33:
190:) covering the substrate on which the colony grows. The individual polyps have flattened oral discs surrounded by a fringe of tentacles. The tentacles' shape and size can vary considerably between species, and even between colonies of the same species. Their colors are also highly variable, with relatively dull shades like cream, coffee, white, brown, or yellow, being the most common. Fluorescent colored colonies also exist, but these are more rare.
55:
254:. Aquarists have reported symptoms consistent with palytoxin poisoning prior to having exposure to zoanthids suspected to contain the toxin. One report involved an aquarist being accidentally poisoned through skin injuries after handling zoanthids. Another report involved an aquarium hobbyist in Virginia who experienced a severe respiratory reaction after trying to eradicate colonies of brown zoanthids (suspected to be
1546:
Katrin
Hoffmann, Maren Hermanns-Clausen, Claus Buhl, Markus W. Büchler, Peter Schemmer, Dietrich Mebs and Silke Kauferstein (2008) A case of palytoxin poisoning due to contact with zoanthid corals through a skin injury. Toxicon 51, no. 8:
273:
without any adverse reactions. However, it is generally recommended to always wear appropriate protective gloves and goggles when reaching into aquaria and handling animals which are suspected to be toxic.
1558:
1608:
1746:
1566:
1707:
1733:
1482:
Myers, P., R. Espinosa, C. S. Parr, T. Jones, G. S. Hammond, and T. A. Dewey. 2014. The Animal
Diversity Web (online). Accessed at
1795:
209:, and is also found in other corals and certain marine invertebrates. The substance was first isolated from the seaweed-like "
1738:
1833:
1668:
1655:
1751:
266:
area contained high levels of palytoxin, indicating that toxic individuals are present in the captive population.
54:
1588:
1112:
786:
1143:
392:
1102:
1092:
1031:
696:
412:
1623:
1289:
1185:
1164:
1122:
981:
931:
746:
655:
614:
563:
543:
533:
512:
502:
442:
1267:
1256:
1236:
1052:
1001:
829:
706:
666:
604:
593:
492:
402:
381:
1673:
1175:
1154:
1072:
891:
850:
819:
797:
776:
736:
573:
472:
371:
330:
310:
1246:
1132:
1011:
951:
921:
766:
726:
635:
553:
522:
482:
462:
341:
1787:
1226:
1206:
1062:
971:
941:
911:
880:
870:
839:
808:
756:
676:
583:
422:
41:
1828:
1800:
1761:
1694:
1278:
1216:
1021:
991:
961:
901:
860:
452:
432:
361:
320:
1470:
1082:
716:
686:
624:
351:
32:
1589:
Palytoxin Found in
Palythoa sp. Zoanthids (Anthozoa, Hexacorallia) Sold in the Home Aquarium Trade.
1469:
Reimer, J. (2018). Palythoa
Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at
645:
269:
While poisoning events have occurred, they are exceedingly rare, and many reef hobbyists have kept
139:
49:
1483:
1823:
1769:
1681:
1774:
1592:
1559:"Palythoa Toxica Poisoning - One Reefkeeper's Personal Experience With Palytoxin Poisoning"
1521:
1495:
1196:
1042:
263:
227:
210:
251:
1817:
243:
202:
1686:
96:
1596:
1720:
1660:
187:
116:
1646:
262:
from a sample of fifteen colonies purchased from three aquarium stores in the
171:
106:
258:) from rocks in their aquarium. A 2010 study found that a single specimen of
232:
218:
198:
66:
1300:¹Indicates Species Unreviewed: has not been verified by a taxonomic editor
1640:
239:
222:
86:
1712:
1725:
214:
76:
1617:
217:. Scientific investigation of the seaweed found it to be a colonial
250:
and related zoanthids are commonly kept as decorative specimens in
1782:
167:
1471:
http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785
1621:
1522:"Aquarium Invertebrates: Zoanthids: Polyps As Cute As A Button"
1699:
1484:
http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Palythoa/classification/
186:
are partially embedded in an encrusting mat of tissue (
1630:
300:The following species are recognized in the genus
238:The presence of this toxin is of significance to
1587:Deeds JR, Handy SM, White KD, Reimer JD (2011)
1565:. Pomacanthus Publications, LLC. Archived from
288:was once thought to be distinct from the genus
235:can be fatal should it be ingested or inhaled.
