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6-level switches to create one 20-layer switch. The four switches in each stage were wired to step synchronously. The fragment of a Type 97 Japanese machine on display at the
National Cryptologic Museum, the largest piece known in existence, has three 7-layer stepping switches (see photo). The U.S. Army developed an improved analog in 1944 that has all the layers needed for each stage on a single shaft. An additional layer was used in the improved analog to automatically set each switch bank to the initial position specified in the key.
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connects with one stator contact at a time. The rotors on each layer are attached to a single shaft that advances from one stator contact to the next whenever an electromagnet connected to a ratchet is pulsed. There are actually two wiper arms on each level, connected together, so that when one wiper advances past the last contact in the semicircle, the other engages the first contact. This allows the rotor connections to keep cycling through all 25 stator contacts as the electromagnet is pulsed.
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by waiting for enough traffic encrypted on a single indicator, since the plugboard alphabets changed daily. The cryptographers developed a way to transform messages sent on different days with the same indicator into homologous messages that would appear to have been sent on the same day. This provided enough traffic based on the identical settings (6 messages with indicator 59173) to have a chance of finding some periodicity that would reveal the inner workings of the twenties cipher.
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724:. US cryptanalysts decrypted and translated Japan's 14-part message to its Washington embassy to break off negotiations with the United States at 1 p.m., Washington time, on 7 December 1941, before the Japanese Embassy in Washington had done so. Decryption and typing difficulties at the embassy, coupled with ignorance of the importance of it being on time, were major reasons for the "
559:. The U.S. improved analog has a six-position switch for making this assignment, see photo. The message indicator also specified the initial positions of the twenties switches. The indicator was different for each message or part of a message, when multi-part messages were sent. The final part of the key, the alphabet plugboard arrangement, was changed daily.
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fourth Purple analog was sent to the
Philippines and a fifth was kept by the SIS. A sixth, originally intended for Hawaii, was sent to England for use there. The Purple intercepts proved important in the European theater due to the detailed reports on German plans sent in that cipher by the Japanese ambassador in Berlin.
187:(SIS) cryptographers from their work on the Type A cipher and it allowed them to make early progress on the sixes portion of messages. The twenties cipher proved much more difficult, but a breakthrough in September 1940 allowed the Army cryptographers to construct a machine that duplicated the behavior (was an
739:, was well-informed on German military affairs. His reports went to Tokyo in Purple-enciphered radio messages. One had a comment that Hitler told him on 3 June 1941 that "in every probability war with Russia cannot be avoided." In July and August 1942, he toured the Eastern Front, and in 1944, he toured the
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the ciphertext alphabet letters stand out from the other 20 letters, which were more uniformly distributed. This suggested the Type B used a similar division of plaintext letters as used in the Type A. The weaker encryption used for the "sixes" was easier to analyze. The sixes cipher turned out to be
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to the U.S. That Purple analog was accompanied by a team of four
American cryptologists, two Army, two Navy, who received information on British successes against German ciphers in exchange. This machine was subsequently sent to Singapore, and after Japanese moves south through Malaya, on to India. A
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was assigned to lead the group of cryptographers attacking the B system in August 1939. Even with the cribs, progress was difficult. The permutations used in the twenties cipher were "brilliantly" chosen, according to
Friedman, and it became clear that periodicities would be unlikely to be discovered
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The sixes switches stepped one position for each character encrypted or decrypted. The motions of the switches in the twenties stages were more complex. The three stages were assigned to step fast, medium or slow. There were six possible ways to make this assignment and the choice was determined by a
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in the diagram) in a scrambled order, creating a permutation of the 20 inputs. This is done differently for each of the rotor positions. Thus each stator output wire has 25 connections, one from each rotor position, though from different levels. The connections needed to do this created a "rats nest"
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Internal wiring of the improved U.S. Army PURPLE analog. All three stepping motor stages for the "twenties letters" are shown. The three large rectangular panels with many wires implement the substitution matrices for each stage. Each twenties stepping switch is located beneath its wiring panel. The
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Clearly, the Purple machine was more secure than Red, but the Navy did not recognize that Red had already been broken. The Purple machine inherited a weakness from the Red machine that six letters of the alphabet were encrypted separately. It differed from Red in that the group of letters was changed
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The decrypted Purple traffic and
Japanese messages generally were the subject of acrimonious hearings in Congress after World War II in connection with an attempt to decide who, if anyone, had allowed the attack at Pearl Harbor to happen and so should be blamed. It was during those hearings that the
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The SIS learned in 1938 of the forthcoming introduction of a new diplomatic cipher from decoded messages. Type B messages began to appear in
February 1939. The Type B had several weaknesses, some in its design, others in the way it was used. Frequency analysis could often make 6 of the 26 letters in
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However implemented, the 20-layer stepping switch in each stage had 20 rotor connections and 500 stator connections, one wiper and 25 stator contacts on each layer. Each stage must have exactly 20 connections on each end to connect with the adjacent stage or plugboard. On the rotor side, that is not
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Front panel of the March 1944 improved U.S. Army PURPLE analog. The three rows of indicator lights show the position of the rotor in each stage. a removable plugboard in the center selects the alphabet. A six-position switch selects the stepping order and buttons on the box at top center are used to
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between Nazi
Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan was announced. There was still a lot of work to do to recover the meaning of the other 119 possible indicators. As of October 1940, one third of the indicator settings had been recovered. From time to time the Japanese instituted new operating
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Knowing the plaintext of 6 out of 26 letters scattered throughout the message sometimes enabled parts of the rest of the message to be guessed, especially when the writing was highly stylized. Some diplomatic messages included the text of letters from the U.S. government to the
Japanese government.
