650:
53:
672:
630:
31:
657:
Zooanthids and
Palythoa are propagated in captivity by cutting the polyps apart using a scalpal or scissors then attaching to a surface with cyanoacrylate glue. Care must be taken when cutting zooanthids because if the palytoxin gets in the bloodstream a person will become very ill. Drying the polyps
721:
Reports are varied and conflicting on the potential dangers of handling the animal in the aquarist hobby. General opinion and practical experience holds that in order for this toxin to be dangerous to humans, the average aquarist would need to ingest the zoanthid in sufficient quantities, or brush a
640:
Zoanthidae include many species popular in the fishkeeping world, among hobbyists and professionals. They are relatively easy to keep alive and healthy, and will often spread to cover rocks in their bright circles of color. They are known by some as carpet coral, button polyps, and "zoas" or "zoos."
850:
Reimer J.D., Hirano S., Fujiwara Y., Sinniger F., Maruyama T. (2007) Morphological and molecular characterization of
Abyssoanthus nankaiensis, a new family, new genus and new species of deep-sea zoanthid (Anthozoa: Hexacorallia: Zoantharia) from a northwest Pacific methane cold seep. Inv. Syst. 21:
735:
Palytoxin has also been known to damage the eyes of aquarists who attempt to propagate the coral by cutting it and being squirted in the eye. Temporary blindness and permanent blindness have been reported. It is always recommended to wear proper eye protection when cutting corals.
860:
Reimer JD, Nonaka M, Sinniger F., Iwase F. (2008) Morphological and molecular characterization of a new genus and new species of parazoanthid (Anthozoa: Hexacorallia: Zoantharia) associated with
Japanese red coral (Paracorallium japonicum) in southern Japan. Coral Reefs 27
187:. However, major taxonomic papers published since 1899 by specialists (O. Carlgren and F. Pax have described more species than all other authors combined) use Zoantharia, and most recent specialists on the order continue to use the term Zoantharia.
725:
Other sources state that palytoxin can be absorbed through intact skin, and the danger of acute poisoning from venomous zoanthids is quite real. According to a report an aquarist was poisoned through skin injuries on fingers by a species of
840:
Reimer J.D., Ono S., Iwama A., Tsukahara J., Takishita K., Maruyama T. (2006) Morphological and molecular revision of
Zoanthus (Anthozoa: Hexacorallia) from southwestern Japan with description of two new species. Zoological Science 23 (3):
195:
Zoanthids can be distinguished from other colonial anthozoans and soft coral by their characteristic of incorporating sand and other small pieces of material into their tissue to help make their structure (except for the family
1205:
Katrin
Hoffmann, Maren Hermanns-Clausen, Claus Buhl, Markus W. Büchler, Peter Schemmer, Dietrich Mebs and Silke Kauferstein (2008). "A case of palytoxin poisoning due to contact with zoanthid corals through a skin injury".
870:
Sinniger F., Häussermann V. (2009) Zoanthids (Cnidaria: Hexacorallia: Zoantharia) from shallow waters of the southern
Chilean fjord region with the description of a new genus and two new species. Org. Div. Evol.
221:), many other species and genera exist, some still relatively unknown to science. Many zoanthids (in particular the genera Epizoanthus and Parazoanthus) are often found growing on other marine invertebrates.
758:
and particulate matter. Although photosynthesis aids in their nutrition, even species that do not actively capture plankton cannot live through photosynthesis alone. Zoanthids can eat meaty foods, such as
787:
Sinniger F., Montoya-Burgos J.I., Chevaldonne P., Pawlowski J. (2005) Phylogeny of the order
Zoantharia (Anthozoa, Hexacorallia) based on the mitochondrial ribosomal genes. Mar. Biol. 147 (5): 1121-1128.
1196:
Sean
Patrick Nordt, Jerry Wu, Stephen Zahller, Richard F. Clark, and F. Lee Cantrell (2009) Palytoxin Poisoning After Dermal Contact with Zoanthid Coral. Journal of Emergency Medicine (in press).
