:(contain two un-fused, haploid nuclei in one cell) and are formed on individual stalks within the 934:

s on wheat, barley, and oat in the US in 1997, and 31% in 1998. Displaced the previously dominant

30:"Red rust" redirects here. For the genus of parasitic thalloid green algae known as red rust, see 5144: 5066: 5013: 4947: 4852: 4770: 4515: 4220: 4167: 4100: 3957: 3768: 3614: 3535: 3459: 3397: 3295: 2588: 1355: 181: 56: 5464: 4361: 782:

population. Further pathogen adaptation, resulting in widening of the host range, is expected.

5616: 5573: 5381: 5136: 5128: 5058: 5050: 5005: 4997: 4939: 4921: 4844: 4826: 4795: 4762: 4754: 4723: 4690: 4646: 4638: 4594: 4551: 4507: 4499: 4463:"Genomics accelerated isolation of a new stem rust avirulence gene–wheat resistance gene pair" 4442: 4434: 4340: 4332: 4275: 4212: 4159: 4151: 3996: 3978: 3924: 3871: 3863: 3760: 3752: 3692: 3674: 3527: 3519: 3451: 3389: 3381: 3287: 3080: 3072: 2960: 2942: 2887: 2841: 2833: 2756: 2705: 2629: 2580: 2401: 2080: 1487: 1453: 951: 450: 4411:

Park, Robert F.; Wellings, Colin R. (2012-09-08). "Somatic Hybridization in the Uredinales".

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contains many races of wheat diseases, including some of the most significant in the world.

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Due to the useful nature of both barberry and wheat plants, they were eventually brought to

4791:"Variation in the AvrSr35gene determines Sr35 resistance against wheat stem rust race Ug99" 5560: 4479: 3966: 3953:"Ethiopia's transforming wheat landscape: tracking variety use through DNA fingerprinting" 3721: 3321: 2309:

is naturally immune to rusts. If a genetic source of this resistance could be identified,

2217: 2031: 1895: 1309: 955: 723: 459: 364: 103: 2798:"Microsatellite Analysis and Urediniospore Dispersal Simulations Support the Movement of 1593:

Once basidiospores arrive on a leaf of the alternative host, they germinate to produce a

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Bhattacharya, Shaoni (2017-02-09). "Deadly new wheat disease threatens Europe's crops".

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The parasitic nature of stem rust was discovered in the 1700s. Two Italian scientists,

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Urediniospores are formed in structures called uredinia, which are produced by fungal

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on barley was QCCJ. On wheat, QCCJ was still the most common race but only at 38% of

812: 800: 719: 575: 397: 387: 371: 275: 113: 93: 3772: 3618: 3539: 3463: 3401: 3299: 1204:(Erikss. & Henn.) Stakman & Piem., J. Agric. Res., Washington 10: 433 (1917) 651:, as diagnosed by performance against a group of cultivars known to bear that gene. 5386: 4634: 3256:

Roelfs, A. P.; Martens, J. W. (1988). "An International System of Nomenclature for

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Hovmøller, Mogens S.; Pretorius, Zacharias A.; Saunders, Diane G. O. (2019-02-04).

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can complete its life cycle either with or without barberry (the alternate host).

351:, also thoroughly studied the stem rust. Thirty years later it received its name, 48: 375:

Bary's discovery of all five spore stages and their need for barberry as a host,

17: 5529: 5511: 5446: 5366: 5315: 5123: 5100: 4962:"Current understanding of atypical resistance against fungal pathogens in wheat" 3376: 3345: 2991:

in barley line Q21861 and temperature effects on the expression of resistance".

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This occurs in areas that have unsuitable conditions for year-round survival of

1607: 1602: 1499: 1402: 1324: 862: 715: 401: 392: 271: 232: 31: 5357: 4917: 4495: 4146: 3974: 3514: 3487: 3067: 3036: 2828: 2797: 2478: 889:

The first QCC race (since renamed QCCJ or QCCJB) was detected in the northwest

5188: 5183: 5162:

Kirby; Carus (2020). "Agroterrorism Perspectives". In Mauroni; Norton (eds.).

5046: 4992: 4961: 4327: 4304: 3747: 3730: 3716: 3635:"Obligate biotrophy features unraveled by the genomic analysis of rust fungi, 3577: 3107: 2937: 2742: 2691: 2576: 2314: 2133: 2035: 1939:

but does provide moderate resistance at later stages. It is effective against

1626: 1564: 1406: 1364: 5132: 5054: 5001: 4925: 4830: 4758: 4694: 4642: 4598: 4503: 4438: 4336: 4279: 4216: 4155: 3982: 3867: 3756: 3678: 3523: 3455: 3385: 3344:

Bekele; Tadesse, Kebede; Pumphrey, Michael; Singh, Ravi P.; Jin, Yue (2015).

3291: 3076: 2946: 2891: 2837: 5407: 4821: 4749: 4710: 3669: 2606:

Wanyera, R.; Macharia, J. K.; Kilonzo, S. M.; Kamundia, J. W. (2009-08-06).

2294: 2276: 2019: 1979: 1764: 1734: 1579: 1557: 1320:

Fungus absorbs nutrients that would otherwise be used for grain development.

870: 854: 850: 408: 312: 248: 244: 73: 5477: 5140: 5062: 5009: 4943: 4848: 4766: 4650: 4511: 4446: 4344: 4163: 4000: 3928: 3875: 3764: 3696: 3531: 3393: 3084: 2964: 2845: 2760: 2709: 2633: 2624: 2607: 2584: 2469:

Schumann, G.L.; Leonard, K. J. (2011) . "Stem rust of wheat (black rust)".

1464:, requiring two hosts to complete its life cycle – the cereal host and the 1228:

A.L. Guyot, Massenot & Saccas ex Z. Urb., Česká Mykol. 21(1): 14 (1967)

341:, first explained the stem rust fungus in wheat in 1767. Italian scientist 285:

in 2016, suggesting that the disease is returning to Europe. Comprehensive

2608:"Foliar Fungicides to Control Wheat Stem Rust, Race TTKS (Ug99), in Kenya" 5565: 5498: 5351: 4975: 4091:

Germplasm Health Webinar series. Vol. Phytosanitary Awareness Week.