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Three stages of stepping switches (I, II, and III), connected in series. Each stage is effectively a 20 layer switch with 25 outputs on each layer. Each stage selects one out of 25 permutations of the letters in the twenties group. The
Japanese used three 7-layer stepping switches geared together
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is a multi-layer mechanical device that was commonly used at the time in telephone switching systems. Each layer has a set of electrical connects, 25 in the Type B, arranged in a semicircular arc. These do not move and are called the stator. A wiper arm on a rotor at the focus of the semicircle
1303:
The
Japanese Knowledge (XXG) article on the Type B machine has much technical information including the substitution tables, detailed stepping algorithm, punctuation codes and a sample decryption. It also has reactions from Japanese sources to the American decryption. Entering the website link
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Apparently, all other Purple machines at Japanese embassies and consulates around the world (e.g. in Axis countries, Washington, London, Moscow, and in neutral countries) and in Japan itself, were destroyed and ground into small particles by the Japanese. American occupation troops in Japan in
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in countries like America, Britain, Canada, Germany and Japan, with extensive dial-telephone systems. The U.S. used four 6-level switches in each stage of its Purple analogs, the Japanese used three 7-level switches. Both represented the 20s cipher identically. Note however that these were not
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The twenties switch stepping was controlled in part by the sixes switch. Exactly one of the three switches stepped for each character. The fast switch stepped for each character except when the sixes switch was in its 25th position. Then the medium switch stepped, unless it too was in its 25th
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To encrypt the twenties letters, a 20-layer stepping switch was needed in each of the three stages. Both the Japanese version and the early American analog constructed each stage from several smaller stepping switches of the type used in telephone central offices. The American analog used four
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with 25 fixed permuted alphabets, each used in succession. The only difference between messages with different indicators was the starting position in the list of alphabets. The SIS team recovered the 25 permutations by 10 April 1939. The frequency analysis was complicated by the presence of
623:'s attention. She had found evidence of cycles in the twenties cipher. Celebration ensued at this first break in the 20s cipher and it soon enabled a replica machine to be built. A pair of other messages using indicator 59173 were decrypted by 27 September, coincidentally the date that the
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in pre-war cipher machine development, and that lack of cooperation continued into World War II. The Navy believed the Purple machine was sufficiently difficult to break that it did not attempt to revise it to improve security. This seems to have been on the advice of a mathematician,
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The English text of such messages could usually be obtained. Some diplomatic stations did not have the Type B, especially early in its introduction, and sometimes the same message was sent in Type B and in the Type A Red cipher, which the SIS had broken. All these provided
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into two groups, of six and twenty letters respectively. The letters in the sixes group were scrambled using a 6 Ă 25 substitution table, while letters in the twenties group were more thoroughly scrambled using three successive 20 Ă 25 substitution tables.
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The United States obtained portions of a Purple machine from the Japanese Embassy in Germany following Germany's defeat in 1945 (see image above) and discovered that the Japanese had used a stepping switch almost identical in its construction to the one
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The Red machine was unreliable unless the contacts in its half-rotor switch were cleaned every day. It enciphered vowels (AEIOUY) and consonants separately, perhaps to reduce telegram costs, and this was a significant weak point. The Navy also used the
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The Type B Cipher Machine consisted of several components. As reconstructed by the US Army, there were electric typewriters at either end, similar to those used with the Type A Machine. The Type B was organized for encryption as follows:
646:, the German foreign minister, informing him that "an absolutely reliable source" had told Thomsen that the Americans had broken the Japanese diplomatic cipher (that is, Purple). That source apparently was
635:. After the initial break, Raven discovered that the Japanese had divided the month into three 10-day periods, and, within each period, they used the keys of the first day, with small, predictable changes.