8:
213:" ("Seaweed of Death from Hana") in 1971 in
1618:
31:
20:
1459:
292:but is now considered to be a synonym.
1557:Longo-White, Adrienne (7 April 2011).
7:
1788:57ACBC57-D69B-AC39-A4E7-CC95DBBCA28C
1762:60222a59-1773-4d13-8f65-30d845701481
1465:
1463:
1423:(Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1860)
1343:(Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1866)
1311:(Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1860)
548:(Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1860)
1609:Aquarium Science: Palytoxin and You
936:Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1860
741:Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1864
14:
1611:, Tropical Fish Hobbyist Magazine
1231:Irei, Sinniger & Reimer, 2015
1016:Irei, Sinniger & Reimer, 2015
53:
1528:. Pomacanthus Publications, LLC
1407:(Haddon & Shackleton, 1891)
1047:(Haddon & Shackleton, 1891)
865:(Ryland & Lancaster, 2003)
1:
1180:Carlgren & Hedgpeth, 1952
966:Haddon & Shackleton, 1891
885:Haddon & Shackleton, 1891
1597:10.1371/journal.pone.0018235
1006:(Ellis & Solander, 1786)
221:, which was classified as a
205:produced by many species of
1850:
1447:(Quoy & Gaimard, 1833)
1439:(Quoy & Gaimard, 1833)
1431:(Quoy & Gaimard, 1833)
1399:(Quoy & Gaimard, 1833)
1383:Cubit & Williams, 1983
1375:(Quoy & Gaimard, 1833)
996:Haddon & Duerden, 1896
771:Haddon & Duerden, 1896
527:Haddon & Duerden, 1896
507:Haddon & Duerden, 1896
145:
138:
50:Scientific classification
48:
39:
30:
23:
1201:Walsh & Bowers, 1971
1097:Walsh & Bowers, 1971
278:Taxonomy and systematics
1591:PLoS ONE 6(4): e18235.
1113:Palythoa senegambiensis
787:Palythoa guangdongensis
1190:Pax & Müller, 1957
1148:Pax & Müller, 1956
1144:Palythoa singaporensis
1107:Pax & Muller, 1956
1026:Pax & Muller, 1956
986:Pax & Muller, 1956
781:Pax & Muller, 1956
671:Pax & Muller, 1956
568:Pax & Muller, 1956
558:Pax & Muller, 1956
393:Palythoa australiensis
335:Pax & Müller, 1957
231:. Small quantities of
1428:Palythoa vanikorensis
1103:Palythoa senegalensis
1093:Palythoa psammophilia
1032:Palythoa multisulcata
697:Palythoa flavoviridis
413:Palythoa brasiliensis
1436:Palythoa viridifusca
1290:Palythoa zanzibarica
1217:Palythoa tuberculosa
1186:Palythoa titanophila
1165:Palythoa stephensoni
1123:Palythoa shackletoni
982:Palythoa leucochiton
932:Palythoa irregularis
861:Palythoa heliodiscus
747:Palythoa grandiflora
656:Palythoa durbanensis
615:Palythoa dartevellei
564:Palythoa chlorostoma
544:Palythoa caribaeorum
534:Palythoa caracasiana
513:Palythoa cancrisocia
503:Palythoa canariensis
443:Palythoa buitendijkl
1834:Hexacorallia genera
1412:Palythoa olivascens
1404:Palythoa mcmurrichi
1303:Taxon inquirendum:
1268:Palythoa xishaensis
1257:Palythoa wilsmoorei
1237:Palythoa variabilis
1053:Palythoa natalensis
1002:Palythoa mammillosa
830:Palythoa hartmeyeri
707:Palythoa fuliginosa
667:Palythoa dysancrita
605:Palythoa congoensis
594:Palythoa complanata
588:(Duchassaing, 1850)
578:Milne Edwards, 1857
493:Palythoa canalifera
403:Palythoa bertholeti
382:Palythoa australiae
1388:Palythoa glomerata
1332:Palythoa casigneta
1176:Palythoa texaensis
1155:Palythoa spongiosa
1073:Palythoa nigricans
892:Palythoa hypopelia
851:Palythoa heilprini
820:Palythoa halidosis
798:Palythoa guinensis
777:Palythoa gridellii
737:Palythoa glutinosa
574:Palythoa cingulata
473:Palythoa calcigena
372:Palythoa atogrisea
331:Palythoa anthoplax
311:Palythoa aggregata
201:is a highly toxic
1811:
1810:
1770:Open Tree of Life
1624:Taxon identifiers
1607:Nicholas Violand
1563:Advanced Aquarist
1526:Advanced Aquarist
1448:
1440:
1432:
1424:
1416:
1408:
1400:
1392:
1384:
1380:Palythoa gigantea
1376:
1368:
1360:
1356:Palythoa eupaguri
1352:
1344:
1336:
1328:
1320:
1316:Palythoa auricula
1312:
1295:
1284:
1273:
1262:
1252:
1247:Palythoa vestitus
1242:
1232:
1222:
1212:
1202:
1191:
1181:
1170:
1160:
1149:
1138:
1133:Palythoa sinensis
1128:
1118:
1108:
1098:
1088:
1078:
1068:
1058:
1048:
1037:
1027:
1017:
1012:Palythoa mizigama
1007:
997:
987:
977:
967:
957:
952:Palythoa javanica
947:
937:
927:
922:Palythoa insignis
917:
907:
897:
886:
876:
866:
856:
845:
835:
825:
814:
803:
792:
782:
772:
767:Palythoa gregorii
762:
752:
742:
732:
727:Palythoa glareola
722:
712:
702:
692:
682:
672:
661:
651:
641:
636:Palythoa denudata
630:
620:
610:
599:
589:
579:
569:
559:
554:Palythoa ceresina
549:
539:
528:
523:Palythoa capensis
518:
508:
498:
488:
483:Palythoa calycina
478:
468:
463:Palythoa calcaria
458:
448:
438:
428:
418:
408:
398:
387:
377:
367:
357:
347:
342:Palythoa arenacea
336:
326:
316:
159:
158:
153:
134:
1841:
1804:
1803:
1791:
1790:
1778:
1777:
1765:
1764:
1755:
1754:
1742:
1741:
1729:
1728:
1716:
1715:
1703:
1702:
1690:
1689:
1677:
1676:
1664:
1663:
1651:
1650:
1649:
1619:
1612:
1605:
1599:
1585:
1579:
1578:
1576:
1574:
1554:
1548:
1544:
1538:
1537:
1535:
1533:
1520:Sprung, Julian.
1517:
1511:
1510:
1508:
1506:
1492:
1486:
1480:
1474:
1467:
1446:
1444:Palythoa viridis
1438:
1430:
1422:
1414:
1406:
1398:
1390:
1382:
1374:
1366:
1358:
1350:
1342:
1340:Palythoa distans
1334:
1326:
1318:
1310:
1308:Palythoa anduzii
1293:
1282:
1271:
1260:
1250:
1240:
1230:
1227:Palythoa umbrosa
1220:
1210:
1207:Palythoa tropica
1200:
1189:
1179:
1168:
1158:
1147:
1136:
1126:
1116:
1106:
1096:
1086:
1076:
1066:
1063:Palythoa nelliae
1056:
1046:
1035:
1025:
1015:
1005:
995:
985:
976:Klunzinger, 1877
975:
972:Palythoa leseuri
965:
955:
945:
942:Palythoa isolata
935:
925:
915:
912:Palythoa incerta
905:
895:
884:
881:Palythoa howesii
874:
871:Palythoa horstii
864:
854:
843:
840:Palythoa heideri
833:
823:
812:
809:Palythoa haddoni
801:
790:
780:
770:
760:
757:Palythoa grandis
750:
740:
730:
720:
710:
700:
690:
680:
677:Palythoa eremita
670:
659:
649:
639:
628:
618:
608:
597:
587:
584:Palythoa clavata
577:
567:
557:
547:
537:
526:
516:
506:
496:
486:
476:
466:
456:
446:
436:
426:
423:Palythoa braunsi
416:
406:
396:
385:
375:
365:
355:
345:
334:
324:
314:
211:limu-make-o-Hana
151:
132:
58:
57:
42:Palythoa grandis
35:
21:
1849:
1848:
1844:
1843:
1842:
1840:
1839:
1838:
1814:
1813:
1812:
1807:
1799:
1794:
1786:
1781:
1773:
1768:
1760:
1758:
1750:
1745:
1737:
1732:
1724:
1719:
1711:
1706:
1698:
1693:
1685:
1680:
1672:
1667:
1659:
1654:
1645:
1644:
1639:
1626:
1616:
1615:
1606:
1602:
1586:
1582:
1572:
1570:
1556:
1555:
1551:
1545:
1541:
1531:
1529:
1519:
1518:
1514:
1504:
1502:
1494:
1493:
1489:
1481:
1477:
1468:
1461:
1456:
1451:
1348:Palythoa dubiae
1324:Palythoa brevis
1319:(Lesueur, 1817)
1279:Palythoa yongei
1251:(Verrill, 1928)
1241:(Duerden, 1898)
1197:Palythoa toxica
1077:McMurrich, 1898
1043:Palythoa mutuki
1022:Palythoa monodi
992:Palythoa liscia
962:Palythoa kochii
902:Palythoa ignota
855:(Verrill, 1900)
761:(Verrill, 1900)
751:(Verrill, 1900)
731:(Lesueur, 1817)
721:(Duerden, 1898)
701:Ehrenberg, 1834
453:Palythoa caesia
433:Palythoa brochi
362:Palythoa aspera
356:Ehrenberg, 1834
321:Palythoa anneae
298:
280:
264:Washington D.C.