3283: 3010: 2659: 2380:

Singh, Ravi P.; Hodson, David; Huerta-Espino, Julio; et al. (2008).

2152:

came first, followed by the selective pressure of widespread adoption of

2084: 2015: 2007: 1911: 1786: 1615: 1611: 1594: 1568: 1553: 1549: 1470: 1456:(it colonizes living plant cells) and has a complex life cycle featuring 1444: 1398: 1296:

Sowerby, Col. fig. Engl. Fung. Mushr. (London) 2(no. 13): tab. 140 (1799)

927: 748: 703: 691: 591: 259: 133: 5165:

Agroterrorism: National Defense Assessment, Strategies, and Capabilities

4571:

Roelfs, A P (1988). "Genetic Control of Phenotypes in Wheat Stem Rust".

1216:

A.L. Guyot, Massenot & Saccas, Ann. Ec. Agric. Grignon 5: 145 (1946)

1052:(Erikss. & Henn.) Kuntze, Revis. gen. pl. (Leipzig) 3(3): 470 (1898) 281:

An outbreak of another virulent race of stem rust, TTTTF, took place in

5438: 4354: 4289: 4261: 4078: 3938: 3883: 3610: 3447: 3354:

that Caused a Wheat Stem Rust Epidemic in Southern Ethiopia in 2013–14"

3094: 1869: 1598: 1583: 1476: 817: 590:

stages and alternate between two hosts. Wheat is the primary host, and

316: 286: 5451: 1434: 1288:(Pers. ex J.F. Gmel.) Gray, Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. (London) 1: 534 (1821) 5503: 5289: 4357: 2674:"Potential for re-emergence of wheat stem rust in the United Kingdom" 2195: 2092: 1785:

There has been significant uptake of resistant wheat varieties among

1703: 1622: 1552:

on the cereal host 1–2 weeks after infection. The urediniospores are

1383: 950:

samples from wheat in 1991 in the United States. Unusually severe in

771: 707: 683: 565: 544: 503: 412: 323: 282: 263: 240: 228: 219: 83: 5328: 5171:. U.S. Air Force Center for Strategic Deterrence Studies. p. 9. 2883: 5412: 5295: 5197: 4377: 4350: 4285: 4096: 4088: 4022: 3934: 3879: 3090: 2027: 1957:

alleles, with some conferring resistance and some susceptibility.

1790: 1719: 1372: 1346: 1330:

Interference with plant vascular tissue leads to shriveled grains.

1012:

Rebent., Prodr. fl. neomarch. (Berolini): 352, tab. 3:11a-b (1804)

775: 744: 699: 695: 687: 587: 579: 561: 439: 433: 327: 236: 1020:(Pers. ex J.F. Gmel.) Schltdl., Fl. berol. (Berlin) 2: 112 (1824) 792:

Synonymous with QCCJB or known as QCC-2 by some classifications.

5399: 4667:

Johnson, R (1984). "A Critical Analysis of Durable Resistance".

2725:"Tackling the re-emergence of wheat stem rust in Western Europe" 2306: 2260: 2096: 2050:

has become less common in CIMMYT triticales since the mid-'80s.

1940: 1936: 1760: 1706:(Sr genes) have been identified in wheat. Some of them arose in 1368: 711: 675: 667: 663: 267: 255: 5332: 1092:

Barclay, J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, Pt. 2, Nat. Sci. 58: 246 (1889)

1060:(Arthur) Arthur, Résult. Sci. Congr. Bot. Wien 1905: 344 (1906) 4248:"Mapping of Ug99 stem rust resistance in Canadian durum wheat" 1971: 1743: 611: 540: 477: 415:

origin, and in 2018 DNA analysis confirmed that, specifically

3424:

Roelfs, A. P.; Long, D. L.; Roberts, J. J. (1993). "Races of

231:

crops. Crop species that are affected by the disease include

3346:"Phenotypic and Genotypic Characterization of Race TKTTF of 2064:, which was effective against all previous stem rust races. 4012: 4010: 3812:

Journal of the Department of Agriculture, Western Australia

3419: 3417: 3415: 3413: 3411: 1427:

in the United States, epidemics in crops have become rare.

1389:

The site of infection is a visible symptom of the disease.

1036:(Fuckel) Kuntze, Revis. gen. pl. (Leipzig) 3(3): 467 (1898) 5274: 3589:

Peterson, Ronald H. (1974). "The rust fungus life cycle".

3481: 3479: 3477: 3475: 3473: 2010:

and slight degree of sporulation commonly allowed by most

1316:

Stem rust of cereals causes yield losses in several ways:

4872: 4870: 4868: 4866: 1494:) is considered to be the most important alternate host. 992:

Pers. ex J.F. Gmel., Syst. Nat., Edn 13 2(2): 1473 (1792)

706:

of stem rust on wheat caused by race TTKSK spread across

379:, a Canadian pathologist, identified the function of the 262:

of stem rust on wheat caused by race TTKSK spread across

3030: 3028: 3026: 3024: 3022: 3020: 2915:

that modulate barley rpg4-mediated stem rust resistance"

1797:(the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center). 1789:

farmers since 2014 – a great deal of which is thanks to

1264:

Speg., Anal. Mus. nac. Hist. nat. B. Aires 6: 224 (1898)

1044:(Pers.) Gray, Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. (London) 1: 542 (1821) 4960:

Sinha, Arunima; Singh, Lovepreet; Rawat, Nidhi (2022).

4719:

Genes, Encodes Resistance to Wheat Stem Rust Race Ug99"

2864:

Park, R. F. (2007). "Stem rust of wheat in Australia".

2657:

Kaplan, Karen (July 22, 2009) "A red alert for wheat".

