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561:, a radioactive isotope of hydrogen, is also produced as a fission product in minute quantities in other reactors, tritium can more easily escape to the environment if it is also present in the cooling water, which is the case in those PHWRs which use heavy water both as moderator and as coolant. Some CANDU reactors separate out the tritium from their heavy water inventory at regular intervals and sell it at a profit, however.
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or above. No amount of U can be made "critical" since it will tend to parasitically absorb more neutrons than it releases by the fission process. U, on the other hand, can support a self-sustained chain reaction, but due to the low natural abundance of U, natural uranium cannot achieve criticality by
532:
Pressurised heavy-water reactors do have some drawbacks. Heavy water generally costs hundreds of dollars per kilogram, though this is a trade-off against reduced fuel costs. The reduced energy content of natural uranium as compared to enriched uranium necessitates more frequent replacement of fuel;
359:
to physically separate the neutron energy moderation process from the uranium fuel itself, as U has a high probability of absorbing neutrons with intermediate kinetic energy levels, a reaction known as "resonance" absorption. This is a fundamental reason for designing reactors with separate solid
370:
atoms in the water molecules are very close in mass to a single neutron, and so their collisions result in a very efficient transfer of momentum, similar conceptually to the collision of two billiard balls. However, as well as being a good moderator, ordinary water is also quite effective at
347:, is to slow down the emitted neutrons (without absorbing them) to the point where enough of them may cause further nuclear fission in the small amount of U which is available. (U which is the bulk of natural uranium is also fissionable with fast neutrons.) This requires the use of a
480:), which means that it can be operated without expensive uranium enrichment facilities. The mechanical arrangement of the PHWR, which places most of the moderator at lower temperatures, is particularly efficient because the resulting thermal neutrons have lower energies (
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the lower the neutron temperature is, and thus lower temperatures in the moderator make successful interaction between neutrons and fissile material more likely. These features mean that a PHWR can use natural uranium and other fuels, and does so more efficiently than
371:
absorbing neutrons. And so using ordinary water as a moderator will easily absorb so many neutrons that too few are left to sustain a chain reaction with the small isolated U nuclei in the fuel, thus precluding criticality in natural uranium. Because of this, a
599:
nuclear proliferation, this opinion has changed drastically in light of the ability of several countries to build atomic bombs out of plutonium, which can easily be produced in heavy water reactors. Heavy-water reactors may thus pose a
664:
wrongfully dismissed graphite as a suitable moderator due to overlooking impurities and thus made unsuccessful attempts using heavy water (which they correctly identified as an excellent moderator). The
200:. As of the beginning of 2001, 31 PHWRs were in operation, having a total capacity of 16.5 GW(e), representing roughly 7.76% by number and 4.7% by generating capacity of all current operating reactors.
304:
to stimulate another nuclear fission event (in another fissionable nucleus). With careful design of the reactor's geometry, and careful control of the substances present so as to influence the
425:, or deuterium-oxide. Although it reacts dynamically with the neutrons in a fashion similar to light water (albeit with less energy transfer on average, given that heavy hydrogen, or
1959:
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The use of heavy water as the moderator is the key to the PHWR (pressurized heavy water reactor) system, enabling the use of natural uranium as the fuel (in the form of ceramic UO
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after successive passes through a moderator roughly equals the temperature of the moderator) than in traditional designs, where the moderator normally is much hotter. The
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and there is ongoing research into the ability of CANDU type reactors to operate exclusively on such fuels in a commercial setting. (More on that in the article on the
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absorb neutrons as readily as water. In this case potentially all of the neutrons being released can be moderated and used in reactions with the U, in which case there
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249:
53:
172:. The heavy water coolant is kept under pressure to avoid boiling, allowing it to reach higher temperature (mostly) without forming steam bubbles, exactly as for a
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this is normally accomplished by use of an on-power refuelling system. The increased rate of fuel movement through the reactor also results in higher volumes of
656:. Although this process takes place with natural uranium using other moderators such as ultra-pure graphite or beryllium, heavy water is by far the best. The
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One complication of this approach is the need for uranium enrichment facilities, which are generally expensive to build and operate. They also present a
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410:. This is not a trivial exercise by any means, but feasible enough that enrichment facilities present a significant nuclear proliferation risk.
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An
International Spent Nuclear Fuel Storage Facility - Exploring a Russian Site as a Prototype: Proceedings of an International Workshop
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355:, slowing them down to the point that they reach thermal equilibrium with surrounding material. It has been found beneficial to the
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While prior to India's development of nuclear weapons (see below), the ability to use natural uranium (and thus forego the need for
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fuel segments, surrounded by the moderator, rather than any geometry that would give a homogeneous mix of fuel and moderator.
