Socio-ecological system - Knowledge (XXG)

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regulate the influences between inside processes and the outside world" (p. 50). The potential dimension is represented by the vertical axis, and stands for the "inherent potential of a system that is available for change" (p. 393). Social or cultural potential can be characterised by the "accumulated networks of relationships-friendship, mutual respect, and trust among people and between people and institutions of governance" (p. 49). According to the adaptive cycle heuristic, the levels of both dimensions differ during the course of the cycle along the four phases. The adaptive cycle thus predicts that the four phases of the cycle can be distinguished based on distinct combinations of high or low potential and connectedness.

538:. These three research concepts are based on similar ideas and models of reasoning. Moreover, the research on social-ecological systems almost always uses transdisciplinary mode of operation in order to achieve an adequate problem orientation and to ensure integrative results. Problems of sustainable development are intrinsically tied to the social-ecological system defined to tackle them. This means that scientists from the relevant scientific disciplines or field of research as well as the involved societal stakeholders have to be regarded as elements of the social-ecological system in question. 321: 478:, are of considerable conceptual appeal, and it is claimed to be generally applicable to ecological and social systems as well as to coupled social-ecological systems. Adaptability is the capacity of a social-ecological system to learn and adjust to both internal and external processes. Transformability is the capacity of a system to transform into a completely new system, when ecological, economic, or social structures make the current system unsustainable. Adaptability and transformability are prerequisites for resilience. 345:, each subsystem is nested in a larger subsystem etc. For example, a small watershed may be considered an ecosystem, but it is a part of a larger watershed that can also be considered an ecosystem and a larger one that encompasses all the smaller watersheds. Phenomena at each level of the scale tend to have their own emergent properties, and different levels may be coupled through feedback relationships. Therefore, complex systems should always be analysed or managed simultaneously at different scales. 317:, which refers to local rules of interaction that change as the system evolves and develops. A consequence of path dependency is the existence of multiple basins of attraction in ecosystem development and the potential for threshold behaviour and qualitative shifts in system dynamics under changing environmental influences. An example for non-linearity in socio-ecological systems is illustrated by the figure on "Conceptual Model of Socioecological Drivers of Change". 470:

very rapidly from K to release (Omega), continuing rapidly to reorganisation (alpha) and back to exploitation (r). Depending on the particular configuration of the system, it can then begin a new adaptive cycle or alternatively it may transform into a new configuration, shown as an exit arrow. The adaptive cycle is one of the five heuristics used to understand social-ecological system behaviour. The other four heuristics are: resilience,

462: 368:, social systems and even to mixture of simple chemicals. High speed computers and nonlinear mathematical techniques help simulate self-organisation by yielding complex results and yet strangely ordered effects. The direction of self-organisation will depend on such things as the system's history; it is path dependent and difficult to predict. 489:

and, more recently, social-ecological systems. Although panarchy theory originates in ecology, it has found widespread applications in other disciplines. For example, in management, Wieland (2021) describes a panarchy that represents the planetary, political-economic, and supply chain levels. Hereby,

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In contrast, different stakeholders have formed an adaptive management workgroup in the case of Grand Canyon, using planned management interventions and monitoring to learn about changes occurring in the ecosystem including the best ways to subsequently manage them. Such an arrangement in governance

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A conceptual model in relation to the robustness of social-ecological systems. There resource could be water or a fishery and the resource users could be farmers irrigating or inshore fishermen. Public infrastructure providers involve, for example, local users associations and government bureaus and

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was very limited in dealing with social-ecological systems. Just as mainstream ecology had tried to exclude humans from the study of ecology, many social science disciplines had ignored the environment altogether and limited their scope to humans. Although some scholars (e.g. Bateson 1979) had tried

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The adaptive cycle, originally conceptualised by Holling (1986) interprets the dynamics of complex ecosystems in response to disturbance and change. In terms of its dynamics, the adaptive cycle has been described as moving slowly from exploitation (r) to conservation (K), maintaining and developing