2156:

wheat races, followed by the evolution of virulence on

2095:. Confers broad resistance to multiple races including 628: 4610: 4608: 4537: 4535: 4533: 4531: 4529: 4054:(the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center) 1621:

This dikaryotic mycelium then forms structures called

926:

s on wheat in 1991. Traces found growing in northwest

4406: 4404: 1132:

G.H. Otth, Mitt. naturf. Ges. Bern 531-552: 88 (1864)

1068:

G.H. Otth, Mitt. naturf. Ges. Bern 531-552: 88 (1864)

686:) and the year of its discovery (1999). It spread to 311:

Stem rust has been an ongoing problem dating back to

4047:"Shining a brighter light on adoption and diffusion" 2042:. Four years later, in 1988, virulence was found in 1003:

Rebent., Prodr. fl. neomarch. (Berolini): 352 (1804)

5341: 5221:

Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International

5093: 5091: 4805:

American Association for the Advancement of Science

4733:

American Association for the Advancement of Science

4240: 4238: 4236: 3834: 3832: 3830: 3828: 1625:, which produce a type of dikaryotic spores called 251:effective against stem rust are available as well. 4372: 4370: 3486:McVey, D. V.; Long, D. L.; Roberts, J. J. (2002). 3169:(International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center) 3159:"North American Stem Rust Nomenclature Code Sheet" 3037:"Vulnerability of Barley to African Pathotypes of 865:before the 1991 season resulted in an epidemic in 348:Lettera al dottor Cosimo Moschettini sulla ruggine 2978: 2976: 2974: 1256:Röhl., Deutschl. Fl. (Frankfurt) 3(3): 132 (1813) 1100:Fuckel, Jb. nassau. Ver. Naturk. 27-28: 15 (1874) 1076:C.-J. Duval, in Hoppe, Bot. Taschenb.: 257 (1793) 463:, which vary in host range have been identified. 411:were found and for decades one hypothesis was an 2499:"Wheat disease a threat to global food security" 2382:"Will Stem Rust Destroy The World's Wheat Crop?" 2132:gene so named because it was discovered causing 1272:Erikss. & Henn., Z. PflKrankh. 4: 140 (1894) 1028:(Barclay) Syd., Annls mycol. 20(3/4): 117 (1922) 833:in 1991. 67% of QCCJ was from barley and 95% of 815:. Thought to be responsible for rusting of wild 674:and now has proliferated into a large number of 4662: 4660: 4093:International Institute of Tropical Agriculture 3652:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 3315: 3313: 3311: 3309: 1575:is able to overwinter independently of a host. 1354:(Infected and uninfected depending on specific 702:, and becomes more virulent as it spreads. An 2791: 2789: 2787: 2026:virulent on wheat with this gene was found in 1124:Schumach., Enum. pl. (Kjbenhavn) 2: 233 (1801) 5200:'s Research Program on Rice). pp. 38–39. 4542:McIntosh, RA; Wellings, CR; Park, RF (1995). 3710: 3708: 3706: 3578:Animated video of the life cycle of stem rust 3322:"Ug99 Stem Rust – Breaching Wheat's Defences" 2492: 2490: 2488: 2464: 2462: 2460: 2458: 2456: 2454: 2452: 2450: 2448: 1718:), while others have been bred in from other 1486:) that are susceptible to stem rust, but the 1280:Arthur, Bull. Torrey bot. Club 28: 663 (1901) 1116:H. Mart., Prodr. Fl. Mosq., Edn 2: 227 (1817) 346: 8: 5079:National Natural Science Foundation of China 2859: 2857: 2855: 2446: 2444: 2442: 2440: 2438: 2436: 2434: 2432: 2430: 2428: 2160:by way of nonfunctionalization mutations of 1382:Towards the end of the growing season black 1156:Mayor, Revue Mycol., Paris 22(3): 273 (1957) 1140:Gäum., Ber. schweiz. bot. Ges. 55: 79 (1945) 1108:T.S. Ramakr., Indian Phytopath. 6: 30 (1954) 1084:Mayor, Revue Mycol., Paris 22(3): 278 (1957) 2867:Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 2653: 2651: 2649: 2647: 2645: 2643: 5329: 4544:Wheat Rusts - An Atlas of Resistance Genes 3899: 3897: 3895: 3893: 3492:in the United States During 1997 and 1998" 2375: 2373: 2371: 2253:Originally from the widespread Ethiopian ' 2174:Recently, a new stem rust resistance gene 47: 38: 5260:Cereal Rusts and Powdery Mildews Bulletin 5122: 4991: 4933: 4838: 4820: 4748: 4326: 4269: 4206: 4145: 4126:in the Bread Wheat Cultivar 'Matlabas'", 3990: 3746: 3686: 3668: 3513: 3375: 3066: 2954: 2936: 2827: 2750: 2699: 2623: 2369: 2367: 2365: 2363: 2361: 2359: 2357: 2355: 2353: 2351: 2006:s that does not allow the underdeveloped 1651:spore types that are known for rust fungi 1498:is macrocyclic (exhibits all five of the 1248:Ellis & Barthol., Erythea 4: 2 (1896) 825:and Great Plains, and overall was 94% of 407:In 1969 two races not detected before in 4075:Lebanese Agricultural Research Institute 2208:from that species. Was discovered by Yu 1545:is arbitrarily chosen as a start point. 958:, in 1991. TPMK was the worst at 69% of 5039:Springer Science and Business Media LLC 4902:Springer Science and Business Media LLC 3232:United States Department of Agriculture 2929:Springer Science and Business Media LLC 2347: 1567:. These black, thick-walled spores are 954:in the first week of June, and in west 5213:"Does rust-free rice hold the secret?" 3787:Sounding the Alarm on Global Stem Rust 1953:There is considerable variation among 1180:Z. Urb., Česká Mykol. 