1143:) â Contains a lengthy, technically detailed description of the history of the creation of the PURPLE machine, along with its breaking by the US SIS, and an analysis of its cryptographic security and flaws
770:. Instead, its targets were southward, toward Southeast Asia and American and British interests there. That allowed Stalin to move considerable forces from the Far East to Moscow in time to help stop the
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in 1922, and when this became publicly known, there was considerable pressure to improve their security. In any case, the Japanese Navy had planned to develop their first cipher machine for the following
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Since those messages were being read by the Allies, they provided valuable intelligence about German military preparations against the forthcoming invasion of Western Europe. He was described by General
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a problem as there are 20 rotors. On the stator end of a stage, every column of stator contacts corresponding to the same rotor position on each of the 20 layers is connected to the 20 output wires (
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NSA analysts' modern-day attempt to duplicate solving the Red and Purple ciphers. Cryptologic Quarterly Article (NSA), Fall/Winter 1984â1985 â Vol. 3, Nos. 3â4 (last accessed: 22 August 2016).
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1945â52 searched for any remaining units. A complete Jade cipher machine, built on similar principles but without the sixes and twenties separation, was captured and is on display at NSA's
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The SIS built its first machine that could decrypt Purple messages in late 1940. A second Purple analog was built by the SIS for the US Navy. A third was sent to England in January 1941 on
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For decryption, the data flow is reversed. The keyboard on the second typewriter becomes the input and the twenties letters pass through the stepping switch stages in the opposite order.
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of wires in the early U.S. analog. The improved analog organized the wiring more neatly with three matrices of soldering terminals visible above each stepping switch in the photograph.
915:, which was part of the same cipher family, has only one typewriter and, instead, has a switch for encryption or decryption. The Japanese Type B machine may have been built similarly.
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The Japanese believed Type B to be unbreakable throughout the war, and even for some time after the war, even though they had been informed otherwise by the Germans. In April 1941,
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1962:
1172:
Clark, Ronald W. "The Man Who Broke Purple: the Life of Colonel William F. Friedman, Who Deciphered the Japanese Code in World War II", September 1977, Little Brown & Co,
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The stages were bi-directional. Signals went through each stage in one direction for encryption and in the other direction for decryption. Unlike the system in the German
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The development of the machine was the responsibility of the Japanese Navy Institute of Technology, Electric Research Department, Section 6. In 1928, the chief designer
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This article is about a World War II era cipher used by the Japanese Foreign Office for diplomatic communications. For other World War II era diplomatic ciphers, see
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fortifications against invasion along the coasts of France and Belgium. On 4 September, Hitler told him that Germany would strike in the West, probably in November.
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Reconstruction of the Purple machine was based on ideas of Larry Clark. Advances into the understanding of Purple keying procedures were made by Navy Lieutenant
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procedures to strengthen the Type B system, but these were often described in messages to diplomatic outputs in the older system, giving the Americans warning.
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In 1937, the Japanese completed the next generation "Type 97 Typewriter". The Ministry of Foreign Affairs machine was the "Type B Cipher Machine", codenamed
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579:. Note the hand-written calculations at the upper right which deduce the initial positions of the rotors and the stepping order from the message indicator.
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The Purple machine itself was first used by Japan in June 1938, but American and British cryptanalysts had broken some of its messages well before the
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233:. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs was supplied Red and Purple by the Navy. No one in Japanese authority noticed the weak points in both machines.
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1229:) â A first-hand memoir from a lead team member of the team which 'broke' both Red and Purple, it contains detailed descriptions of both 'breaks'
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Roman-letter model was also used by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs as "Type A Cipher Machine", codenamed "Red" by United States cryptanalysts.
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Freeman, Wes; Sullivan, Geoff; Weierud, Frode (2003). "Purple Revealed: Simulation and Computer-Aided Cryptanalysis of Angooki Taipu B".
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Fragment of a Type 97 "Purple" cipher machine recovered from the Japanese embassy in Berlin at the end of World War II. Purple code was
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of SIS had chosen when building a duplicate (or Purple analog machine) in Washington in 1939 and 1940. The stepping switch was a
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that permutes the letters from the typewriter keyboard and separates them into a group of 6 letters and a group of 20 letters
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PURPLE ciphertext of the first part of the 14-part message which was delivered by the Japanese to the U.S. Government on
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An output plug board that reverses the input permutation and sends the letters to the output typewriter for printing
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551:, the order of the stages was fixed and there was no reflector. However the stepping arrangement could be changed.
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and announced every nine days, whereas in Red they were permanently fixed as the Latin vowels AEIOUY. Thus US Army
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to build each stage (see photos). The U.S. SIS used four 6-layer switches per stage in their first analog machine.
