383:
44:
286:
391:
371:
223:
the target since it only contains one antibody binding site per se, it minimizes cross-reactivity (the activity that antibodies unintentionally bind to non-targeted antigens). However, monoclonal antibodies also mean that overall affinity is lower owing to the limited ability to recognize different epitopes on the antigens, which may lead to incomplete elimination of pathogens and tumor cells. The production time and cost is high as well, limiting its generalizability and prevalence of usage.
618:(a receptor on the immune cell surface) to induce the structural shift in the GP120. Ibalizumab binds to the CD4 receptor to prevent the post-attachment conformational changes in CD4-HIV envelope GP120 complex and therefore hinders the viral entry into host cells and prevents the HIV-infected cells from infecting other normal cells. The advantages of using Ibalizumab as HIV therapy are low toxicity, good drug resistance, high antiviral effect and synergy with other antiviral drugs.
206:
592:
304:
C3b protein. C3a protein serves as an inflammation mediator to recruit phagocytes. On the other hand, C3 protein can opsonize pathogens and bind to C3 convertase to catalyze the formation of C5 convertase to produce C5a and C5b for terminal complement components assembly. The formation of complement proteins (C3a, C3b, C5a, C5b, etc.) ultimately congregates into a
282:
monocytes, are stimulated to secrete proinflammatory cytokines to remove pathogens and malignant cells. For example, the ligation of CD40 monoclonal antibodies and CD40 on tumor cells license antigen-presenting cells (predominantly dendritic cells) to increase the presentation of tumor-associated antigens (TAA) to local cytotoxic T lymphocytes to kill tumor cells.
270:. Antagonistic antibodies, also called immune checkpoints inhibitors, obstruct the binding between cancer cells and immune checkpoints to antagonize cancer cells’ action and restore immune surveillance. Therefore, immune cells can recognize the surface antigens on the tumor cells to elicit immune responses. Examples of drugs that exploit such a mechanism include
253:, and transmembrane proteins on cancer cells and infectious organisms (viruses and bacteria). Upon binding to the antigen, antibodies trigger different cascades to neutralize toxins and kill the cells. There are three ways of action: antagonistic and agonistic reaction, complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC), and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC).
626:
Although passive administration of antibodies was used to treat infectious diseases 100 years ago, there are only a few therapeutic antibodies approved for the clinical treatments of infectious diseases currently. However, there are an increasing number of ongoing research and clinical developments
281:
Apart from directing the inhibitory pathways, agonistic antibodies can target immunostimulatory receptors to elicit immune responses. Upon binding between cluster of differentiation proteins (CD proteins) and agonistic antibodies, antigen-presenting cells, such as dendritic cells, B lymphocytes and
222:
of the antigen and kill pathogens, whereas colonies without targeted antibodies are eliminated. Upon injection, these homogenous antibodies produced from a single B cell can target a specific epitope on the antigen. The major advantage of using monoclonal antibodies is their specific action towards
337:
Several monoclonal antibody drugs such as
Rituximab manipulate the ADCC pathway to eradicate cancer cells. Firstly, the Fab region of the antibodies (tip of the Y-shaped-antibody) first binds to the epitope of the pathogens or the immunoreceptors of cancer cells; whereas the Fc region (stem of the
303:
Antibodies can also trigger the classical pathway – one of the three pathways of the complement cascade. Briefly, the C1 protein attaches to the pathogen surface and the antibody-antigen complex that culminates in the generation of C3 convertase, followed by the cleavage of C3 protein into C3a and
34:
to target and kill pathogens or cancer cells. It is designed to draw support from foreign antibodies that are donated from a person, extracted from animals, or made in the laboratory to elicit an immune response instead of relying on the innate immune system to fight disease. It has a long history
67:
joined
Behring's and Kitasato's research to ameliorate immunizability from lethal toxins. This established the basis of antibody immunotherapy. With the ideology of using antibody serum to treat infectious diseases, the three scientists standardized serum production in dairy cows and merchandised
234:
The process of manufacturing polyclonal antibodies is similar to that of monoclonal antibodies, which begins with inoculation of antigen conjugate into suitable animals, except multiple B lymphocytes are collected and cultured instead of a single B lymphocyte. Production of polyclonal antibodies
239:
against the antigen which has an overall higher affinity and can better detect low-quantity antigens by targeting different epitopes on the antigen. However, it also provokes an increased chance of non-specific reactivity because the antibodies might bind to non-diseases causing substances. In
248:
Since some patients fail to produce antibodies effectively and hence have poorer immune responses, passive antibody therapy can reinforce their immune system through the introduction of antibodies from donors. Antibodies are glycoproteins that are naturally produced by the immune system. Each
402:(mAb). Since these antibodies originated from mice, they were wrought with problems of immunogenetics and poor abilities to induce an immune response in the human body, limiting their clinical applicability. Later development of antibody engineering enabled the production of
444:(EGFR) is often inappropriately activated and overexpressed in cancer cells, leading to uncontrolled cell growth. Cetuximab blocks ligand binding of EGFR and inhibits intracellular downstream events critical for tumor survival, thereby inducing tumor regression by reducing
482:
approved rituximab (trade names: Rituxan, MabThera) as the first monoclonal antibody for clinical cancer treatment. This drug directly targets CD20 that is found on the surface of both normal and malignant B cells and is indicated to treat blood cancers, such as
537:(MMAE, a potent cytotoxic drug) and a linker that attaches MMAE covalently to cAC10. The binding of brentuximab vedotin to tumor cells is followed by the release of cytotoxic drug MMAE, which destroys the microtubule network within the cell and induces cell
35:
from the 18th century for treating infectious diseases and is now a common cancer treatment. The mechanism of actions include: antagonistic and agonistic reaction, complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC), and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC).
350:
as they are commonly overexpressed in malignant cells. Phosphorylation of immunoreceptors triggers the release of cytotoxic granules from the natural killer cells which sequentially perturbs cell-cell signaling via the induction of the
235:
circumvents the procedure of ex vivo fabrication of hybridoma cell line and requires minimal purification. The manufacturing cost and time are wherefore reduced. Due to a heterogeneous origin, the antibodies express various subtypes of
83:
struck the US and Europe, serum containing antibodies from recovered patients are prevalently injected into patients. With proven therapeutic effects, the applications expanded to other viral and bacterial infections, such as
261:
Antagonism by antibodies eliminates antigens by binding to the relevant Fc receptors or pathogens for disrupting the toxins from binding to the receptors. In cancers, tumor cells escape immune vigilance by binding to
213:
Monoclonal antibodies are manufactured ex vivo from a single B lymphocyte. Serum from immunized animals or humans is first extracted and purified to collect B lymphocytes from the spleen, which are then fused with
1517:
Connors, Joseph M.; Jurczak, Wojciech; Straus, David J.; Ansell, Stephen M.; Kim, Won S.; Gallamini, Andrea; Younes, Anas; Alekseev, Sergey; Illés, Árpád; Picardi, Marco; Lech-Maranda, Ewa (25 January 2018).
108:, who manifested the mass production of pure monoclonal antibodies with limited adverse effects in 1975. Since then, passive antibody therapy has become prevailed as cancer therapeutics and viral treatments.
422:
and human backbone), and full human antibodies (antibodies produced by transgenic mice), which satisfactorily addressed many of these problems and were suitable for the clinical cancer treatment.
1739:"Safety, Pharmacokinetics, and Antiretroviral Activity of Multiple Doses of Ibalizumab (formerly TNX-355), an Anti-CD4 Monoclonal Antibody, in Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1-Infected Adults"
47:
The timeline of the development of passive antibody therapy. The prevalence roused in the early 1900s and withdrew in the 1930s. It was revived in 1975 and became common cancer therapeutic.
1218:
100:
and hypersensitivity were common, ergo, serum therapy was pulled out from the market in the 1940s. The resurrection of antibody immunotherapy contributed to
1737:
Jacobson, Jeffrey M.; Kuritzkes, Daniel R.; Godofsky, Eliot; DeJesus, Edwin; Larson, Jeffrey A.; Weinheimer, Steven P.; Lewis, Stanley T. (February 2009).