21(1): 14 (1967) 841:. Continues to threaten barley in the 227:, which causes significant disease in 5194:International Rice Research Institute 1732:) or from other members of the tribe 893:in 1988, and by 1990 was over 90% of 7: 5553:155d2162-bd25-401d-8b82-00b695e834a6 4310:Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions 2550: 2548: 2030:in 1972. Deployment in triticale in 1978:), now (as of 2021) widely found in 1009:Aecidium berberidis var. cylindricum 722:. In 2011, after it had spread into 4687:10.1146/annurev.py.22.090184.001521 4591:10.1146/annurev.py.26.090188.002031 4431:10.1146/annurev-phyto-072910-095405 4253:Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology 4182:Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology 3921:10.1146/annurev-phyto-072910-095423 3860:10.1146/annurev-phyto-072910-095423 3428:in the United States During 1991". 3330:British Society for Plant Pathology 2507:Australian Broadcasting Corporation 1935:does not protect seedlings against 1586:to form four haploid spores called 5115:American Phytopathological Society 4319:American Phytopathological Society 4138:American Phytopathological Society 3506:American Phytopathological Society 3440:American Phytopathological Society 3368:American Phytopathological Society 3276:American Phytopathological Society 3059:American Phytopathological Society 3003:American Phytopathological Society 2820:American Phytopathological Society 2806:from Southern Africa to Australia" 2239:which are common among plants. Yu 1571:. They are the only form in which 25: 5290:Animation of stem rust life cycle 5284:Food and Agriculture Organization 5211:Cameron, Katherine (2011-02-28). 3196:Food and Agriculture Organization 2497:Vincent, Michael (1 March 2011). 2140:– is the ancestral allele to all 1662:Extremely long-distance dispersal 1610:, leading to the production of a 4967:Current Opinion in Plant Biology 4103:from the original on 2021-12-14. 3554:"Species Fungorum - GSD Species" 3190:"Rust - Stem: Race Nomenclature" 2774:Giovene, Giuseppe Maria (1839). 1894:Discovered and found to provide 1698:Wheat stem rust resistance genes 1502:that are known for rust fungi). 930:fields, also in 1991. 8% of all 615: 60: 4670:Annual Review of Phytopathology 4618:Annual Review of Phytopathology 4574:Annual Review of Phytopathology 4414:Annual Review of Phytopathology 3908:Annual Review of Phytopathology 3843:Annual Review of Phytopathology 3320:Hawkins, Nichola (2021-01-20). 5275:Borlaug Global Rust Initiative 4635:10.1146/annurev.phyto.35.1.311 4387:Borlaug Global Rust Initiative 3794:Borlaug Global Rust Initiative 27:Fungus disease of cereal crops 1: 4271:10.1080/07060661.2020.1843073 4208:10.1080/07060661.2021.1902860 4045:Yasabu, Simret (2020-12-15). 3818:(8): Article 7. p. 365: 3227:Agricultural Research Service 2533:Plant diseases identification 2398:10.1016/S0065-2113(08)00205-8 2293:bombers would drop 500-pound 2144:alleles that are virulent on 1683:Extinction and recolonisation 1327:and infection by other fungi. 770:Successfully overwintered in 457:, and several special forms, 190: 5192:. Vol. 10, no. 1. 3661:National Academy of Sciences 2289:. If the plan were enacted, 2124:conferring some resistance. 1468:. There are many species in 5124:10.1094/phyto-01-15-0030-fi 5075:Chinese Academy of Sciences 5030:Science China Life Sciences 3377:10.1094/phyto-11-14-0302-fi 2471:The Plant Health Instructor 1868:are no longer effective in 1633:Life cycle without barberry 1168:Baudyš, Lotos 64: 29 (1916) 444:Botanical Museum Greifswald 5638: 5182:McCandless, Linda (2011). 4918:10.1038/s41467-022-29132-8 4496:10.1038/s41477-021-00971-5 4147:10.1094/pdis-10-18-1731-re 3975:10.1038/s41598-020-75181-8 3637:Melampsora larici-populina 3515:10.1094/pdis.2002.86.6.568 3068:10.1094/phyto-11-16-0400-r 3045:and Sources of Resistance" 2829:10.1094/phyto-04-18-0110-r 2479:10.1094/PHI-I-2000-0721-01 2274: 2264: 1763:lineage. Notably Ug99 has 1578:Each teliospore undergoes 1458:alternation of generations 743:JRCQC is a race affecting 574:is a member of the phylum 29: 5047:10.1007/s11427-022-2178-7 4993:10.1016/j.pbi.2022.102247 4328:10.1094/mpmi-01-20-0018-r 3748:10.1016/j.cub.2013.09.034 2938:10.1186/s12864-019-6369-7 2780:. Cannone. pp. 152–. 2743:10.1038/s42003-019-0294-9 2692:10.1038/s42003-018-0013-y 2577:10.1038/nature.2017.21424 2291:Boeing B-29 Superfortress 2060:Ug99 is virulent against 1673:Step-wise range expansion 1649:produces all five of the 935: 869:and northwestern Kansas. 861:and the adjacent part of 345:(1753–1837), in his work 187: 180: 162: 155: 57:Scientific classification 55: 46: 41: 4715:, an Ortholog of Barley 1480:(and their hybrid genus 1269:Puccinia phlei-pratensis 1049:Dicaeoma phlei-pratensis 823:Midwestern United States 5622:Fungi described in 1794 4822:10.1126/science.aao7294 4750:10.1126/science.1239028 3715:Gross, Michael (2013). 3670:10.1073/pnas.1019315108 3558:www.speciesfungorum.org 2305:Alone amongst cereals, 2283:United States Air Force 1582:(fusion of nuclei) and 1261:Puccinia megalopotamica 1105:Puccinia brizae-maximae 873:against barley bearing 594:is the alternate host. 424:breeding for resistance 359:, and in 1854 brothers 306:Oregon State University 4099:. Slide at 00:44:37. 3326:Plant Pandemic Studies 2730:Communications Biology 2679:Communications Biology 2625:10.1094/PDIS-93-9-0929 2194:An NLR (or NB-LRR, or 1753:Thinopyrum intermedium 1702:A number of stem rust 1537:Life cycle on barberry 1439: 1359: 859:South Central Oklahoma 449:There is considerable 446: 347: 343:Giuseppe Maria Giovene 5286:of the United Nations 4893:Nature Communications 4264:UK Limited: 599–611. 