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was able to break the cipher used for the six letters before it was able to break the one used for the 20 others.
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machine previously used by the Japanese Foreign Office. The sixes and twenties division was familiar to U.S. Army
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An equivalent analog to the Purple machine reconstructed by the US Signals Intelligence Service. A hand-operated
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The prototype machine was finally completed as "Type 91 Typewriter" in 1931. The year 1931 was year 2591 in the
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2001:
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into Google Translate and clicking "Translate this page" will provide a serviceable English translation.
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The Codebreakers: The Comprehensive History of Secret Communication from Ancient Times to the Internet
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The Soviets also succeeded in breaking the Purple system in late 1941, and together with reports from
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Japanese for the first time learned that the Purple cipher machine had indeed been broken. (See the
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Close-up of the six-position switch that selects the stepping order in the improved U.S. analog
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to encrypt the most sensitive diplomatic traffic. All messages were written in the 26-letter
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with 6 layers wired to select one out of 25 permutations of the letters in the sixes group
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191:) of the Japanese machines, even though no one in the U.S. had any description of one.
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Analog of the Japanese Type B Cipher Machine (codenamed Purple) built by the U.S. Army
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658:. The message was duly forwarded to the Japanese; but use of the code continued.
798:"PURPLE Revealed: Simulation and Computer-aided Cryptanalysis of Angooki Taipu B"
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similar to the type used by SIS to build its first Purple. analog. On display at
2066:
1652:
1518:
959:
Code Girls: The Untold Story of the American Women Code Breakers of World War II
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361:
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1996:
1991:
1952:
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The Emperor's Codes: Bletchley Park and the breaking of Japan's secret ciphers
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as sometimes claimed: "twenty-five Strolger-type (sic) stepper switches ...".
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Days of Infamy: MacArthur, Roosevelt, Churchill â the Shocking Truth Revealed
17:
2016:
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as "our main basis of information regarding Hitler's intentions in Europe."
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489:
172:
1068:'Big Machines', pg. 182 says "few if any were recovered even after VJ day"
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article for additional detail on the controversy and the investigations.)
642:, a diplomat at the German embassy in Washington, D.C., sent a message to
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934:"Preliminary Historical Report on the Solution of the Type "B" Machine"
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Close up of fragment's stepping switches showing seven contact layers
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text and the introduction in early May of a Japanese version of the
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Battle of Wits: The complete story of Codebreaking in World War II
823:"Preliminary Historical Report on the Solution of the "B" Machine"
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310:. Thus it was prefixed "91-shiki" from the year it was developed.
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developed a prototype of Red, "Roman-typewriter cipher machine".
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325:
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1135:, by Stephen J. Kelley (Aegean Park Press, Walnut Creek, 2001,
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The Japanese also used stepping-switches in systems, codenamed
1221:, by Frank B. Rowlett (Aegean Park Press, Laguna Hills, 1998,
1219:
The Story of Magic: Memoirs of an American Cryptologic Pioneer
43:
695:; a standard component used in large quantities in automatic
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number included at the beginning of each message called the
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stepping switches for the sixes letters are near the middle.
1258:
The Emperor's Codes: the Breaking of Japan's Secret Ciphers
796:
Wes Freeman; Geoff Sullivan; Frode Weierud (January 2003).
249:
Japanese diplomatic communications at negotiations for the
654:, who had deduced the leak based upon communications from
360:
implemented one stage of the "twenties" cipher, with 25
159:. The machine was an electromechanical device that used
856:"Japanese Intelligence in WWII: Successes and Failures"
456:
set the initial position of each rotor. Exhibit at the
1963:
Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator
364:
of 20 letters encoded by the mass of wires underneath.
986:. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. pp. 103â112.
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Information and a simulator (for very old Windows).
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399:instead of the more troublesome half-rotor switch.
356:Side view of recovered Type 97 fragment. The three
179:The cipher codenamed "Purple" replaced the Type A
1279:Marching Orders: the Untold Story of World War II
1169:- Appendix C: Cryptanalysis of the Purple Machine
766:, learned that Japan was not going to attack the
563:position, in which case the slow switch stepped.
757:Pearl Harbor advance-knowledge conspiracy theory
731:During World War II, the Japanese ambassador to
171:or coded. The 26-letters were separated using a
927:
925:
923:
921:
816:
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328:-letter model at its bases and on its vessels.
27:Japanese diplomatic code named Purple by the US
1329:A GUI Purple Machine simulator written in Java
447:Schematic diagram of SIS Purple analog machine
133:"System 97 Typewriter for European Characters"
1809:
1368:
280:The prototype used the same principle as the
37:"PURPLE" redirects here. For other uses, see
8:
1324:A Purple Machine simulator written in Python
1013:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 198.