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nuclei in the heavy water absorb neutrons, a very inefficient reaction. Tritium is essential for the production of
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than enriched uranium fuel, however, it generates less heat, allowing more compact storage. While deuterium has a
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Lestani, H.A.; González, H.J.; Florido, P.C. (2014). "Negative power coefficient on PHWRS with CARA fuel".
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than in LWRs employing enriched uranium. Since unenriched uranium fuel accumulates a lower density of
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In addition, the use of heavy water as a moderator results in the production of small amounts of
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without the need for heavy water or - at least according to initial design specifications -
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The proliferation risk of heavy-water reactors was demonstrated when India produced the
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likewise used graphite as a moderator and ultimately developed the graphite moderated
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moderator depends on the exact geometry and other design parameters of the reactor.
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due to the low neutron absorption properties of heavy water, discovered in 1937 by
967:"Tritium supply and use: a key issue for the development of nuclear fusion energy"
723:. This process is currently expected to provide (at least partially) tritium for
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Pearson, Richard J.; Antoniazzi, Armando B.; Nuttall, William J. (2018-11-01).
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331:. U can only be fissioned by neutrons that are relatively energetic, about 1
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ultimately used graphite moderated reactors to produce plutonium, while the
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as a reactor capable of producing both large amounts of electric power and
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and thus part of the heavy water moderator will inevitably be converted to
504:(LWRs). CANDU type PHWRs are claimed to be able to handle fuels including
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enough U in natural uranium to sustain criticality. One such moderator is
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using only natural or low enriched uranium, for which there is no "bare"
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can be chemically extracted from the irradiated natural uranium fuel by
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will increase the likelihood of fission, thus explaining the need for a
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will require that the U isotope be concentrated in its uranium fuel, as
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An alternative solution to the problem is to use a moderator that does
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is very expensive to isolate from ordinary water (often referred to as
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Department of
Physics and Astronomy, University of British Columbia
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and the desirability of keeping its temperature as low as feasible.
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used to enrich the U can also be used to produce much more "pure"
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Nuclear Power
Program – Stage1 – Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor
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of reactivity, the
Argentina designed CARA fuel bundles used in
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Waltham, Chris (June 2002). "An Early
History of Heavy Water".
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relationship is apparent, it is clear that in most cases lower
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derived fuel bundles, the reactor design has a slightly
188:), its low absorption of neutrons greatly increases the
1023:"India's Nuclear Weapons Program: Smiling Buddha: 1974"
1063:
579:, are capable of the preferred negative coefficient.
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and a much smaller amount (about 0.72% by weight) of
1042:
Economics of
Nuclear Power from Heavy Water Reactors
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406:material (90% or more U), suitable for producing a
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
319:Natural uranium consists of a mixture of various
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351:, which absorbs virtually all of the neutrons'
1755:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)
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652:, and the second one transmuting the Np into
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256:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
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276:Learn how and when to remove this message
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
363:Water makes an excellent moderator; the
1052:IAEA - Technical Reports Series No. 407
790:
648:, the first one transmuting the U into
300:one of the neutrons released from each
1682:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)
192:of the reactor, avoiding the need for
1687:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)
7:
927:
925:
254:adding citations to reliable sources
58:adding citations to reliable sources
1692:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)
636:. The U then rapidly undergoes two
545:neutron capture cross section than
857:National Research Council (2005).
316:" can be achieved and maintained.
25:
69:"Pressurized heavy-water reactor"
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1775:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
620:. Occasionally, when an atom of
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168:as fuel, but sometimes also use
34:
992:10.1016/j.fusengdes.2018.04.090
906:10.1016/j.nucengdes.2013.12.056
770:, PHWR types developed in India
754:, the first heavy water reactor
134:pressurized heavy-water reactor
45:needs additional citations for
1765:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)
894:Nuclear Engineering and Design
760:: The predominant type of PHWR
662:German wartime nuclear project
1:
971:Fusion Engineering and Design
628:, its nucleus will capture a
1565:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz
433:Advantages and disadvantages
204:Purpose of using heavy water
1981:Nuclear power reactor types
1912:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
1997:
1750:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)
207:
1920:
1875:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)
1770:Reduced-moderation (RMWR)
1735:
1577:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
1107:
779:Pressurized water reactor
488:for fission is higher in
288:The key to maintaining a
174:pressurized water reactor
170:very low enriched uranium
1940:List of nuclear reactors
1780:Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
1396:Steam-generating (SGHWR)
1064:Official website of AECL
774:List of nuclear reactors
736:Operation Smiling Buddha
595:technology) was seen as
164:. PHWRs frequently use
1930:Nuclear fusion reactors
1895:Organic nuclear reactor
1101:nuclear fission reactor
799:"Pocket Guide Reactors"
713:boosted fission weapons
694:weapons-grade plutonium
675:weapons grade plutonium
339:The trick to achieving
296:is to use, on average,
210:Nuclear reactor physics
198:alternative fuel cycles
826:Marion BrĂĽnglinghaus.