3222:"Race identification" 3134:"Wheat Rust Diseases" 2317:could be the future. 2235:which is composed of 2233:tandem protein kinase 2014:s. Instead there are 1988:and in an artificial 1902:, 2014. However Ug99 1519:obligately biotrophic 1438: 1350: 1089:Puccinia anthistiriae 1073:Lycoperdon berberidis 1025:Dicaeoma anthistiriae 853:. Higher than normal 728:Bill Gates Foundation 582:. The characteristic 442:, late 19th century, 437: 5296:"Norwich Rust Group" 4191:Taylor & Francis 3591:The Botanical Review 3284:10.1094/phyto-78-526 3011:10.1094/Phyto-84-452 2386:Advances in Agronomy 2204:, one of only three 2201:Aegilops sharonensis 1524:convergent evolution 1285:Roestelia berberidis 1097:Puccinia anthoxanthi 1033:Dicaeoma anthoxanthi 799:race in 1991 in the 5024: • 4984:2022COPB...6802247S 4958: • 4910:2022NatCo..13.1607Y 4879: • 4813:2017Sci...358.1604S 4807:(AAAS): 1604–1606. 4741:2013Sci...341..786P 4488:2021NatPl...7.1220U 4355:0000-0002-8952-5684 4290:0000-0002-4091-2608 4199:2021CaJPP..43S.275F 4177: • 4116: • 3939:0000-0002-4091-2608 3884:0000-0002-4091-2608 3739:2013CBio...23.R855G 3717:"Pests on the move" 3603:1974BotRv..40..453P 3108:"Red Rust of Wheat" 3095:0000-0002-4091-2608 2569:2017Natur.542..145B 2327:Chilean wheat cycle 2121:Triticum monococcum 1998:. When successful, 1970:is originally from 1137:Puccinia dactylidis 1129:Puccinia dactylidis 1081:Puccinia albigensis 997:Aecidium berberidis 989:Aecidium berberidis 774:in 1989/90, and in 578:within the kingdom 453:within the species 218:, is caused by the 5301:Norwich Rust Group 5217:The Plantwise Blog 5184:"No rust for rice" 4140:(APS): 2337–2344, 4027:. 10 November 2020 3958:Scientific Reports 3611:10.1007/BF02860021 3448:10.1094/pd-77-0129 3112:Rainy River Record 2281:In the 1950s, the 2078:from a wild wheat 1440: 1423:from the northern 1360: 1338:Signs and symptoms 1153:Puccinia favargeri 938:suddenly in 1998. 627:. You can help by 447: 5599: 5598: 5589:puccinia-graminis 5574:Open Tree of Life 5373:Puccinia graminis 5343:Puccinia graminis 5335:Taxon identifiers 5247:Puccinia graminis 4120:Puccinia graminis 3641:Puccinia graminis 3490:Puccinia graminis 3426:Puccinia graminis 3348:Puccinia graminis 3258:Puccinia graminis 3039:Puccinia graminis 2985:Puccinia graminis 2909:Puccinia graminis 2800:Puccinia graminis 2563:(7640): 145–146. 2313:with rice as the 2311:transgenic wheats 2263:, susceptible to 2081:Aegilops tauschii 2002:is among the few 1690:Puccinia graminis 1647:Puccinia graminis 1573:Puccinia graminis 1522:broad pattern of 1454:obligate biotroph 1397:Pycnia appear on 1352:Race differential 1253:Puccinia linearis 1233:Puccinia graminis 1221:Puccinia graminis 1209:Puccinia graminis 1197:Puccinia graminis 1185:Puccinia graminis 1173:Puccinia graminis 1161:Puccinia graminis 1121:Puccinia culmorum 1113:Puccinia cerealis 1065:Epitea dactylidis 1041:Dicaeoma graminis 1017:Caeoma berberidis 952:southern Illinois 877:. Down to 26% of 666:began as a race ( 645: 644: 603:Puccinia graminis 550:Puccinia graminis 532:Puccinia graminis 521:Puccinia graminis 510:Puccinia graminis 495:Puccinia graminis 484:Puccinia graminis 469:Puccinia graminis 451:genetic diversity 353:Puccinia graminis 291:Puccinia graminis 224:Puccinia graminis 197: 196: 166:Puccinia graminis 18:Puccinia graminis 16:(Redirected from 5629: 5592: 5591: 5582: 5581: 5569: 5568: 5556: 5555: 5546: 5545: 5533: 5532: 5530:NHMSYS0001495612 5520: 5519: 5507: 5506: 5494: 5493: 5481: 5480: 5468: 5467: 5455: 5454: 5442: 5441: 5429: 5428: 5416: 5415: 5403: 5402: 5390: 5389: 5377: 5376: 5375: 5362: 5361: 5360: 5330: 5325: 5323: 5322: 5311: 5309: 5308: 5264: 5232: 5231: 5229: 5228: 5208: 5202: 5201: 5179: 5173: 5172: 5170: 5159: 5153: 5152: 5126: 5117:(APS): 872–884. 5095: 5086: 5082: 5021: 4995: 4955: 4937: 4874: 4861: 4860: 4842: 4824: 4785: 4779: 4778: 4752: 4705: 4699: 4698: 4664: 4655: 4654: 4612: 4603: 4602: 4568: 4562: 4561: 4539: 4524: 4523: 4467: 4457: 4451: 4450: 4408: 4399: 4398: 4396: 4395: 4374: 4365: 4348: 4330: 4299: 4293: 4283: 4273: 4242: 4231: 4227: 4210: 4174: 4149: 4111: 4105: 4104: 4081:) (2020-11-09). 4070: 4064: 4063: 4061: 4060: 4042: 4036: 4035: 4033: 4032: 4014: 4005: 4004: 3994: 3948: 3942: 3932: 3901: 3888: 3887: 3836: 3823: 3822: 3807: 3801: 3800: 3791: 3783: 3777: 3776: 3750: 3712: 3701: 3700: 3690: 3672: 3629: 3623: 3622: 3586: 3580: 3575: 3569: 3568: 3566: 3564: 3550: 3544: 3543: 3517: 3483: 3468: 3467: 3421: 3406: 3405: 3379: 3340: 3334: 3333: 3317: 3304: 3303: 3253: 3247: 3246: 3244: 3243: 3234:. Archived from 3218: 3212: 3211: 3209: 3208: 3199:. Archived from 3186: 3180: 3179: 3177: 3171:. Archived from 3163: 3155: 3149: 3148: 3146: 3144: 3130: 3124: 3123: 3121: 3119: 3104: 3098: 3088: 3070: 3032: 3015: 3014: 2980: 2969: 2968: 2958: 2940: 2902: 2896: 2895: 2876:CSIRO Publishing 2861: 2850: 2849: 2831: 2793: 2782: 2781: 2771: 2765: 2764: 2754: 2720: 2714: 2713: 2703: 2669: 2663: 2655: 2638: 2637: 2627: 2603: 2597: 2596: 2552: 2543: 2542: 2540: 2539: 2524: 2518: 2517: 2515: 2513: 2494: 2483: 2482: 2466: 2423: 2422: 2420: 2419: 2410:. Archived from 2377: 2259:'. Resistant to 2258: 2257: 2212:, 2017 and then 2206:resistance genes 1994: 1704:resistance genes 1528:plant pathogenic 1516: 1496:P. graminis 1460:. The fungus is 1450:P. graminis 1418: 1417: 1413: 1356:resistance genes 1297: 1289: 1281: 1273: 1265: 1257: 1249: 1241: 1229: 1217: 1205: 1193: 1181: 1169: 1157: 1149: 1145:Puccinia elymina 1141: 1133: 1125: 1117: 1109: 1101: 1093: 1085: 1077: 1069: 1061: 1053: 1045: 1037: 1029: 1021: 1013: 1004: 993: 981:Species Fungorum 843:Red River Valley 767:Affects barley. 