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of SESs may benefit from combination of different knowledge systems; others have attempted to import such knowledge into the scientific knowledge field There also those who have argued that it would be difficult to separate these knowledge systems from their institutional and cultural contexts, and

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Social-ecological systems are based on the concept that humans are a part of—not separate from—nature. This concept, which holds that the delineation between social systems and natural systems is arbitrary and artificial, was first put forth by Berkes and Folke, and its theory was further developed

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The resilience of social-ecological systems is related to the degree of the shock that the system can absorb and remain within a given state. The concept of resilience is a promising tool for analysing adaptive change towards sustainability because it provides a way for analysing how to manipulate

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The governance structure in the Everglades is dominated by the interests of agriculture and environmentalists who have been in conflict over the need to conserve the habitat at the expense of agricultural productivity throughout history. Here, a few feedbacks between the ecological system and the

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Studying SESs from a complex system perspective attempts to link different disciplines into a body of knowledge that is applicable to serious environmental problems. Management processes in the complex systems can be improved by making them adaptive and flexible, able to deal with uncertainty and

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Scholars have used the concept of social-ecological systems to emphasise humans as part of nature and to stress that the delineation between social systems and ecological systems is artificial and arbitrary. While resilience has somewhat different meaning in social and ecological context, the SES

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The two main dimensions that determine changes in an adaptive cycle are connectedness and potential. The connectedness dimension is the visual depiction of a cycle and stands for the ability to internally control its own destiny. It "reflects the strength of internal connections that mediate and

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to be nested across scales. It is thus the communities which interact with ecosystems on the daily basis and over long periods of time that possess the most relevant knowledge of resource and ecosystem dynamics, together with associated management practices. Some scholars have suggested that

130:, the majority of studies focused on investigating processes within the social domain only, treating the ecosystem largely as a "black box" and assuming that if the social system performs adaptively or is well organised institutionally it will also manage the environmental resource base in a 388:

Alternative conceptual model illustrates how it is meaningful to consider a wide range of socio-ecological system properties potentially influencing agricultural intensification, rather than singling out macro-drivers such as population pressure as the primary metric of agrarian change and

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Aravindakshan, S., Krupnik, T.J., Groot, J.C., Speelman, E.N., Amjath-Babu, T.S. and Tittonell, P., 2020. Multi-level socioecological drivers of agrarian change: Longitudinal evidence from mixed rice-livestock-aquaculture farming systems of Bangladesh. Agricultural Systems, 177, p.102695.

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274:(2002). Due to the social context in which SES research was placed, and the possibility of SES research translating into recommendations that may affect real people, SES research was seen as more "self-conscious" and "pluralistic" in its perspectives than complexity theory. 522:

creates the opportunity for institutional learning to take place, allowing for a successful period of reorganisation and growth. Such an approach to institutional learning is becoming more common as NGOs, scientist and communities collaborate to manage ecosystems.

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Berkes, F., and Folke, C.. 2002. Back to the future: ecosystem dynamics and local knowledge. Pages 121–146 in L. H. Gunderson and C. S. Holling, editors. Panarchy: understanding transformations in human and natural systems. Island Press, Washington, D.C.,

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Jahn, T., Becker, E., Keil, F., and Schramm. E., (2009), Understanding Social-Ecological Systems: Frontier Research for Sustainable Development. Implications for European Research Policy. Institute for Social-Ecological Research (ISOE), Frankfurt/Main,

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Walker, B. H., Gunderson L. H., Kinzig, A. P., Folke, C., Carpenter, S. R., and. Schultz, L (2006) A handful of heuristics and some propositions for understanding resilience in social-ecological systems. Ecology and Society 11(1): 13. Available from:

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those who have questioned the role of traditional and local knowledge systems in the current situation of pervasive environmental change and globalised societies. Other scholars have claimed that valuable lessons can be extracted from such systems for

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2003, Gunderson and Holling 2002, Norberg and Cumming 2008), but it is also concerned with a wider range of SES dynamics and attributes than any one of these terms implies. While SES theory draws on a range of discipline-specific theories, such as

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Redman, C., Grove, M. J. and Kuby, L. (2004). Integrating Social Science into the Long Term Ecological Research (LTER) Network: Social Dimensions of Ecological Change and Ecological Dimensions of Social Change. Ecosystems Vol.7(2), pp.