1010:World War II: An Encyclopedia of Quotations
1816:
1802:
1794:
1375:
1361:
1353:
1349:
1345:
656:U.S. Undersecretary of State Sumner Welles
1077:
791:
789:
787:
682:Fragmentary recovery of Japanese machines
94:Learn how and when to remove this message
932:Friedman, William F. (14 October 1940).
821:Friedman, William F. (14 October 1940).
395:. Eikichi Suzuki suggested the use of a
57:This article includes a list of general
783:
212:Development of Japanese cipher machines
1048:. New York: Pocket Books. p. 55.
876:
874:
872:
7:
961:. New York, Boston: Hachette Books.
245:Japanese Type A (RED) cipher machine
615:On 20 September 1940 at about 2 pm
605:for attacking the twenties cipher.
2196:World War II Japanese cryptography
1282:. New York: Crown Publishers Inc.
1108:. Aegean Park Press. p. 106.
63:it lacks sufficient corresponding
32:Japanese army and diplomatic codes
25:
1320:(last accessed: 10 February 2019)
1153:. New York: Free Press. pp.
383:The chief designer of Purple was
220:did not fully cooperate with the
155:from February 1939 to the end of
2151:
2150:
380:by United States cryptanalysts.
48:
1306:https://ja.wikipedia.org/ăăŒăă«æć·
1261:. New York: Arcade Publishing.
2012:Information-theoretic security
1312:Red and Purple: A Story Retold
1:
2191:JapanâUnited States relations
1093:. Time Inc. 17 December 1945.
863:Japanese Intelligence in WWII
229:, who lacked a background in
147:by the United States, was an
1318:A web-based Purple Simulator
567:Weaknesses and cryptanalysis
344:by the United States Army's
253:were broken by the American
185:Signals Intelligence Service
2128:Message authentication code
2083:Cryptographic hash function
1896:Cryptographic hash function
1147:Budiansky, Stephen (2000).
1104:Kelley, Stephen J. (2001).
716:Impact of Allied decryption
710:National Cryptologic Museum
652:Soviet ambassador to the US
458:National Cryptologic Museum
346:Signal Intelligence Service
114:Signal Intelligence Service
2212:
2007:Harvest now, decrypt later
308:Japanese Imperial calendar
299:
36:
29:
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2123:Post-quantum cryptography
1793:
1352:
1348:
1198:10.1080/0161-110391891739
1080:, pp. 196, 268, 326.
284:cipher machine, having a
137:kyĆ«nana-shiki Ćbun injiki
2113:Quantum key distribution
2103:Authenticated encryption
1958:Random number generation
1240:. London: Bantam Press.
1091:"Marshall-Dewey Letters"
984:The Man who broke Purple
728:" to be delivered late.
262:. Japanese Navy Captain
2108:Public-key cryptography
2098:Symmetric-key algorithm
1901:Key derivation function
1861:Cryptographic primitive
1854:Authentication protocol
1844:Outline of cryptography
1839:History of cryptography
1334:Purple, Coral, and Jade
1255:Smith, Michael (2000).
1007:Langer, Howard (1999).
899:25 January 2008 at the
251:Washington Naval Treaty
153:Japanese Foreign Office
141:"Type B Cipher Machine"
129:history of cryptography
78:more precise citations.
39:Purple (disambiguation)
2181:Attack on Pearl Harbor
1849:Cryptographic protocol
1600:Siemens and Halske T52
1213:Combined Fleet Decoded
722:attack on Pearl Harbor
644:Joachim von Ribbentrop
580:
477:
469:
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448:
440:
424:
423:analog is also visible
373:
365:
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218:Imperial Japanese Navy
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2002:End-to-end encryption
1948:Cryptojacking malware
1663:Sectéra Secure Module
772:German push to Moscow
574:
509:The output typewriter
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387:. His engineers were
371:
355:
339:
302:Type A Cipher Machine
244:
122:
111:
2118:Quantum cryptography
2042:Trusted timestamping
1767:Intel SHA extensions
1276:Lee, Bruce. (1995).
982:Clark, R.W. (1977).
957:Mundy, Liza (2017).
891:of first chapter on
881:Kahn, David (1996).