849:
Pelletier, J. Peter R.; Mukhtar, Faisal (1 January 2020), Maitta, Robert W. (ed.), "Chapter 16 - Passive
Monoclonal and Polyclonal Antibody Therapies",
218:. After culturing the fused myeloma cell lines, the colonies are selected with the antigens: positive colonies with suitable antibodies can bind to the
240:
addition, as serum batch may contain various antibodies at different concentrations, it is laborious to corroborate the constituents of every batch.
496:
331:
1175:
Si, Yingnan; Melkonian, Arin L.; Curry, Keegan C.; Xu, Yuanxin; Tidwell, Maranda; Liu, Mingming; Zaky, Ahmed F.; Liu, Xiaoguang (Margaret) (2021).
584:(CHD) and bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD). However, it will not treat children already infected with RSV. Injected intramuscularly, it binds to
588:
to prevent RSV from binding to host cell receptors and uptake. Common side effects are diarrhea, vomiting, runny nose and other cold symptoms.
911:
866:
827:
343:
464:. Since EGFR plays an essential role in maintaining skin integrity, one serious side effect of Cetuximab therapy is skin problems such as
338:
antibody) binds to natural killer cells to phosphorylate the immunoreceptor. Several notable immunoreceptors for cancer treatment include
1712:
610:
who have tried but developed resistant against other HIV therapies. The entry of HIV into human immune cells requires the binding of the
419:
468:, skin drying and cracking due to the inhibition of EGFR. Other serious side effects are severe allergic reactions and heart attacks.
382:
305:
1492:
685:
573:
500:
564:
In 1998, the FDA approved the medical use of palivizumab (trade name: Synagis), which is a humanized monoclonal antibody used as
441:
339:
1924:
533:(ADC), i.e. a monoclonal antibody chemically linked to a drug, and is constructed by chimeric anit-CD30 IgG1 antibody (cAC10),
732:
546:
407:
378:(bottom-left, zu), and fully human(bottom right, u) antibodies. Human parts are shown in brown, and murine parts in blue.
488:
479:
611:
569:
43:
627:
on the applications of monoclonal antibodies in the therapy of viral infections without available vaccines, such as
327:
to trigger immune responses, for instance, vasodilation and increased vascular permeability at the infection site.
712:"Monoclonal Versus Polyclonal Antibodies: Distinguishing Characteristics, Applications, and Information Resources"
411:
85:
647:. The most recent research focuses on the development of monoclonal antibody therapy for treating COVID-19.
595:
An overview of HIV entry. Ibalizumab is used to prevent the binding of HIV to CD4 and thus blocks HIV entry.
581:
534:
530:
105:
56:
398:
Passive antibody administration has become a widely approved cancer treatment following the development of
1919:
285:
89:
807:
249:
antibody contains four polypeptides of Y shapes and has unique recognition sites of the targets, such as
565:
227:
59:
in 1890 to treat diphtheria after the observation of immunization in rabbits after injecting serum from
27:
1013:
390:
370:
492:
484:
437:
148:
Directly collect serum from immunized animals and purify the solution to remove other serum proteins
1061:"The complement cascade in the regulation of neuroinflammation, nociceptive sensitization, and pain"
891:
1667:"Palivizumab: A Review of its Use as Prophylaxis for Serious Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection"
519:
453:
399:
198:
1196:
1176:
585:
445:
432:
Cetuximab (trade name: Erbitux ) is a recombinant chimeric monoclonal antibody designed to treat
415:
137:
Contain a mixture of antibodies that can recognize multiple epitopes on a single type of antigen
1858:"History of passive antibody administration for prevention and treatment of infectious diseases"
311:
In addition to the generation of complement proteins, C1 complex also induces the activation of
205:
1059:
Warwick, Charles A.; Keyes, Alex L.; Woodruff, Trent M.; Usachev, Yuriy M. (1 September 2021).