200:). A main characteristic of the order is that their tentacles are all marginal. Most species propagate asexually and the offspring of the original polyp remain connected to each other, by a
1287:
1428:
183:
is controversial. Non-specialists often use the term
Zoanthidea whereas most taxonomists use Zoantharia. The term Zoantharia in turn is used temporarily instead of
1233:
1467:
1292:
742:
Generally it is considered proper practice to always wear appropriate protective gloves when reaching into salt water tanks and handling sea invertebrates.
739:
Research shows that in sublethal quantities, Palytoxin is a tumor promoter, and is being studied in relation to signaling pathways in skin cancer genesis.
706:. Even in small quantities, Palytoxin can be fatal should it be ingested or enter the blood stream. If delivered immediately, it has been suggested that
1402:
1441:
722:
recent cut over it, and average handling, propagation and aquarium maintenance is unlikely to pose any danger beyond a localized skin reaction.
825:
658:
with paper towel then gluing them to a small base with gelled cyanoacrylate glue ensures they do not drift in the aquarium when reintroduced
1219:
Elizabeth V. Wattenberg (2007). "Palytoxin: exploiting a novel skin tumor promoter to explore signal transduction and carcinogenesis".
621:
for which there are currently only few data available, those zoanthids having never been found again since their original description.
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1519:
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1064:
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236:
of the same or similar species. Such zooxanthellate genera derive a large portion of their energy requirements from symbiotic
1446:
1454:
158:, sand and rock. The term "zoanthid" refers to all animals within this order Zoantharia, and should not be confused with "
1277:
211:
While the most well-known zoanthids are the zooxanthellate genera found in tropical and sub-tropical waters (primarily
146:
come in a variety of different colonizing formations and in numerous different colors. They can be found as individual
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Reimer J.D., Takishita K., Maruyama T. (2006) Molecular identification of symbiotic dinoflagellates (
417:
882:
732:, but recovered after three days. His zoanthid was found to contain 2-3 milligrams of PTX per gram.
617:
1547:
1166:
Palytoxin Found in
Palythoa sp. Zoanthids (Anthozoa, Hexacorallia) Sold in the Home Aquarium Trade.
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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
246:(zooxanthellae), similar to many corals, anemones, and some other marine invertebrates.
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751:
381:
364:
258:
237:
817:
The Light and Smith Manual: Intertidal Invertebrates from Central California to Oregon
1541:
718:. A 2010 study found toxic zoanthids in three Washington, D.C. area aquarium stores.
530:
524:
353:
336:
283:
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The families and genera within the order Zoantharia (also known as Zoanthidea) are:
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Reimer & Fujiwara in Reimer, Sinniger, Fujiwara, Hirano & Maruyama, 2007
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Some (but not all) members of this order contain the highly toxic substance
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64:
142:, the deep sea and many other marine environments around the world. These
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84:
30:
587:
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spp. (Anthozoa: Hexacorallia) in Japan. Coral Reefs 25 (4): 521-527.
1506:
768:
648:
628:
171:, easily propagating and very durable in many water conditions.
1301:
665:
1394:
754:, aided by the zooxanthellae they contain, and by capturing
1293:
World's 2nd deadliest poison, in an aquarium store near you
1251:
Aquarium Corals: Selection, Husbandry, and Natural History
1186:
Handling Zoanthids - Some Zoanthids Produce a Deadly Toxin
633:
This dragon-eye zoanthid is a popular source of color in
134:
also called Zoanthidea or Zoanthiniaria) are an order of
1253:. Neptune City, NJ: T.F.H. Publications. p. 464.
167:
These are among the most commonly collected corals in
1310:
653:Eagle Eye zooanthid coral, propagated in captivity
422:Reimer in Reimer Nonaka Sinniger & Iwase, 2008
154:or a mat that can be created from small pieces of
1164:Deeds JR, Handy SM, White KD, Reimer JD (2011)
820:. University of California Press. p. 177.
16:Order of hexacorallians with marginal tentacles
609:Note: there are some zoanthid genera such as
8:
1298:
1283:Discussion About The Toxicity of Zoanthids
1184:Blue Zoo Aquatics informational resource:
29:
20:
1114:"Zoanthid and Palythoa Coral Propagation"
164:", which is one genus within Zoantharia.