673:, which had brought
625:Tripartite Agreement
437:The Telephone Museum
431:Six level telephone
151:machine used by the
123:Purple analog in use
1881:Cryptographic nonce
1762:AES instruction set
913:Jade cipher machine
697:telephone exchanges
609:William F. Friedman
485:An input typewriter
290:London Naval Treaty
273:and Navy Commander
260:London Naval Treaty
2186:Encryption devices
1987:Subliminal channel
1971:Pseudorandom noise
1918:Key (cryptography)
1339:The Purple Machine
675:Ambassador Halifax
648:Konstantin Umansky
591:romanized Japanese
581:
478:
470:
461:
449:
441:
425:
374:
366:
350:
342:reverse engineered
275:Genichiro Kakimoto
247:
125:
117:
2168:
2167:
2164:
2163:
2047:Key-based routing
2037:Trapdoor function
1908:Digital signature
1789:
1788:
1785:
1784:
1754:Computer hardware
1499:Bazeries cylinder
1055:978-0-141-02926-9
1020:978-0-313-30018-9
968:978-0-316-35253-6
702:Strowger switches
617:Genevieve Grotjan
557:message indicator
517:Stepping switches
358:stepping switches
161:stepping-switches
104:
103:
96:
16:(Redirected from
2203:
2154:
2153:
1982:Insecure channel
1818:
1811:
1804:
1795:
1377:
1370:
1363:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1293:
1272:
1251:
1209:
1168:
1120:
1119:
1101:
1095:
1094:
1087:
1081:
1075:
1069:
1066:
1060:
1059:
1038:
1032:
1031:
1029:
1027:
1004:
998:
997:
979:
973:
972:
954:
948:
947:
946:on 4 April 2013.
945:
939:. Archived from
938:
929:
916:
909:
903:
886:
878:
867:
866:
860:
851:
845:
844:
842:
840:
834:
828:. Archived from
827:
818:
809:
808:
802:
793:
662:American analogs
237:Prototype of Red
165:English alphabet
99:
92:
88:
85:
79:
74:this article by
65:inline citations
52:
51:
44:
21:
2211:
2210:
2206:
2205:
2204:
2202:
2201:
2200:
2171:
2170:
2169:
2160:
2142:
2071:
1827:
1822:
1781:
1748:
1692:
1609:
1595:Lorenz SZ 40/42
1558:
1487:
1384:
1383:Cipher machines
1381:
1300:
1290:
1275:
1269:
1254:
1248:
1232:
1183:
1165:
1146:
1129:
1127:Further reading
1124:
1123:
1116:
1103:
1102:
1098:
1089:
1088:
1084:
1076:
1072:
1067:
1063:
1056:
1040:
1039:
1035:
1025:
1023:
1021:
1006:
1005:
1001:
994:
981:
980:
976:
969:
956:
955:
951:
943:
936:
931:
930:
919:
910:
906:
901:Wayback Machine
880:
879:
870:
858:
853:
852:
848:
838:
836:
835:on 4 April 2013
832:
825:
820:
819:
812:
800:
795:
794:
785:
780:
749:George Marshall
718:
684:
664:
577:7 December 1941
569:
545:
523:stepping switch
519:
497:stepping switch
433:stepping switch
413:
397:stepping switch
389:Masaji Yamamoto
334:
323:91-shiki injiki
315:91-shiki injiki
304:
298:
239:
214:
100:
89:
83:
80:
70:Please help to
69:
53:
49:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2209:
2207:
2199:
2198:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2173:
2172:
2166:
2165:
2162:
2161:
2159:
2158:
2147:
2144:
2143:
2141:
2140:
2135:
2133:Random numbers
2130:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2079:
2077:
2073:
2072:
2070:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2057:Garlic routing
2054:
2049:
2044:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1977:Secure channel
1974:
1968:
1967:
1966:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1940:
1938:Key stretching
1935:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1904:
1903:
1898:
1888:
1886:Cryptovirology
1883:
1878:
1873:
1871:Cryptocurrency
1868:
1863:
1858:
1857:
1856:
1846:
1841:
1835:
1833:
1829:
1828:
1823:
1821:
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1711:
1706:
1700:
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1611:
1610:
1608:
1607:
1602:
1597:
1592:
1587:
1582:
1577:
1572:
1566:
1564:
1560:
1559:
1557:
1556:
1551:
1549:Reihenschieber
1546:
1541:
1536:
1534:Jefferson disk
1531:
1526:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1506:
1501:
1495:
1493:
1489:
1488:
1486:
1485:
1480:
1475:
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1465:
1460:
1455:
1450:
1445:
1440:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1410:
1405:
1400:
1394:
1392:
1390:Rotor machines
1386:
1385:
1382:
1380:
1379:
1372:
1365:
1357:
1343:
1342:
1336:
1331:
1326:
1321:
1315:
1309:
1299:
1298:External links
1296:
1295:
1294:
1288:
1273:
1267:
1252:
1246:
1234:Smith, Michael
1230:
1216:
1210:
1181:
1170:
1163:
1144:
1128:
1125:
1122:
1121:
1114:
1096:
1082:
1078:Budiansky 2000
1070:
1061:
1054:
1042:Costello, John
1033:
1019:
999:
992:
974:
967:
949:
917:
904:
868:
846:
810:
782:
781:
779:
776:
737:Hiroshi Oshima
717:
714:
700:two-motion or
683:
680:
663:
660:
586:polyalphabetic
568:
565:
549:Enigma machine
544:
543:Stepping order
541:
518:
515:
511:
510:
507:
504:
500:
493:
486:
412:
409:
393:Eikichi Suzuki
333:
330:
300:Main article:
297:
294:
238:
235:
213:
210:
169:transliterated
102:
101:
56:
54:
47:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2208:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2178:
2176:
2157:
2149:
2148:
2145:
2139:
2138:Steganography
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2093:Stream cipher
2091:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2080:
2078:
2074:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2053:
2052:Onion routing
2050:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2032:Shared secret
2030:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
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1960:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1928:Key generator
1926:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1893:
1892:
1891:Hash function
1889:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1866:Cryptanalysis
1864:
1862:
1859:
1855:
1852:
1851:
1850:
1847:
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1636:
1634:
1631:
1629:
1626:
1624:
1621:
1620:
1618:
1616:
1612:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1588:
1586:
1583:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1568:
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1561:
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1545:
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1537:
1535:
1532:
1530:
1527:
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1515:
1512:
1510:
1507:
1505:
1502:
1500:
1497:
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1490:
1484:
1481:
1479:
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1474:
1471:
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1456:
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1451:
1449:
1446:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1416:
1414:
1411:
1409:
1406:
1404:
1401:
1399:
1396:
1395:
1393:
1391:
1387:
1378:
1373:
1371:
1366:
1364:
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1355:
1351:
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1340:
1337:
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1327:
1325:
1322:
1319:
1316:
1313:
1310:
1307:
1302:
1301:
1297:
1291:
1289:9780517575765
1285:
1281:
1280:
1274:
1270:
1268:9781559705684
1264:
1260:
1259:
1253:
1249:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1228:
1227:0-89412-273-8
1224:
1220:
1217:
1214:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1182:
1179:
1178:0-316-14595-5
1175:
1171:
1166:
1164:0-684-85932-7
1160:
1156:
1152:
1151:
1145:
1142:
1141:0-89412-290-8
1138:
1134:
1131:
1130:
1126:
1117:
1115:0-894122-90-8
1111:
1107:
1100:
1097:
1092:
1086:
1083:
1079:
1074:
1071:
1065:
1062:
1057:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1037:
1034:
1022:
1016:
1012:
1011:
1003:
1000:
995:
993:0-297-77279-1
989:
985:
978:
975:
970:
964:
960:
953:
950:
942:
935:
928:
926:
924:
922:
918:
914:
911:The captured
908:
905:
902:
898:
894:
890:
884:
877:
875:
873:
869:
864:
857:
854:KOTANI, Ken.
850:
847:
831:
824:
817:
815:
811:
806:
799:
792:
790:
788:
784:
777:
775:
774:in December.
773:
769:
765:
764:Richard Sorge
760:
758:
752:
750:
744:
742:
741:Atlantic Wall
738:
734:
729:
727:
723:
715:
713:
711:
705:
703:
698:
694:
690:
681:
679:
676:
672:
671:
670:King George V
661:
659:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
636:
634:
633:Francis Raven
629:
626:
622:
621:Frank Rowlett
618:
613:
610:
606:
604:
598:
596:
595:Phillips Code
592:
587:
578:
573:
566:
564:
560:
558:
552:
550:
542:
540:
537:
531:
527:
524:
516:
514:
508:
505:
501:
498:
494:
491:
487:
484:
483:
482:
474:
465:
459:
453:
445:
438:
434:
429:
422:
417:
410:
408:
406:
400:
398:
394:
390:
386:
381:
379:
370:
363:
359:
354:
347:
343:
338:
331:
329:
327:
324:
318:
316:
311:
309:
303:
295:
293:
291:
287:
283:
278:
276:
272:
267:
265:
261:
256:
255:Black Chamber
252:
243:
236:
234:
232:
231:cryptanalysis
228:
223:
219:
211:
209:
207:
206:
201:
197:
192:
190:
186:
182:
177:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
121:
115:
110:
106:
98:
95:
87:
77:
73:
67:
66:
60:
55:
46:
45:
40:
33:
19:
18:Purple cipher
2088:Block cipher
1933:Key schedule
1923:Key exchange
1913:Kleptography
1876:Cryptosystem
1825:Cryptography
1733:
1615:Secure voice
1408:M-125 Fialka
1278:
1257:
1237:
1218:
1215:by J. Prados
1212:
1189:
1185:
1149:
1133:Big Machines
1132:
1106:Big Machines
1105:
1099:
1085:
1073:
1064:
1045:
1036:
1024:. Retrieved
1009:
1002:
983:
977:
958:
952:
941:the original
907:
882:
862:
849:
837:. Retrieved
830:the original
804:
768:Soviet Union
761:
753:
745:
733:Nazi Germany
730:
719:
706:
685:
669:
665:
640:Hans Thomsen
637:
630:
614:
607:
599:
582:
561:
553:
546:
535:
532:
528:
520:
512:
479:
401:
385:Kazuo Tanabe
382:
377:
375:
362:permutations
322:
319:
314:
312:
305:
279:
271:Kazuo Tanabe
268:
264:Risaburo Ito
248:
227:Teiji Takagi
215:
203:
193:
188:
178:
157:World War II
144:
143:, codenamed
140:
136:
132:
126:
105:
90:
84:January 2020
81:
62:
2076:Mathematics
2067:Mix network
1563:Teleprinter
1519:Cipher disk
1247:0593-046412
1192:(1): 1â43.