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355:(Bax, Bad, etc.), leading to cell death and enhancing the susceptibility of cancer cells to
275:
215:
52:
145:
Create hybridoma: isolate B lymphocytes from animal spleen and fuse with myeloma cell line
1219:"Cetuximab: An epidermal growth factor receptor chimeric human-murine monoclonal antibody"
577:
576:
in infants. The drug is recommended for infants with a high risk of RSV infection due to
541:. Brentuximab vedotin became the first antibody-drug conjugate approved by FDA to treat
1890:
1833:
1798:
1771:
1738:
1552:
1519:
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1460:
1444:
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1152:
1119:
1095:
970:
937:
877:
858:
783:
696:
677:
665:
606:
Ibalizumab (trade name: Trogarzo) is a new antiviral drug specifically for adults with
465:
403:
374:
The structure of monoclonal antibodies. Mouse (top-left, o), chimeric (top-right, xi),
1029:
1913:
1682:
1356:
1341:"Rituximab: Current Status as Therapy for Malignant and Benign Hematologic Disorders"
1200:
271:
266:
on immune cells for inhibiting immune signaling and downregulating the expression of
23:
1012:
Zeitlin, Larry; Cone, Richard A.; Moench, Thomas R.; Whaley, Kevin J. (1 May 2000).
814:, Woodhead Publishing Series in Biomedicine, Woodhead Publishing, pp. 163–595,
758:
1857:
457:
356:
64:
1639:
1622:
953:
1873:
1234:
1192:
993:
Charles A Janeway, Jr; Travers, Paul; Walport, Mark; Shlomchik, Mark J. (2001).
759:"Monoclonal Antibodies in Cancer Therapy: Mechanisms, Successes and Limitations"
558:
267:
97:
80:
994:
898:, Woodhead Publishing Series in Biomedicine, Elsevier, pp. 163–595, 2012,
1520:"Brentuximab Vedotin with Chemotherapy for Stage III or IV Hodgkin's Lymphoma"
1077:
903:
819:
636:
600:
461:
324:
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73:
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1045:
979:
792:
79:
The prevalence of serum therapy surged in the early 19th century. When the
1535:
774:
1799:"Ibalizumab Targeting CD4 Receptors, An Emerging Molecule in HIV Therapy"
1754:
1576:
1268:
512:
504:
316:
236:
31:
250:
219:
69:
60:
1120:"Monoclonal antibodies: versatile platforms for cancer immunotherapy"
644:
639:, and infectious diseases without effective anti-viral drugs such as
508:
312:
134:
A single type of antibodies that recognize one epitope of an antigen
93:
1592:
1284:
1135:
209:
A general representation of the production of monoclonal antibodies.
1339:
Abdulla, Nihal E.; Ninan, Mary J.; Markowitz, Avi B. (April 2012).
999:
Immunobiology: The Immune System in Health and
Disease. 5th Edition
628:
347:
284:
1267:
Kirkpatrick, Peter; Graham, Joanne; Muhsin, Mohamed (July 2004).
495:
and vasculitis. The mechanism of action includes B-cell lysis by
1575:
Younes, Anas; Yasothan, Uma; Kirkpatrick, Peter (January 2012).
632:
526:
1713:"Palivizumab (Intramuscular Route) Side Effects - Mayo Clinic"
615:
607:
257:
Antagonistic reaction (Neutralization) and
Agonistic reaction
806:
Strohl, William R.; Strohl, Lila M., eds. (1 January 2012),
1665:
Fenton, Caroline; Scott, Lesley J; Plosker, Greg L (2004).
936:
Vonderheide, Robert H.; Glennie, Martin J. (1 March 2013).
1493:"Rituximab (Intravenous Route) Side Effects - Mayo Clinic"
808:"8 - Monoclonal antibody targets and mechanisms of action"
1014:"Preventing infectious disease with passive immunization"
1118:
Weiner, Louis M.; Surana, Rishi; Wang, Shangzi (2010).
332:
Antibody-dependent
Cellular Cytotoxicity (ADCC) Pathway
184:- overall affinity is lower than polyclonal antibodies
96:, despite an unknown underlying mechanism. Yet, severe
1797:
Iacob, Simona A.; Iacob, Diana G. (27 November 2017).
892:"Monoclonal antibody targets and mechanisms of action"
614:(an envelope glycoprotein on the surface of HIV) to
156:- high homogeneity (low batch-to-batch variability)
1856:Graham, Barney S.; Ambrosino, Donna M. (May 2015).