228:Palythoa toxica
196:
180:
133:Lamouroux, 1816
131:
52:
17:
16:Genus of corals
12:
11:
5:
1847:
1845:
1837:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1816:
1815:
1809:
1808:
1806:
1805:
1792:
1779:
1766:
1756:
1743:
1730:
1717:
1704:
1691:
1678:
1665:
1652:
1636:
1634:
1628:
1627:
1622:
1614:
1613:
1600:
1580:
1569:on 29 May 2013
1549:
1539:
1512:
1487:
1475:
1458:
1457:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1449:
1441:
1433:
1425:
1420:Palythoa plana
1417:
1409:
1401:
1396:Palythoa lutea
1393:
1385:
1377:
1372:Palythoa fulva
1369:
1364:Palythoa fulva
1361:
1353:
1345:
1337:
1329:
1321:
1313:
1298:
1297:
1286:
1283:Carlgren, 1937
1275:
1264:
1253:
1243:
1233:
1223:
1213:
1211:Carlgren, 1900
1203:
1193:
1182:
1172:
1169:Carlgren, 1937
1161:
1151:
1140:
1129:
1127:Carlgren, 1937
1119:
1109:
1099:
1089:
1083:Palythoa oorti
1079:
1069:
1059:
1057:Carlgren, 1938
1049:
1039:
1036:Carlgren, 1900
1028:
1018:
1008:
998:
988:
978:
968:
958:
948:
938:
928:
926:Carlgren, 1951
918:
916:Carlgren, 1900
908:
906:Carlgren, 1951
898:
888:
877:
867:
857:
847:
844:Carlgren, 1954
836:
826:
816:
813:Carlgren, 1937
805:
802:von Koch, 1886
794:
783:
773:
763:
753:
743:
733:
723:
717:Palythoa fusca
713:
703:
693:
691:Schultze, 1867
687:Palythoa fatua
683:
673:
663:
660:Carlgren, 1938
652:
650:Carlgren, 1920
642:
632:
629:Carlgren, 1954
625:Palythoa densa
621:
611:
601:
598:Carlgren, 1951
590:
580:
570:
560:
550:
540:
530:
519:
509:
499:
489:
479:
469:
459:
449:
439:
429:
419:
409:
399:
397:Carlgren, 1950
389:
386:Carlgren, 1937
378:
368:
358:
352:Palythoa argus
348:
338:
327:
325:Carlgren, 1938
317:
306:
297:
294:
279:
276:
252:marine aquaria
244:reef aquariums
195:
192:
182:The polyps of
179:
176:
166:is a genus of
157:
156:
155:
154:
143:
142:
136:
135:
124:
120:
119:
114:
110:
109:
104:
100:
99:
94:
90:
89:
84:
80:
79:
74:
70:
69:
64:
60:
59:
46:
45:
37:
36:
28:
27:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1846:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1822:
1821:
1819:
1802:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1757:
1753:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1657:
1653:
1648:
1642:
1638:
1637:
1635:
1633:
1629:
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1620:
1610:
1604:
1601:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1584:
1581:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1553:
1550:
1543:
1540:
1527:
1523:
1516:
1513:
1501:
1497:
1496:"Moon Polyps"
1491:
1488:
1485:
1479:
1476:
1473:on 2018-08-27
1472:
1466:
1464:
1460:
1453:
1445:
1442:
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1434:
1429:
1426:
1421:
1418:
1413:
1410:
1405:
1402:
1397:
1394:
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1386:
1381:
1378:
1373:
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1365:
1362:
1357:
1354:
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1301:
1292:
1291:
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1281:
1280:
1276:
1270:
1269:
1265:
1259:
1258:
1254:
1249:
1248:
1244:
1239:
1238:
1234:
1229:
1228:
1224:
1221:(Esper, 1791)
1219:
1218:
1214:
1209:
1208:
1204:
1199:
1198:
1194:
1188:
1187:
1183:
1178:
1177:
1173:
1167:
1166:
1162:
1157:
1156:
1152:
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1125:
1124:
1120:
1115:
1114:
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1105:
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1100:
1095:
1094:
1090:
1085:
1084:
1080:
1075:
1074:
1070:
1065:
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1060:
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1045:
1044:
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1034:
1033:
1029:
1024:
1023:
1019:
1014:
1013:
1009:
1004:
1003:
999:
994:
993:
989:
984:
983:
979:
974:
973:
969:
964:
963:
959:
954:
953:
949:
946:Verrill, 1907
944:
943:
939:
934:
933:
929:
924:
923:
919:
914:
913:
909:
904:
903:
899:
894:
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883:
882:
878:
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872:
868:
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848:
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841:
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646:Palythoa dura
643:
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150:
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1571:. Retrieved
1567:the original
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1530:. Retrieved
1525:
1515:
1503:. Retrieved
1500:Animal-World
1499:
1490:
1478:
1443:
1435:
1427:
1419:
1415:Brandt, 1835
1411:
1403:
1395:
1391:Marion, 1882
1387:
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1363:
1359:Marion, 1882
1355:
1347:
1339:
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1327:Andres, 1883
1323:
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1117:Carter, 1882
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97:Hexacorallia
40:
24:
18:
1829:Sphenopidae
1721:iNaturalist
1367:Walsh, 1967
1351:Walsh, 1967
1335:Walsh, 1967
1272:Zunan, 1998
1137:Zunan, 1998
791:Zunan, 1998
188:coenenchyme
178:Description
117:Sphenopidae
1818:Categories
1547:1535-1537.
1532:4 December
1505:4 December
1454:References
711:Dana, 1846
640:Dana, 1846
457:Dana, 1846
407:Gray, 1867
282:The genus
225:and named
172:Zoantharia
168:anthozoans
107:Zoantharia
1087:Pax, 1924
1067:Pax, 1935
956:Pax, 1924
896:Pax, 1909
875:Pax, 1924
834:Pax, 1910
824:Pax, 1952
681:Pax, 1920
619:Pax, 1952
609:Pax, 1952
538:Pax, 1924
497:Pax, 1908
487:Pax, 1909
477:Pax, 1924
447:Pax, 1924
437:Pax, 1924
427:Pax, 1924
376:Pax, 1924
366:Pax, 1909
242:who keep
240:aquarists
233:palytoxin
219:cnidarian
199:Palytoxin
194:Palytoxin
73:Kingdom:
67:Eukaryota
1824:Palythoa
1661:Palythoa
1647:Q3952232
1641:Wikidata
1632:Palythoa
1294:Carlgren
1261:Wilsmore
302:Palythoa
290:Palythoa
271:Palythoa
260:Palythoa
256:Palythoa
248:Palythoa
223:zoanthid
207:Palythoa
184:Palythoa
163:Palythoa
140:Synonyms
128:Palythoa
113:Family:
87:Cnidaria
83:Phylum:
77:Animalia
63:Domain:
25:Palythoa
1713:2257986
1573:2 April
296:Species
123:Genus:
103:Order:
93:Class:
1801:205785
1775:287093
1759:NZOR:
215:Hawaii
1796:WoRMS
1783:Plazi
1752:86596
1739:52433
1726:54438
1700:23352
1687:7PP8M
1674:29344
246:, as
1747:NCBI
1734:ITIS
1708:GBIF
1669:BOLD
1575:2015
1534:2014
1507:2014
1695:EoL
1682:CoL
1656:AFD
1593:doi
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1462:^
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