759:Affects barley. 676:races of its own 640: 637: 619: 612: 455:P. graminis 350: 202:, also known as 168: 148:P. graminis 65: 64: 51: 39: 21: 5637: 5636: 5632: 5631: 5630: 5628: 5627: 5626: 5612:Cereal diseases 5602: 5601: 5600: 5595: 5587: 5585: 5577: 5572: 5564: 5561:Observation.org 5559: 5551: 5549: 5541: 5536: 5528: 5523: 5515: 5510: 5502: 5497: 5489: 5484: 5476: 5471: 5463: 5458: 5450: 5445: 5437: 5432: 5424: 5419: 5411: 5406: 5398: 5393: 5385: 5380: 5371: 5370: 5365: 5356: 5355: 5350: 5337: 5320: 5318: 5314: 5306: 5304: 5294: 5271: 5244: 5241: 5239:Further reading 5236: 5235: 5226: 5224: 5210: 5209: 5205: 5181: 5180: 5176: 5168: 5161: 5160: 5156: 5097: 5096: 5089: 5085: 5025: 4959: 4880: 4875: 4864: 4787: 4786: 4782: 4707: 4706: 4702: 4666: 4665: 4658: 4614: 4613: 4606: 4570: 4569: 4565: 4558: 4541: 4540: 4527: 4480:Nature Research 4465: 4459: 4458: 4454: 4410: 4409: 4402: 4393: 4391: 4376: 4375: 4368: 4301: 4300: 4296: 4244: 4243: 4234: 4230: 4178: 4117: 4112: 4108: 4072: 4071: 4067: 4058: 4056: 4044: 4043: 4039: 4030: 4028: 4016: 4015: 4008: 3967:Springer Nature 3950: 3949: 3945: 3903: 3902: 3891: 3838: 3837: 3826: 3809: 3808: 3804: 3789: 3785: 3784: 3780: 3722:Current Biology 3714: 3713: 3704: 3631: 3630: 3626: 3588: 3587: 3583: 3576: 3572: 3562: 3560: 3552: 3551: 3547: 3485: 3484: 3471: 3423: 3422: 3409: 3342: 3341: 3337: 3319: 3318: 3307: 3255: 3254: 3250: 3241: 3239: 3220: 3219: 3215: 3206: 3204: 3194:United Nations 3188: 3187: 3183: 3175: 3161: 3157: 3156: 3152: 3142: 3140: 3138:Crop Science US 3132: 3131: 3127: 3117: 3115: 3106: 3105: 3101: 3034: 3033: 3018: 2982: 2981: 2972: 2904: 2903: 2899: 2884:10.1071/ar07117 2863: 2862: 2853: 2795: 2794: 2785: 2773: 2772: 2768: 2722: 2721: 2717: 2671: 2670: 2666: 2656: 2641: 2605: 2604: 2600: 2554: 2553: 2546: 2537: 2535: 2526: 2525: 2521: 2511: 2509: 2496: 2495: 2486: 2468: 2467: 2426: 2417: 2415: 2408: 2379: 2378: 2349: 2344: 2323: 2303: 2279: 2273: 2255: 2254: 2251: 2192: 2172: 2109: 2072: 2058: 2032:New South Wales 1992: 1965: 1951: 1930: 1896:Ug99 resistance 1892: 1700: 1644: 1642:Spore dispersal 1635: 1539: 1514: 1488:common barberry 1433: 1415: 1411: 1410: 1395: 1345: 1340: 1305: 1300: 1295: 1287: 1279: 1271: 1263: 1255: 1247: 1245:Puccinia jubata 1239: 1227: 1215: 1203: 1201:phlei-pratensis 1191: 1179: 1167: 1155: 1147: 1139: 1131: 1123: 1115: 1107: 1099: 1091: 1083: 1075: 1067: 1059: 1051: 1043: 1035: 1027: 1019: 1011: 1002: 991: 977: 956:central Indiana 944: 920: 912: 887: 790: 765: 757: 741: 724:southern Africa 657: 649:resistance gene 641: 635: 632: 625:needs expansion 610: 460:forma specialis 432: 365:Charles Tulasne 301: 191:§ Synonyms 176: 170: 164: 151: 104:Pucciniomycetes 59: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5635: 5633: 5625: 5624: 5619: 5614: 5604: 5603: 5597: 5596: 5594: 5593: 5583: 5570: 5557: 5547: 5534: 5521: 5508: 5495: 5482: 5469: 5456: 5443: 5430: 5417: 5404: 5391: 5378: 5363: 5347: 5345: 5339: 5338: 5333: 5327: 5326: 5312: 5292: 5287: 5277: 5270: 5269:External links 5267: 5266: 5265: 5240: 5237: 5234: 5233: 5203: 5174: 5154: 5106:Phytopathology 5087: 5084: 5083: 5022: 4956: 4876: 4862: 4780: 4700: 4679:Annual Reviews 4656: 4627:Annual Reviews 4604: 4583:Annual Reviews 4563: 4556: 4525: 4452: 4423:Annual Reviews 4400: 4366: 4294: 4232: 4229: 4228: 4175: 4113: 4106: 4073:Rola El Amil ( 4065: 4037: 4006: 3943: 3915:(1): 465–481. 3889: 3852:Annual Reviews 3824: 3802: 3778: 3702: 3624: 3597:(4): 453–513. 3581: 3570: 3545: 3469: 3407: 3359:Phytopathology 3335: 3305: 3267:Phytopathology 3248: 3213: 3181: 3178:on 2021-04-03. 3150: 3125: 3099: 3050:Phytopathology 3016: 2994:Phytopathology 2970: 2897: 2851: 2811:Phytopathology 2783: 2766: 2715: 2664: 2639: 2618:(9): 929–932. 2598: 2544: 2519: 2484: 2424: 2406: 2346: 2345: 2343: 2340: 2339: 2338: 2329: 2322: 2319: 2302: 2299: 2275:Main article: 2272: 2269: 2250: 2245: 2191: 2186: 2181:Secale cereale 2171: 2166: 2108: 2103: 2071: 2066: 2057: 2052: 1964: 1959: 1950: 1945: 1929: 1924: 1920:breeding lines 1891: 1886: 1778:Secale cereale 1722:species (e.g. 1699: 1696: 1686: 1685: 1676: 1675: 1665: 1664: 1643: 1640: 1634: 1631: 1543:urediniospores 1538: 1535: 1483:x Mahoberberis 1466:alternate host 1432: 1429: 1421:alternate host 1394: 1391: 1344: 1341: 1339: 1336: 1335: 1334: 1331: 1328: 1321: 1304: 1301: 1299: 1298: 1293:Uredo frumenti 1290: 1282: 1277:Puccinia vilis 1274: 1266: 1258: 1250: 1242: 1230: 1218: 1206: 1194: 1182: 1170: 1158: 1150: 1142: 1134: 1126: 1118: 1110: 1102: 1094: 1086: 1078: 1070: 1062: 1057:Dicaeoma vilis 1054: 1046: 1038: 1030: 1022: 1014: 1006: 994: 985: 976: 973: 943: 940: 919: 916: 911: 908: 886: 883: 857:production in 809:southern Texas 789: 786: 764: 761: 756: 753: 740: 737: 656: 653: 643: 642: 622: 620: 609: 600: 569: 568: 547: 528: 517: 506: 491: 480: 431: 428: 300: 297: 195: 194: 185: 184: 178: 177: 171: 160: 159: 153: 152: 145: 143: 139: 138: 131: 127: 126: 121: 117: 