394:Brentuximab Vedotin is an antibody-drug conjugate.
757:Coulson, A; Levy, A; Gossell-Williams, M (2014).
51:Passive antibody therapy was first propounded by
525:Brentuximab vedotin (trade name: Adcetris) is a
491:(B cell malignancy), and other conditions like
298:Complement-dependent Cytotoxicity (CDC) Pathway
1386:Johnson, P W M; Glennie, M J (December 2001).
938:"Agonistic CD40 antibodies and cancer therapy"
190:- low specificity and high cross-reactivity
8:
1177:"Monoclonal antibody-based cancer therapies"
851:Immunologic Concepts in Transfusion Medicine
503:(CDC). Common side effects include itching,
456:and is often prescribed in combination with
386:Rituximab binds to CD20 on a B Cell Surface.
158:- high specificity and low cross-reactivity
995:"The complement system and innate immunity"
460:or other chemotherapeutic regimens such as
1315:"Injection Infusion | ERBITUX (cetuximab)"
344:insulin-like growth factor receptor (IGFR)
112:Classification of passive immunity therapy
1889:
1832:
1814:
1770:
1638:
1551:
1468:
1419:
1151:
1094:
1076:
969:
876:
782:
695:
1388:"Rituximab: mechanisms and applications"
664:Slifka, Mark K.; Amanna, Ian J. (2018).
590:
497:antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity
389:
381:
369:
268:major histocompatibility class I (MHC I)
204:
115:
42:
1181:Chinese Journal of Chemical Engineering
656:
340:epidermal growth factor receptor (EFGR)
1792:
1790:
1743:Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy
1660:
1658:
1262:
1260:
1212:
1210:
568:to prevent severe diseases caused by
81:H1N1 influenza pandemic (Spanish flu)
7:
931:
929:
727:
725:
622:Perspective and future opportunities
420:complementarity-determining regions
308:to lyse the membrane of pathogens.
63:-immunized rabbits. Later in 1891,
1461:10.1053/j.seminhematol.2010.01.011
1217:Harding, J.; Burtness, B. (2005).
859:10.1016/b978-0-323-67509-3.00016-0
678:10.1016/B978-0-323-35761-6.00008-0
574:lower respiratory tract infections
553:Application on infectious diseases
188:- high batch-to-batch variability
14:
501:complement-dependent cytotoxicity
170:- bind to target antigen quicker
32:antibodies (same as immunoglobin)
1683:10.2165/00148581-200406030-00004
1445:"Rituximab: Mechanism of Action"
1443:Weiner, George J. (April 2010).
1357:10.2165/11599500-000000000-00000
896:Therapeutic Antibody Engineering
812:Therapeutic Antibody Engineering
487:(a type of B cell lymphoma) and
442:epidermal growth factor receptor
418:(antibodies with replaced mouse
1862:Current Opinion in HIV and AIDS
1524:New England Journal of Medicine
1065:Journal of Biological Chemistry
547:anaplastic large-cell lymphoma
1:
1640:10.1182/blood.v4.10.1182.1182
1581:Nature Reviews Drug Discovery
1273:Nature Reviews Drug Discovery
1030:10.1016/S1286-4579(00)00355-5
954:10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-12-2064
572:(RSV) - the leading cause of
1874:10.1097/COH.0000000000000154
1633:(10): 1182. 1 October 1949.
1235:10.1358/dot.2005.41.2.882662
489:chronic lymphocytic leukemia
434:metastatic colorectal cancer
126:Polyclonal Antibodies (pAb)
123:Monoclonal Antibodies (mAb)
1193:10.1016/j.cjche.2020.11.009
570:respiratory syncytial virus
440:. In numerous cancers, the
1941:
763:West Indian Medial Journal
1803:Frontiers in Microbiology
1392:British Journal of Cancer
1124:Nature Reviews Immunology
1078:10.1016/j.jbc.2021.101085
904:10.1533/9781908818096.163
820:10.1533/9781908818096.163
165:- inexpensive to produce
1816:10.3389/fmicb.2017.02323
942:Clinical Cancer Research
582:congenital heart disease
515:and low blood pressure.