667:Soviet nuclear program
468:
290:nuclear chain reaction
27:Nuclear reactor design
717:thermonuclear weapons
606:nuclear proliferation
583:Nuclear proliferation
486:neutron cross section
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396:nuclear proliferation
365:ordinary hydrogen or
302:nuclear fission event
1760:Traveling-wave (TWR)
1244:Supercritical (SCWR)
698:nuclear reprocessing
688:suitable for use in
610:light-water reactors
514:light water reactors
512:from "conventional"
502:light water reactors
308:, a self-sustaining
250:improve this section
54:improve this article
1130:Aqueous homogeneous
983:2018FusED.136.1140P
952:2002physics...6076W
640:— both emitting an
564:While with typical
549:, this value isn't
506:reprocessed uranium
482:neutron temperature
461:neutron temperature
373:light-water reactor
1950:Nuclear technology
679:uranium enrichment
608:versus comparable
589:uranium enrichment
510:spent nuclear fuel
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828:"Natural uranium"
806:World-Nuclear.org
658:Manhattan Project
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573:Void coefficient
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1598:
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1588:
1584:
1578:
1575:
1573:
1570:
1568:
1566:
1562:
1561:
1559:
1557:
1550:
1547:
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1531:
1528:
1526:
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1518:
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1513:
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1508:
1500:
1497:
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1473:
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1453:
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1426:
1420:
1417:
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1399:
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1390:
1387:
1385:
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1377:
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1255:
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1245:
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1237:
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1223:
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1198:
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1190:
1188:
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1175:
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1170:
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1165:
1163:
1160:
1156:
1153:
1151:
1148:
1146:
1143:
1141:
1138:
1137:
1136:
1133:
1131:
1128:
1127:
1125:
1123:
1119:
1114:
1113:
1106:
1102:
1094:
1089:
1087:
1082:
1080:
1075:
1074:
1071:
1065:
1062:
1061:
1057:
1053:
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1048:
1045:
1043:
1040:
1039:
1024:
1018:
1015:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
993:
988:
984:
980:
977:: 1140–1148.
976:
972:
968:
961:
958:
953:
949:
944:
939:
935:
928:
926:
922:
916:
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895:
888:
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880:
874:
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866:
862:
861:
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850:
837:
833:
829:
822:
819:
807:
800:
794:
791:
784:
780:
777:
775:
772:
769:
765:
762:
759:
758:CANDU reactor
756:
753:
750:
749:
745:
743:
741:
740:CIRUS reactor
737:
733:
728:
726:
722:
721:neutron bombs
718:
714:
710:
706:
701:
699:
695:
691:
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663:
659:
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631:
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623:
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611:
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582:
580:
578:
574:
571:
567:
562:
560:
556:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
528:Disadvantages
527:
525:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
487:
483:
471:
466:
462:
458:
454:
453:cross section
439:
432:
430:
428:
424:
420:
416:
411:
409:
405:
404:weapons-grade
401:
398:concern; the
397:
392:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
369:
368:
361:
358:
354:
350:
346:
345:critical mass
342:
337:
334:
330:
326:
322:
317:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
280:
277:
269:
259:
255:
251:
245:
244:
240:
235:This section
233:
229:
224:
223:
219:
215:
211:
203:
201:
199:
195:
194:enriched fuel
191:
187:
183:
179:
176:(PWR). While
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
124:
121:
113:
102:
99:
95:
92:
88:
85:
81:
78:
74:
71: –
70:
66:
65:Find sources:
59:
55:
49:
48:
43:This article
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
1798:Sodium (SFR)
1725:fast-neutron
1564:
1283:
1110:
1026:. Retrieved
1017:
974:
970:
960:
933:
897:
893:
887:
859:
852:
842:11 September
840:. Retrieved
836:the original
831:
821:
810:. Retrieved
805:
793:
729:
719:, including
702:
683:
646:antineutrino
601:
596:
586:
569:
563:
550:
542:
531:
475:
418:
414:
412:
400:same systems
393:
388:
384:
366:
362:
344:
338:
323:, primarily
318:
297:
287:
272:
263:
248:Please help
236:
185:
181:
137:
133:
131:
116:
107:
97:
90:
83:
76:
64:
52:Please help
47:verification
44:
1833:Superphénix
1660:Molten-salt
1612:VHTR (HTGR)
1389:HW BLWR 250
1355:R4 Marviken
1284:Pressurized
1254:Heavy water
1238:many others
1167:Pressurized
1122:Light water
915:11336/32479
900:: 185–197.