1186:Cryptologia
1026:11 February
885:. Scribner.
839:16 February
805:CRYPTOLOGIA
726:Nomura Note
693:uniselector
76:introducing
2175:Categories
2027:Ciphertext
1997:Decryption
1992:Encryption
1953:Ransomware
1628:FASCINATOR
1492:Mechanical
887:Text from
778:References
735:, General
286:plug-board
173:plug board
149:encryption
135:(äčäžćŒæŹ§æć°ćæ©
59:references
2017:Plaintext
689:Leo Rosen
668:HMS
490:plugboard
488:An input
292:in 1930.
2156:Category
2062:Kademlia
2022:Codetext
1965:(CSPRNG)
1777:IBM 4764
1772:IBM 4758
1739:Pinwheel
1236:(2000).
1206:12776919
1044:(1994).
897:Archived
895:website
348:in 1940.
1832:General
1683:STU-III
1668:SIGSALY
1623:BID 150
1575:BID 770
1554:Scytale
1478:Singlet
1438:Mercury
1155:351-353
889:excerpt
127:In the
72:improve
1943:Keygen
1744:Rockex
1734:Purple
1724:Noreen
1688:VINSON
1678:STU-II
1648:NESTOR
1605:SIGTOT
1473:SIGCUM
1468:SIGABA
1428:Lacida
1413:Hebern
1403:Enigma
1286:
1265:
1244:
1225:
1204:
1176:
1161:
1139:
1112:
1052:
1017:
990:
965:
650:, the
411:Design
378:Purple
332:Purple
189:analog
145:Purple
131:, the
61:, but
1973:(PRN)
1719:KL-51
1714:KL-43
1709:KG-84
1697:Other
1643:KY-68
1638:KY-58
1590:KW-37
1585:KW-26
1580:DUDEK
1570:5-UCO
1544:M-209
1529:Kryha
1514:CD-57
1483:Typex
1463:SG-41
1458:SG-39
1433:M-325
1418:HX-63
1202:S2CID
944:(PDF)
937:(PDF)
859:(PDF)
833:(PDF)
826:(PDF)
801:(PDF)
603:cribs
536:leads
282:Kryha
205:Magic
196:Coral
139:) or
1704:JADE
1658:SCIP
1653:OMNI
1633:KY-3
1539:M-94
1524:HC-9
1509:C-52
1504:C-36
1443:NEMA
1423:KL-7
1284:ISBN
1263:ISBN
1242:ISBN
1223:ISBN
1174:ISBN
1159:ISBN
1137:ISBN
1110:ISBN
1050:ISBN
1028:2008
1015:ISBN
988:ISBN
963:ISBN
893:WNYC
841:2013
391:and
326:Kana
313:The
222:Army
216:The
200:Jade
198:and
1729:Red
1673:STE
1453:RED
1448:OMI
1398:CCM
1194:doi
421:Red
405:SIS
296:Red
181:Red
2177::
1200:.
1190:27
1188:.
1157:.
920:^
871:^
861:.
813:^
803:.
786:^
712:.
597:.
521:A
495:A
208:.
1817:e
1810:t
1803:v
1376:e
1369:t
1362:v
1292:.
1271:.
1250:.
1208:.
1196::
1180:.
1167:.
1118:.
1058:.
1030:.
996:.
971:.
865:.
843:.
807:.
439:.
97:)
91:(
86:)
82:(
68:.
41:.
34:.
20:)
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