1278:Maintaining Zoanthids Tips, Care, Photos
780:
506:Montenegro, Sinniger & Reimer, 2015
224:Often in zooxanthellate genera such as
392:Sinniger, Reimer & Pawlowski, 2010
331:Sinniger, Reimer & Pawlowski, 2010
232:there are a large number of different
1234:"Aquarium Science: Palytoxin and You"
7:
1512:B9F290E8-1B7E-2926-078B-D6D631718FA5
402:Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1860
14:
997:Sinniger, F.; Reimer, J. (2013).
1124:from the original on 2021-12-22.
1094:World Register of Marine Species
1065:World Register of Marine Species
1036:World Register of Marine Species
1007:World Register of Marine Species
978:World Register of Marine Species
949:World Register of Marine Species
920:World Register of Marine Species
891:World Register of Marine Species
670:
516:Sinniger, Ocaña & Baco, 2013
472:Sinniger & Haussermann, 2009
462:Sinniger, Ocaña & Baco, 2013
452:Sinniger, Ocaña & Baco, 2013
432:Sinniger, Ocaña & Baco, 2013
412:Sinniger, Ocaña & Baco, 2013
51:
1238:Tropical Fish Hobbyist Magazine
1:
1221:Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol.
482:Haddon & Shackleton, 1891
208:. Some species are solitary.
1288:Gallery of Zoanthid Pictures
1174:10.1371/journal.pone.0018235
1576:
1249:Borneman, Eric H. (2001).
714:of the heart to act as an
814:Light. Sol Felty (2007).
710:can be injected into the
679:This section needs to be
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110:
48:Scientific classification
46:
37:
28:
23:
375:Fujii & Reimer, 2013
358:Fujii & Reimer, 2011
341:Reimer & Fujii, 2010
175:Nomenclature controversy
1168:PLoS ONE 6(4): e18235.
750:Zoanthids feed both by
150:, attached by a fleshy
654:
637:
492:Nardo, 1814 (synonym:
40:Parazoanthus axinellae
1494:Paleobiology Database
1210:51, no. 8: 1535–1537.
652:
632:
1232:.Nicholas Violand.
1084:Reimer, J. (2011).
1055:Reimer, J. (2011).
1026:Reimer, J. (2011).
968:Reimer, J. (2011).
939:Reimer, J. (2011).
910:Reimer, J. (2011).
645:Captive Propagation
250:Families and genera
771:, and bloodworms.
655:
638:
582:Saville-Kent, 1893
408:Bullagummizoanthus
138:commonly found in
1535:
1534:
1481:Open Tree of Life
1304:Taxon identifiers
970:"Hydrozoanthidae"
827:978-0-520-23939-5
700:
699:
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388:Antipathozoanthus
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1558:Anthozoan orders
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1460:NHMSYS0021053685
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1146:on 17 March 2009
1142:. Archived from
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999:"Parazoanthidae"
994:
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985:
984:
965:
959:
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956:
955:
936:
930:
929:
927:
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912:"Abyssoanthidae"
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565:Steenstrup, 1856
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179:The name of the
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1140:www.cbwinfo.com
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1028:"Neozoanthidae"
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1024:
1020:
1011:
1009:
996:
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991:
982:
980:
967:
966:
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941:"Epizoanthidae"
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555:Lamouroux, 1816
418:Corallizoanthus
348:Microzoanthidae
321:Hydrozoanthidae
252:
238:dinoflagellates
193:
191:Characteristics
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1272:External links
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70:
69:
66:
63:
60:
59:
54:
49:
45:
42:
41:
36:
32:
27:
22:
19:
1553:Hexacorallia
1311:
1250:
1244:
1237:
1228:
1220:
1215:
1207:
1201:
1192:
1180:
1160:
1148:. Retrieved
1144:the original
1139:
1130:
1117:
1108:
1097:. Retrieved
1089:
1086:"Zoanthidae"
1079:
1068:. Retrieved
1060:
1050:
1039:. Retrieved
1031:
1021:
1010:. Retrieved
1002:
992:
981:. Retrieved
973:
963:
952:. Retrieved
944:
934:
923:. Retrieved
915:
905:
894:. Retrieved
886:
883:"Zoanthidea"
876:
866:
861:(4):935–949.