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management; lessons that also need to account for interactions across temporal and spatial scales and organisational and institutional levels, and in particular during periods of rapid change, uncertainty and system reorganisation.

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A framework that focuses on knowledge and understanding of ecosystem dynamics, how to navigate it through management practices, institutions, organisations and social networks and how they relate to drivers of change (Picture

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Giampietro, M., Mayumi, K. and Bukkens, S.G.F. 2001. Multiple-scale integrated assessment of societal metabolism: an analytical tool to study development and sustainability. Environment, Development and Sustainability 3 (4):

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Knowledge acquisition of SESs is an ongoing, dynamic learning process, and such knowledge often emerges with people's institutions and organisations. To remain effective it requires institutional framework and

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and her many co-researchers developed a comprehensive "Social-Ecological Systems (SES) framework", which includes much of the theory of common-pool resources and collective self-governance. It draws heavily on

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Folke, C., Carpenter, S., Elmqvist, T., Gunderson, L. Holling, C. and Walker, B. (2002) Resilience and sustainable development: building adaptive capacity in a world of transformations, Ambio, Vol.31, pp.

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Giampietro M, Mayumi K (2000). Multiple-Scale Integrated Assessments of Societal Metabolism: Integrating Biophysical and Economic Representations Across Scales. Population and the Environment 22.2:155–210.

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Andeies, J.M., Janssen, M.A., Ostrom, E. (2004). A framework to analyze the robustness of social-ecological systems from an institutional perspective. Ecology and Society, Vol.9 (1), p.18, available from:

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This changed through the 1970s and 1980s with the rise of several subfields associated with the social sciences but explicitly including the environment in the framing of the issues. These subfields are:

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Machlis, G.E., Force J.E, and. Burch, W.R Jr. (1997) The human ecosystem part I: The human ecosystem as an organizing concept in ecosystem management. Society and Natural Resources, Vol.10, pp.347–367.

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Maclean K, Ross H, Cuthill M, Rist P. 2013. Healthy country, healthy people: An Australian Aboriginal organisation's adaptive governance to enhance its social-ecological system. Geoforum. 45:94–105.

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In order to emphasise the key requirements of a social-ecological system for successful adaptive governance, Folke and colleagues contrasted case studies from the Florida Everglades and the

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is an illustration of reorganisation that takes place within the cycles of growth and renewal. The self-organisation principle, operationalised through feedback mechanisms, applies to many

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or Multi-Scale Integrated Analysis of Societal and Ecosystem Metabolism. This is a method of accounting used to analyse social-ecosystems and to simulate possible patterns of development.

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by Berkes et al. More recent research into social-ecological system theory has pointed to social-ecological keystones as critical to the structure and function of these systems, and to

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public infrastructure include institutional rules and engineering works. The number refer to links between the entities and are exemplified in the source of the figure (Picture C).

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Johannes, R. E. (1998) The case of data-less marine resource management: examples from tropical nearshore finfisheries. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, Vol. 13, pp. 243–246.

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Glaser, M., Krause, G., Ratter, B., and Welp, M. (2008) Human-Nature-Interaction in the Anthropocene. Potential of Social-Ecological Systems Analysis. , Available from: <

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Berkes, F., Colding, J., and Folke, C. (2003) Navigating social–ecological systems: building resilience for complexity and change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

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du Toit, J. T., Walker, B. H., and Campbell, B. M. (2004) Conserving tropical nature: current challenges for ecologists. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, Vol.19, pp.12–17.

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Madrid-Lopez C. And Giampietro M. 2015 TheWater Metabolism of Socio-Ecological Systems Reflections and a Conceptual Framework Journal of Industrial Ecology 19(5): 853–865.

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Warren, DM., Slikkerveer, LJ., Brokensha, D. (1995) The Cultural Dimension of Development: Indigenous Knowledge System. London: Intermediate Technology Publications.