618:Otto Frisch
591:which is a
516:as well as
423:heavy water
389:light-water
385:criticality
341:criticality
314:criticality
218:Heavy water
186:heavy water
182:light water
178:heavy water
146:heavy water
1617:PBR (PBMR)
812:2021-12-24
785:References
535:spent fuel
472:Advantages
455:- while a
306:reactivity
208:See also:
156:O) as its
144:that uses
80:newspapers
1669:Fluorides
1333:IPHWR-700
1328:IPHWR-540
1323:IPHWR-220
1112:Moderator
1099:Types of
1001:0920-3796
768:IPHWR-220
764:IPHWR-700
732:plutonium
709:deuterium
707:when the
597:hindering
457:nonlinear
427:deuterium
292:within a
237:does not
150:deuterium
1975:Category
1702:TMSR-LF1
1697:TMSR-500
1677:Fuji MSR
1637:THTR-300
1477:Graphite
1340:PHWR KWU
1306:ACR-1000
1234:IPWR-900
1217:ACPR1000
1212:HPR-1000
1202:CPR-1000
1177:APR-1400
1009:53560490
746:See also
684:Pu is a
642:electron
638:β decays
604:risk of
593:dual use
577:Atucha I
570:positive
557:. While
518:MOX fuel
508:or even
451:fission
336:itself.
321:isotopes
266:May 2015
110:May 2015
1843:FBR-600
1823:CFR-600
1818:BN-1200
1484:coolant
1411:Organic
1296:CANDU 9
1293:CANDU 6
1261:coolant
1222:ACP1000
1197:CAP1400
1135:Boiling
1028:23 June
979:Bibcode
948:Bibcode
705:tritium
644:and an
630:neutron
602:greater
559:tritium
547:protium
387:with a
367:protium
298:exactly
258:removed
243:sources
158:coolant
152:oxide D
140:) is a
94:scholar
1888:Others
1828:Phénix
1813:BN-800
1808:BN-600
1803:BN-350
1632:HTR-PM
1627:HTR-10
1607:UHTREX
1572:Magnox
1567:(UNGG)
1460:Lucens
1455:KS 150
1192:ATMEA1
1172:AP1000
1155:Kerena
1007:
999:
936:: 28.
875:
808:. 2015
216:, and
96:
89:
82:
75:
67:
1905:Piqua
1900:Arbus
1858:PRISM
1600:MHR-T
1595:GTMHR
1525:EGP-6
1520:AMB-X
1495:Water
1440:HWGCR
1379:HWLWR
1318:IPHWR
1289:CANDU
1150:ESBWR
1005:S2CID
938:arXiv
802:(PDF)
566:CANDU
543:lower
522:CANDU
101:JSTOR
87:books
1865:Lead
1848:CEFR
1838:PFBR
1720:None
1530:RBMK
1515:AM-1
1445:EL-4
1419:WR-1
1401:AHWR
1345:MZFR
1313:CVTR
1302:AFCR
1229:VVER
1187:APWR
1182:APR+
1145:ABWR
1030:2017
997:ISSN
873:ISBN
844:2015
766:and
734:for
725:ITER
671:RBMK
616:and
551:zero
312:or "
241:any
239:cite
160:and
138:PHWR
73:news
18:PHWR
1853:PFR
1644:PMR
1622:AVR
1544:Gas
1482:by
1450:KKN
1384:ATR
1299:EC6
1259:by
1207:EPR
1140:BWR
987:doi
975:136
910:hdl
902:doi
898:270
865:doi
415:not
333:MeV
252:by
56:by
1977::
1587:He
1553:CO
1429:CO
1350:R3
1003:.
995:.
985:.
973:.
969:.
946:.
924:^
908:.
896:.
871:.
863:.
830:.
804:.
742:.
727:.
700:.
681:.
654:Pu
650:Np
419:is
212:,
132:A
1727:)
1723:(
1555:2
1507:O
1505:2
1503:H
1431:2
1371:O
1369:2
1367:H
1276:O
1274:2
1272:D
1092:e
1085:t
1078:v
1032:.
1011:.
989::
981::
954:.
950::
940::
918:.
912::
904::
881:.
867::
846:.
815:.
634:U
622:U
497:U
478:2
449:U
329:U
325:U
279:)
273:(
268:)
264:(
260:.
246:.
154:2
148:(
136:(
123:)
117:(
112:)
108:(
98:·
91:·
84:·
77:·
50:.
20:)
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