116: 111: 107: 106: 101: 97: 96: 91: 87: 86: 81: 77: 76: 71: 67: 66: 53: 52: 44: 43: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5634: 5623: 5620: 5618: 5615: 5613: 5610: 5609: 5607: 5590: 5584: 5580: 5575: 5571: 5567: 5562: 5558: 5554: 5548: 5544: 5539: 5535: 5531: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5513: 5509: 5505: 5500: 5496: 5492: 5487: 5483: 5479: 5474: 5470: 5466: 5461: 5457: 5453: 5448: 5444: 5440: 5435: 5431: 5427: 5422: 5418: 5414: 5409: 5405: 5401: 5396: 5392: 5388: 5383: 5379: 5374: 5368: 5364: 5359: 5353: 5349: 5348: 5346: 5344: 5340: 5336: 5331: 5317: 5313: 5303: 5302: 5297: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5285: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5273: 5272: 5268: 5262: 5261: 5256: 5252: 5248: 5243: 5242: 5238: 5222: 5218: 5214: 5207: 5204: 5199: 5195: 5191: 5190: 5185: 5178: 5175: 5167: 5166: 5158: 5155: 5150: 5146: 5142: 5138: 5134: 5130: 5125: 5120: 5116: 5112: 5108: 5107: 5102: 5094: 5092: 5088: 5080: 5076: 5072: 5068: 5064: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5048: 5044: 5041:: 1718–1775. 5040: 5036: 5032: 5031: 5023: 5019: 5015: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4994: 4989: 4985: 4981: 4977: 4973: 4969: 4968: 4963: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4945: 4941: 4936: 4931: 4927: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4911: 4907: 4903: 4899: 4895: 4894: 4889: 4887: 4878: 4877: 4873: 4871: 4869: 4867: 4863: 4858: 4854: 4850: 4846: 4841: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4823: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4798: 4797: 4792: 4784: 4781: 4776: 4772: 4768: 4764: 4760: 4756: 4751: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4725: 4720: 4718: 4714: 4704: 4701: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4676: 4672: 4671: 4663: 4661: 4657: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4619: 4611: 4609: 4605: 4600: 4596: 4592: 4588: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4575: 4567: 4564: 4559: 4557:9789401040419 4553: 4549: 4545: 4538: 4536: 4534: 4532: 4530: 4526: 4521: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4482:: 1220–1228. 4481: 4477: 4473: 4472: 4471:Nature Plants 4464: 4456: 4453: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4416: 4415: 4407: 4405: 4401: 4390: 4388: 4383: 4381: 4373: 4371: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4356: 4352: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4334: 4329: 4324: 4321:: 1286–1298. 4320: 4316: 4312: 4311: 4306: 4298: 4295: 4291: 4287: 4281: 4277: 4272: 4267: 4263: 4259: 4255: 4254: 4249: 4241: 4239: 4237: 4233: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4209: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4193:: S275–S297, 4192: 4188: 4184: 4183: 4176: 4173: 4169: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4153: 4148: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4130: 4129:Plant Disease 4125: 4121: 4115: 4114: 4110: 4107: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4085: 4080: 4076: 4069: 4066: 4055: 4053: 4048: 4041: 4038: 4026: 4024: 4019: 4013: 4011: 4007: 4002: 3998: 3993: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3959: 3954: 3947: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3909: 3900: 3898: 3896: 3894: 3890: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3844: 3835: 3833: 3831: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3806: 3803: 3799: 3796:. p. 4: 3795: 3788: 3782: 3779: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3749: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3733:: R855–R857. 3732: 3728: 3724: 3723: 3718: 3711: 3709: 3707: 3703: 3698: 3694: 3689: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3671: 3666: 3663:: 9166–9171. 3662: 3658: 3654: 3653: 3648: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3628: 3625: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3585: 3582: 3579: 3574: 3571: 3559: 3555: 3549: 3546: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3516: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3498: 3497:Plant Disease 3493: 3491: 3482: 3480: 3478: 3476: 3474: 3470: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3432: 3431:Plant Disease 3427: 3420: 3418: 3416: 3414: 3412: 3408: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3378: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3360: 3355: 3353: 3349: 3339: 3336: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3316: 3314: 3312: 3310: 3306: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3268: 3263: 3259: 3252: 3249: 3238:on 2021-04-03 3237: 3233: 3229: 3228: 3223: 3217: 3214: 3203:on 2021-04-03 3202: 3198: 3197: 3191: 3185: 3182: 3174: 3170: 3168: 3160: 3154: 3151: 3139: 3135: 3129: 3126: 3114:. 