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Fabricius, C., and Koch, E. (2004). Rights, resources and rural development: community-based natural resource management in Southern Africa. Earthscan, London, UK.

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Giampietro M, Mayumi K (2000). Multiple-Scale Integrated Assessment of Societal Metabolism: Introducing the Approach. Population and the Environment 22.2:109–153.

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Barrett, C. B., Brandon, K., Gibson, C., and Gjertsen, H. (2001) Conserving tropical biodiversity amid weak institutions. BioScience , Vol. 51, pp. 497–502.

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Folke, C. (2006), Resilience : The emergence of a perspective for social-ecological systems analysis, Global Environmental Change, Vol. 16, pp. 253–267.

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Carpenter, S. R., and Gunderson, L. H. (2001) Coping with collapse: ecological and social dynamics in ecosystem management. BioScience, Vol.51, pp. 451–457.

282:, meaning that they require continuous testing, learning about, and developing knowledge and understanding in order to cope with change and uncertainty. 1044:

Ludwig, D., Mangel, M., and Haddad, B. (2001) Ecology, conservation, and public policy. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, Vol. 32, pp. 481–517.

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Gunderson, L. H., and Holling C. S. (2002) Panarchy: understanding transformations in human and natural systems. Island Press, Washington, D.C., US.

742:"The Social-Ecological Keystone Concept: A Quantifiable Metaphor for Understanding the Structure, Function, and Resilience of a Biocultural System" 341:

Scale is important when dealing with complex systems. In a complex system many subsystems can be distinguished; and since many complex systems are

227:. The studies of SES include some central societal concerns (e.g. equity and human wellbeing) that have traditionally received little attention in 1310:

Gunderson, L. and Holling, C.S. (2002). Panarchy: understanding transformations in human and natural systems. Island Press, Washington, D.C., USA.

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The concept of social-ecological systems has been developed in order to provide both a promising scientific gain as well as impact on problems of

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and Acheson, J.M. (1987) The Question of the Cotntnons. The Culture and Ecology of Communal Resources. Tucson: The University of Arizona Press.

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Wieland, A. (2021). Dancing the Supply Chain: Toward Transformative Supply Chain Management. Journal of Supply Chain Management, 57 (1), 58–73.

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Krupnik, I., and Jolly, D. (2002) The Earth is faster now: indigenous observation on Arctic environmental change. Arcus, Fairbanks, Alaska, USA.

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Berkes, F. (1999) Sacred ecology: traditional ecological knowledge and management systems. Taylor & Francis, Philadelphia and London, UK.

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Berkes and colleagues distinguish four sets of elements which can be used to describe social-ecological system characteristics and linkages:

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SES theory emerged from a combination of disciplines and the notion of complexity developed through the work of many scholars, including the

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Mackinson, S., and Nottestad, L.( 1998) Combining local and scientific knowledge. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries, Vol. 8, pp.481–490.

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A complex system differs from a simple system in that it has a number of attributes that cannot be observed in simple systems, such as

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McLain, R., and R. Lee. (1996) Adaptive management: promises and pitfalls. Journal of Environmental Management, Vol. 20, pp.437–448.

813: 566: 534:. A close conceptual and methodological relation exists between the analysis of social-ecological systems, complexity research, and 1236:

Holling, C. S. (2001) Understanding the complexity of economic, ecological, and social systems, Ecosystems, Vol.4(5), pp. 390–405.

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Each of the six areas summarised is a bridge spanning different combinations of natural science and social science thinking.

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Allen T.F.H. and Starr T.B. (1982). Hierarchy: Perspectives for Ecological Complexity. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

320: 145:, which arose from the need to develop a philosophy of relations between humans and their environment, because conventional 892:

Norberg, J., & Cumming, G. S. (2008). Complexity theory for a sustainable future. New York: Columbia University Press.

203:, which refers to ecological understanding built, not by experts, but by people who live and use the resources of a place. 840:

Berkes, F. (1989) Common Property Resources: Ecology and Comtnunity-Based Sustainable Development London: Belhaven Press.