452:. It is administered by
167:- high overall affinity
20:Passive antibody therapy
535:monomethyl auristatin E
531:antibody-drug conjugate
406:(antibodies with human
306:membrane-attack complex
181:- long production time
179:- expensive to produce
1925:Therapeutic antibodies
1449:Seminars in Hematology
1404:10.1054/bjoc.2001.2127
1018:Microbes and Infection
666:"Passive Immunization"
596:
485:non-Hodgkin's lymphoma
395:
387:
379:
293:
210:
98:anaphylactic reactions
48:
1577:"Brentuximab vedotin"
1536:10.1056/NEJMoa1708984
853:, Elsevier: 251–348,
775:10.7727/wimj.2013.241
594:
454:intravenous injection
393:
385:
373:
366:Application on Cancer
288:
228:Polyclonal antibodies
208:
199:Monoclonal antibodies
46:
28:passive immunotherapy
16:Type of immunotherapy
1755:10.1128/AAC.00942-08
580:or diseases such as
493:rheumatoid arthritis
438:head and neck cancer
416:humanized antibodies
251:cell surface antigen
142:Manufacture process
106:Georges J. F. Kohler
57:Shibasaburo Kitasato
586:RSV fusion proteins
520:Brentuximab vedotin
404:chimeric antibodies
400:monoclonal antibody
264:checkpoint proteins
244:Mechanism of Action
216:plasma cell myeloma
161:- high sensitivity
117:
68:serum vaccines for
1717:www.mayoclinic.org
1497:www.mayoclinic.org
670:Plotkin's Vaccines
597:
543:Hodgkin's lymphoma
446:cell proliferation
396:
388:
380:
294:
291:complement cascade
211:
116:
49:
26:, is a subtype of
1398:(11): 1619–1623.
913:978-1-907568-37-4
868:978-0-323-67509-3
829:978-1-907568-37-4
353:apoptotic cascade
195:
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30:that administers
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1671:Paediatric Drugs
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948:(5): 1035–1043.
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737:www.uptodate.com
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289:Illustration of
131:Characteristics
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53:Emil von Behring
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1319:www.erbitux.com
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448:and increasing
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368:
335:
301:
259:
246:
232:
203:
114:
41:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1938:
1936:
1928:
1927:
1922:
1912:
1911:
1906:
1905:
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1848:
1786:
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1729:
1704:
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1654:
1623:"BOOK REVIEWS"
1614:
1567:
1530:(4): 331–344.
1509:
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1435:
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1331:
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1256:
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1223:Drugs of Today
1206:
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1920:Immunotherapy
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1269:"Cetuximab"
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578:prematurity
566:prophylaxis
559:Palivizumab
325:neutrophils
321:macrophages
153:Advantages
1914:Categories
733:"UpToDate"
651:References
601:Ibalizumab
462:irinotecan
412:Fab region
410:and mouse
74:diphtheria
1882:1746-630X
1825:1664-302X
1763:0066-4804
1691:1174-5878
1649:0006-4971
1601:1474-1776
1544:0028-4793
1412:0007-0920
1365:1173-8804
1293:1474-1776
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1201:229393760
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1087:0021-9258
1038:1286-4579
962:1078-0432
641:influenza
549:in 2011.
539:apoptosis
529:targeted
473:Rituximab
450:apoptosis
427:Cetuximab
408:Fc region
376:humanized
317:monocytes
276:telimomab
1900:25760933
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1301:15272498
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505:headache
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313:B cells
220:epitope
70:tetanus
61:tetanus
39:History
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629:Ebola
612:GP120
230:(pAb)
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1896:PMID
1878:ISSN
1839:PMID
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958:ISSN
921:2022
908:ISBN
863:ISBN
837:2022
824:ISBN
789:PMID
744:2022
682:ISBN
643:and
637:Zika
633:MERS
545:and
527:CD30
436:and
348:cMET
274:and
104:and
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1886:PMC
1870:doi
1829:PMC
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1231:doi
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616:CD4
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480:FDA
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