856:
846:
836:
816:
809:
801:
798:Symbiodinium
797:
792:
783:
765:brine shrimp
749:
741:
738:
734:
729:Parazoanthus
727:
724:
720:
708:vasodilators
701:
688:
680:
656:
639:
616:
610:
608:
602:Cuvier, 1800
596:
586:
578:Acrozoanthus
576:
559:
549:
535:
522:
510:
502:Umimayanthus
500:
493:
486:
478:Parazoanthus
476:
468:Mesozoanthus
466:
458:Kulamanamana
456:
446:
436:
426:
416:
406:
396:
386:
371:Nanozoanthus
369:
352:
335:
325:
308:
298:
288:
278:Macrocnemina
275:
265:Abyssoanthus
263:
253:
243:Symbiodinium
241:
229:
225:
223:
216:
212:
210:
194:
185:Hexacorallia
178:
169:reef aquaria
166:
159:
131:
124:
123:
104:
95:Hexacorallia
38:
18:
1416:iNaturalist
1336:Wikispecies
1136:"Palytoxin"
800:spp.) from
691:August 2024
612:Neozoanthus
545:Sphenopidae
537:Neozoanthus
438:Isozoanthus
310:Thoracactis
290:Epizoanthus
204:network or
140:coral reefs
1548:Zoantharia
1542:Categories
1356:Zoantharia
1342:Zoantharia
1312:Zoantharia
1150:12 January
1099:2016-09-24
1070:2016-09-24
1041:2011-12-16
1012:2016-09-24
983:2011-12-16
954:2016-09-24
925:2011-12-16
896:2018-08-24
775:References
635:reef tanks
592:Gray, 1828
572:Zoanthidae
294:Gray, 1867
198:Zoanthidae
136:cnidarians
132:Zoantharia
118:See text.
105:Zoantharia
24:Zoanthids
761:lancefish
712:ventricle
704:palytoxin
561:Sphenopus
523:Suborder
512:Zibrowius
276:Suborder
206:coenosarc
125:Zoanthids
112:Diversity
71:Kingdom:
65:Eukaryota
1327:Q1362080
1321:Wikidata
1122:Archived
851:255-262.
841:261-275.
802:Palythoa
756:plankton
716:antidote
598:Zoanthus
551:Palythoa
494:Gerardia
230:Palythoa
226:Zoanthus
218:Palythoa
213:Zoanthus
202:stolonal
161:Zoanthus
156:sediment
85:Cnidaria
81:Phylum:
75:Animalia
61:Domain:
1208:Toxicon
871:9:23–36
681:updated
662:Dangers
625:Aquaria
588:Isaurus
488:Savalia
144:animals
101:Order:
91:Class:
1525:607338
1486:708619
1369:709228
1257:
824:
398:Bergia
234:morphs
152:stolon
148:polyps
1520:WoRMS
1507:Plazi
1499:70593
1473:44927
1447:52431
1434:10686
1429:IRMNG
1421:51198
1090:WoRMS
1061:WoRMS
1032:WoRMS
1003:WoRMS
974:WoRMS
945:WoRMS
916:WoRMS
887:WoRMS
769:krill
181:order
129:order
1468:NCBI
1442:ITIS
1408:1433
1403:GBIF
1395:1821
1364:BOLD
1255:ISBN
1152:2022
822:ISBN
746:Diet
228:and
215:and
1455:NBN
1390:EoL
1382:4C3
1377:CoL
1351:ADW
1170:doi
615:or
1544::
1522::
1509::
1496::
1483::
1470::
1457::
1444::
1431::
1418::
1405::
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1379::
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1120:.
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1005:.
1001:.
976:.
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693:)
689:(
683:.
496:)
127:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