155:, which expands ecological concerns to respond to the inclusion of cultural and political activity within an analysis of 357: 333:

Emergence is the appearance of behaviour that could not be anticipated from knowledge of the parts of the system alone.

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A set of critical resources (natural, socio-economic, and cultural) whose flow and use is regulated by a combination of

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consists of 'a bio-geo-physical' unit and its associated social actors and institutions. Social-ecological systems are

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Adger, N. (2000) Social and ecological resilience: are they related? Progress in Human Geography, Vol. 24, pp. 347–364.

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Berkes, F., Colding, J., and Folke, C. (2001) Linking Social-Ecological Systems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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which arose from the rich accumulation of material documenting relationships between societies and their environment.

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A system that is defined at several spatial, temporal, and organisational scales, which may be hierarchically linked;

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The notion of panarchy and adaptive cycles has become an important theoretical lens to describe the resilience of

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Folke, Carl; Carpenter, Stephen; Walker, Brian; Scheffer, Marten; Chapin, Terry; Rockström, Johan (2010-11-15).

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and social organisation, analysing how institutions and property rights systems deal with the dilemma of the "

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Pretty, J., and Ward, H. (2001) Social capital and the environment. World Development, Vol. 29, pp. 209–227.

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social system exist, and the SES is unable to innovate and adapt (the α-phase of reorganisation and growth).

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Levin, S. A. (1998) Ecosystems and the biosphere as complex adaptive systems. Ecosystems Vol.1, pp. 431–436.

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Linking Social and Ecological Systems: Management Practices and Social Mechanisms for Building Resilience

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Greenberg, J.B and Park, TK. (1994) Political ecology. Journal of Political Ecology, Vol. 1 pp. 1–12.

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Three levels of a panarchy, three adaptive cycles, and two cross-level linkages (remember and revolt)

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Berkes, F., Colding, J., and Folke, C. (2000) Rediscovery of traditional ecological knowledge as

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511: 510:. Both are complex social-ecological systems that have experiences unwanted degradation of their 490:

the panarchical understanding of the supply chain leads to a social-ecological interpretation of

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by bridging the two disciplines to promote an integrated view of economics within the ecosystem.

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Levin, S. A. (1999). Fragile dominion: Complexity and the commons. Reading, MA: Perseus Books.

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Cumming, G.S. (2011), Spatial Resilience in Social-Ecological Systems, Springer, London.

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Through to the final decades of the twentieth century, the point of contact between

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Navigating Social-Ecological Systems: Building Resilience for Complexity and Change

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surprise, and by building capacity to adapt to change. SESs are both complex and

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SES theory incorporates ideas from theories relating to the study of resilience,

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A coherent system of biophysical and social factors that regularly interact in a

1134:"Resilience Thinking: Integrating Resilience, Adaptability and Transformability" 290: 444: 440: 416: 156: 93: 1297: 1220: 1183:

Walker, Brian; Holling, C. S.; Carpenter, Stephen; Kinzig, Ann (2004-09-16).

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is one of the defining properties of complex systems. The basic idea is that

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Bateson, G. (1979) Mind and Nature: A necessary unit. , Available from:<

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and delimited by spatial or functional boundaries surrounding particular

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There are several conceptual frameworks developed in relation to the

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approach holds that social and ecological systems are linked through

514:, but differ substantially in terms of their institutional make-up. 319: 267:, it is much broader than any of these individual theories alone. 54:

A social-ecological system (SES) can be defined as: (p. 163)

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Nonlinearity is related to fundamental uncertainty. It generates

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A perpetually dynamic, complex system with continuous adaptation.

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will reorganise at critical points of instability. Holling's

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Winter, Kawika B.; Lincoln, Noa K.; Berkes, Fikret (2018).

235:) that have little direct relevance for understanding SES. 231:

theory, and there are areas of complexity theory (e.g.

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Costanza R; Low BS; Ostrom E; Wilson J., eds. (2001).