15 May 2012 3113: 3109: 3103: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3069: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3051: 3046: 3044: 3040: 3031: 3029: 3027: 3025: 3023: 3021: 3017: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2995: 2990: 2986: 2979: 2977: 2975: 2971: 2966: 2962: 2957: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2939: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2921: 2916: 2914: 2910: 2901: 2898: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2868: 2860: 2858: 2856: 2852: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2835: 2830: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2812: 2807: 2805: 2801: 2792: 2790: 2788: 2784: 2779: 2778: 2770: 2767: 2762: 2758: 2753: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2731: 2726: 2719: 2716: 2711: 2707: 2702: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2680: 2675: 2668: 2665: 2662: 2661: 2654: 2652: 2650: 2648: 2646: 2644: 2640: 2635: 2631: 2626: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2612:Plant Disease 2609: 2602: 2599: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2551: 2549: 2545: 2534: 2530: 2523: 2520: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2493: 2491: 2489: 2485: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2465: 2463: 2461: 2459: 2457: 2455: 2453: 2451: 2449: 2447: 2445: 2443: 2441: 2439: 2437: 2435: 2433: 2431: 2429: 2425: 2414:on 2020-11-08 2413: 2409: 2407:9780123743558 2403: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2376: 2374: 2372: 2370: 2368: 2366: 2364: 2362: 2360: 2358: 2356: 2354: 2352: 2348: 2341: 2337: 2335: 2330: 2328: 2325: 2324: 2320: 2318: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2300: 2298: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2278: 2271:Weaponization 2270: 2268: 2266: 2262: 2249: 2246: 2244: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2231:for a unique 2230: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2202: 2197: 2190: 2187: 2185: 2183: 2182: 2177: 2170: 2167: 2165: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2122: 2117: 2116:introgression 2113: 2107: 2104: 2102: 2100: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2083: 2082: 2077: 2076:introgression 2070: 2067: 2065: 2063: 2056: 2053: 2051: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1991: 1987: 1986: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1963: 1960: 1958: 1956: 1949: 1946: 1944: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1928: 1925: 1923: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1890: 1887: 1885: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1798: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1783: 1780: 1779: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1757: 1755: 1754: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1736: 1731: 1730: 1729:T. monococcum 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1697: 1695: 1693: 1691: 1684: 1681: 1680: 1679: 1674: 1671: 1670: 1669: 1663: 1660: 1659: 1658: 1654: 1652: 1648: 1641: 1639: 1632: 1630: 1628: 1624: 1619: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1591: 1589: 1588:basidiospores 1585: 1581: 1576: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1561: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1546: 1544: 1536: 1534: 1532: 1529: 1525: 1520: 1513: 1512:P. g. tritici 1509: 1507: 1503: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1484: 1479: 1478: 1473: 1472: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1446: 1437: 1430: 1428: 1426: 1422: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1392: 1390: 1387: 1385: 1380: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1342: 1337: 1332: 1329: 1326: 1322: 1319: 1318: 1317: 1314: 1311: 1302: 1294: 1291: 1286: 1283: 1278: 1275: 1270: 1267: 1262: 1259: 1254: 1251: 1246: 1243: 1238: 1234: 1231: 1226: 1222: 1219: 1214: 1210: 1207: 1202: 1198: 1195: 1190: 1186: 1183: 1178: 1174: 1171: 1166: 1162: 1159: 1154: 1151: 1146: 1143: 1138: 1135: 1130: 1127: 1122: 1119: 1114: 1111: 1106: 1103: 1098: 1095: 1090: 1087: 1082: 1079: 1074: 1071: 1066: 1063: 1058: 1055: 1050: 1047: 1042: 1039: 1034: 1031: 1026: 1023: 1018: 1015: 1010: 1007: 1005: 998: 995: 990: 987: 986: 984: 982: 979:As listed by 974: 972: 970: 966: 961: 957: 953: 949: 941: 939: 937: 933: 929: 925: 917: 915: 909: 907: 905: 901: 896: 892: 884: 882: 880: 876: 872: 868: 867:North Central 864: 860: 856: 852: 848: 844: 840: 836: 832: 828: 824: 820: 819: 814: 810: 806: 803:, 68% of all 802: 801:United States 798: 793: 787: 785: 783: 781: 777: 773: 768: 762: 760: 754: 752: 750: 746: 738: 736: 733: 729: 725: 721: 720:food security 717: 713: 709: 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 685: 679: 677: 673: 669: 665: 661: 654: 652: 650: 639: 630: 626: 623:This section 621: 618: 614: 613: 608: 604: 601: 599: 595: 593: 589: 585: 581: 577: 576:Basidiomycota 573: 567: 563: 559: 555: 551: 548: 546: 542: 538: 537: 533: 529: 527: 526: 522: 518: 516: 515: 511: 507: 505: 501: 500: 496: 492: 490: 489: 485: 481: 479: 475: 474: 470: 466: 465: 464: 462: 461: 456: 452: 445: 441: 436: 429: 427: 425: 420: 418: 417:South African 414: 410: 405: 403: 399: 398:United States 394: 389: 388:North America 384: 382: 378: 373: 372:Anton de Bary 369: 366: 362: 358: 354: 349: 344: 340: 336: 331: 329: 325: 322: 318: 314: 309: 307: 298: 296: 294: 292: 288: 284: 279: 277: 276:food security 273: 269: 265: 261: 257: 252: 250: 246: 242: 238: 234: 230: 226: 225: 221: 217: 213: 209: 205: 201: 193: 192: 186: 183: 179: 174: 169: 167: 161: 158: 157:Binomial name 154: 150: 149: 144: 141: 140: 137: 136: 132: 129: 128: 125: 122: 119: 118: 115: 112: 109: 108: 105: 102: 99: 98: 95: 94:Basidiomycota 92: 89: 88: 85: 82: 79: 78: 75: 72: 69: 68: 63: 58: 54: 50: 45: 40: 37: 33: 19: 5342: 5319:. 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