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A bio-geo-physical unit and associated social actors

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Cambridge University Press. 408:Role of traditional knowledge 429:Property rights institutions 46:and their context problems. 1343: 1298:Aravindakshan et al. 2020 250:(e.g. Levin 1999, Berkes 474:, transformability, and 229:complex adaptive systems 32:social-ecological system 1202:10.5751/ES-00650-090205 1151:10.5751/ES-03610-150420 532:sustainable development 492:supply chain resilience 261:optimal foraging theory 100:Theoretical foundations 466: 362:adaptive renewal cycle 325: 195:tragedy of the commons 113:Integrative approaches 464: 426:People and technology 323: 167:Environmental history 128:nature-culture divide 107:biocultural diversity 685:Annu. Rev. Anthropol 265:microeconomic theory 173:Ecological economics 161:socially constructed 143:Environmental ethics 1189:Ecology and Society 1138:Ecology and Society 1006:adaptive management 548:Relational mobility 536:transdisciplinarity 498:Adaptive governance 257:island biogeography 191:resource management 132:sustainable fashion 90:feedback mechanisms 808:. Boca Raton, FL. 759:10.3390/su10093294 512:ecosystem services 487:ecological systems 467: 366:biological systems 326: 272:Santa Fe Institute 18:Panarchy (ecology) 389:intensification ( 354:Self organisation 349:Self organisation 303:self-organisation 225:complexity theory 153:Political ecology 16:(Redirected from 1334: 1296:p. 102695.( 1284: 1280: 1271: 1267: 1261: 1258: 1249: 1243: 1237: 1234: 1225: 1224: 1214: 1204: 1180: 1174: 1173: 1163: 1153: 1129: 1123: 1115: 1109: 1105: 1099: 1096: 1090: 1087: 1081: 1078: 1072: 1069: 1063: 1060: 1054: 1051: 1045: 1042: 1036: 1033: 1027: 1024: 1018: 1015: 1009: 1002: 996: 993: 987: 983: 977: 974: 968: 965: 959: 955: 949: 946: 940: 933: 927: 920: 911: 908: 902: 899: 893: 890: 879: 876: 870: 867: 850: 847: 841: 838: 832: 826: 820: 819: 801: 795: 792: 786: 783: 777: 770: 764: 763: 761: 737: 731: 730: 722: 716: 715: 707: 701: 700: 680: 674: 671: 665: 662: 649: 646: 617: 614: 589: 586: 580: 576: 570: 563: 123:natural sciences 21: 1342: 1341: 1337: 1336: 1335: 1333: 1332: 1331: 1317: 1316: 1292: 1290:Further reading 1287: 1281: 1274: 1268: 1264: 1259: 1252: 1244: 1240: 1235: 1228: 1182: 1181: 1177: 1131: 1130: 1126: 1116: 1112: 1106: 1102: 1097: 1093: 1088: 1084: 1079: 1075: 1070: 1066: 1061: 1057: 1052: 1048: 1043: 1039: 1034: 1030: 1025: 1021: 1016: 1012: 1003: 999: 994: 990: 984: 980: 975: 971: 966: 962: 956: 952: 947: 943: 934: 930: 921: 914: 909: 905: 900: 896: 891: 882: 877: 873: 868: 853: 848: 844: 839: 835: 827: 823: 816: 803: 802: 798: 793: 789: 784: 780: 771: 767: 739: 738: 734: 724: 723: 719: 709: 708: 704: 682: 681: 677: 672: 668: 663: 652: 647: 620: 615: 592: 587: 583: 577: 573: 564: 560: 556: 544: 528: 500: 459: 436:social networks 422:Local knowledge 410: 374: 351: 339: 331: 315:path dependency 311: 233:quantum physics 221:systems ecology 213: 187:Common property 119:social sciences 115: 102: 52: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 1340: 1338: 1330: 1329: 1319: 1318: 1315: 1314: 1311: 1308: 1301: 1291: 1288: 1286: 1285: 1272: 1262: 1250: 1238: 1226: 1175: 1124: 1110: 1100: 1091: 1082: 1073: 1064: 1055: 1046: 1037: 1028: 1019: 1010: 997: 988: 978: 969: 960: 950: 941: 928: 912: 903: 894: 880: 871: 851: 842: 833: 821: 814: 796: 787: 778: 765: 746:Sustainability 732: 717: 702: 675: 666: 650: 618: 590: 581: 571: 557: 555: 552: 551: 550: 543: 540: 527: 524: 499: 496: 458: 457:Adaptive cycle 455: 450:complex system 431: 430: 427: 424: 419: 409: 406: 405: 404: 398: 394: 386: 373: 370: 350: 347: 338: 335: 330: 327: 310: 307: 244:sustainability 212: 209: 205: 204: 198: 184: 170: 164: 150: 126:to bridge the 114: 111: 101: 98: 85: 84: 81: 70: 67: 51: 48: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 1339: 1328: 1325: 1324: 1322: 1312: 1309: 1306: 1302: 1299: 1294: 1293: 1289: 1279: 1277: 1273: 1266: 1263: 1257: 1255: 1251: 1248: 1242: 1239: 1233: 1231: 1227: 1222: 1218: 1213: 1208: 1203: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1179: 1176: 1171: 1167: 1162: 1157: 1152: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1128: 1125: 1121: 1114: 1111: 1104: 1101: 1095: 1092: 1086: 1083: 1077: 1074: 1068: 1065: 1059: 1056: 1050: 1047: 1041: 1038: 1032: 1029: 1023: 1020: 1014: 1011: 1007: 1001: 998: 992: 989: 982: 979: 973: 970: 964: 961: 954: 951: 945: 942: 938: 932: 929: 926: 919: 917: 913: 907: 904: 898: 895: 889: 887: 885: 881: 875: 872: 866: 864: 862: 860: 858: 856: 852: 846: 843: 837: 834: 830: 825: 822: 817: 815:9780367397753 811: 807: 800: 797: 791: 788: 782: 779: 775: 769: 766: 760: 755: 751: 747: 743: 736: 733: 728: 721: 718: 713: 706: 703: 698: 694: 690: 686: 679: 676: 670: 667: 661: 659: 657: 655: 651: 645: 643: 641: 639: 637: 635: 633: 631: 629: 627: 625: 623: 619: 613: 611: 609: 607: 605: 603: 601: 599: 597: 595: 591: 585: 582: 575: 572: 568: 562: 559: 553: 549: 546: 545: 541: 539: 537: 533: 525: 523: 519: 515: 513: 509: 504: 497: 495: 493: 488: 483: 479: 477: 473: 463: 456: 454: 451: 446: 442: 437: 428: 425: 423: 420: 418: 415: 414: 413: 407: 402: 399: 395: 392: 387: 383: 382: 381: 379: 371: 369: 367: 363: 359: 355: 348: 346: 344: 336: 334: 328: 322: 318: 316: 308: 306: 304: 300: 296: 292: 288: 283: 281: 275: 273: 268: 266: 262: 258: 253: 249: 248:vulnerability 245: 241: 236: 234: 230: 226: 222: 217: 216:Elinor Ostrom 210: 208: 202: 199: 196: 192: 188: 185: 182: 178: 174: 171: 168: 165: 162: 158: 154: 151: 148: 144: 141: 140: 139: 135: 133: 129: 124: 120: 112: 110: 108: 99: 97: 95: 91: 82: 79: 75: 71: 68: 65: 61: 57: 56: 55: 49: 47: 45: 41: 37: 33: 19: 1265: 1241: 1192: 1188: 1178: 1141: 1137: 1127: 1113: 1103: 1094: 1085: 1076: 1067: 1058: 1049: 1040: 1031: 1022: 1013: 1000: 991: 981: 972: 963: 953: 944: 931: 906: 897: 874: 845: 836: 824: 805: 799: 790: 781: 768: 749: 745: 735: 726: 720: 711: 705: 688: 684: 678: 669: 584: 574: 561: 529: 520: 516: 508:Grand Canyon 505: 501: 484: 480: 476:adaptability 468: 432: 411: 375: 358:open systems 352: 340: 332: 312: 309:Nonlinearity 287:nonlinearity 284: 276: 269: 251: 237: 214: 206: 136: 116: 103: 86: 80:systems; 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Index