Pastoral period - Knowledge (XXG)

779:, Round Head, Pastoral, Horse, Camel) present at a single site and almost 80% of sites that are found in rockshelters, the most common form of Saharan rock art is the engraved and painted Pastoral rock art. Central Saharan cattle herders, such as those of the Acacus region, had a sense of monumentality. Pastoral rock art, which are of latter times, are frequently found covering the Round Head rock art of earlier times. Between 7000 BP and 4000 BP, the Pastoral rock art tradition may have persisted, and, based on excavated evidence and samples of paint from the Tadrart Acacus region, may have reached its pinnacle during the 6th millennium BP. Round Head rock art is distinct from engraved and painted Pastoral rock art. While Pastoral rock art is largely characterized by pastoralists and bow-wielding hunters in scenes of animal husbandry, with various animals (e.g., cattle, sheep, goats, dogs), Round Head rock art may be characterized as being rather celestial. Various kinds of monumental stone structures (e.g., alignments, arms, crescents, heap of stones, keyholes, platforms, rings, standings stones, stone cairns/tumuli) have existed in the Central Sahara, spanning from the Middle Pastoral Period among cattle pastoralists to the Garamantes. Cattle sculptures, which may have served as 1084:

rockshelter of eastern Tassili, composition six may depict a white ox, under the spell of serpent-related animals, crossing through a U-shaped gate of vegetation, toward a powerful benevolent figure, in order to undo the spell on the ox. Composition six has been interpreted as portraying the Lotori ceremonial rite of Sub-Saharan West African Fulani herders. The annual Lotori ceremonial rite, held by Fulani herders, occurs at a selected location and period of time, and commemorates the ox and its origination in a source of water. The Lotori ceremonial rite promotes good health (e.g., prevent epizooties, prevent illness, prevent sterility) and reproductive success of cattle by having the cattle cross through a gate of vegetation, and thus, the continuity of the pastoral wealth of the nomadic pastoralist Fulani. The interpretation of composition six as portraying the Lotori ceremonial rite, along with other forms of evidence, have been used to support the conclusion that modern Sub-Saharan West African Fulani herders are descended from peoples of the Sahara. With increasing

1180:), distinct from the ceramics of the Late Acacus (e.g., sandstone-based material compared to granite-based material with an alternately pivoting stamp design), and bone implements that may have come from domesticated cattle remains. Early Pastoral rock art are sometimes found above earlier composed Round Head rock art. While stone implements may have also been utilized by Early Pastoral peoples, they did not differ from earlier Central Saharan hunter-gatherers of the Early Acacus. In the collective memory of Early Pastoral peoples, rockshelters (e.g., Fozzigiaren, Imenennaden, Takarkori) in the Tadrart Acacus region may have served as monumental areas for women and children, as these were where their burial sites were primarily found. Engraved rock art has been found on various kinds of stone structures (e.g., stone arrangements, standing stones, corbeilles – ceremonial monuments) in the Messak Plateau. 830:, in Niger, the most common type (71.66%) of tumuli are platform tumuli; the second most common (16.66%) type of tumuli are cone-shaped tumuli. The earlier “black-face rock art style” of Tassili rock art has been viewed as sharing cultural affinity with the Fulani people. Proto-Berbers, who have been viewed as having migrated into the Central Sahara from Northeast Africa, have been associated with the latter “white-face rock art style” (e.g., pale-skinned figures, beads, long dresses, cattle, cattle-related activities) that emerged in Tassili N’Ajjer in 3500 BCE. In 3800 BCE, the most early of platform tumuli developed in the Central Sahara, which has been viewed as a cultural practice that was brought into the Central Sahara by 834:. The inconsistencies within the view that Proto-Berbers migrated from Northeast Africa and brought the platform tumuli tradition into the Central Sahara is that the measurements for the skeletal types of the Central Sahara do not begin to match the skeletal types of Northeast Africa until after 2500 BCE and the constructing of platform tumuli at Adrar Bous, in Niger, began in 3500 BCE. In the Western Sahara, the pastoralist-associated hearths, pottery from the Late Neolithic, and the most common type of Western Saharan tumuli – cone-shaped tumuli (which emerged earliest in Niger by 3750 BCE and has connections with the Mediterranean), are probably associated with Protohistoric Berbers At Gobero, in Niger, the 217:

abundant in manganese, has been climatologically connected with the drying of the Green Sahara, connected with the engraving being performed amid the development of the patina, and archaeologically connected with the Middle Pastoral Period. Red patina, abundant in iron, is climatologically connected with a dry Sahara, connected with the engraving being performed after the development of the patina and before/amid mineral buildup, and archaeologically connected with the Late Pastoral Period and Final Pastoral Period. The absence of patina has been climatologically connected with a fully dry Sahara, too new for mineral buildup, and archaeologically connected with the Garamantian period and after.

719:), African cattle split early from European cattle (Taurine). African cattle, bearing the Y2 haplogroup, form a sub-group within the overall group of taurine cattle. As a Near Eastern origin of African cattle requires a conceptual bottleneck to sustain the view, the diverseness of the Y2 haplogroup and T1 haplogroup do not support the view of a bottleneck having occurred, and thus, does not support a Near Eastern origin for African cattle. Altogether, these forms of genetic evidence provide the strongest support for Africans independently domesticating African cattle. 192:

some pastoralists who did not create Pastoral rock art). Nevertheless, though general consensus has yet to be reached regarding correspondence between the start of the five millennia-long tradition of creating Pastoral rock art and what specific time it started in the Early Pastoral Period, the general consensus found among those who use contrasting approaches (e.g., splitter, lumper) is that the start of the Pastoral rock art tradition should be viewed as corresponding with the archaeological cultures of Early Pastoral peoples.

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for Sub-Saharan African Sanga cattle, domesticated taurine cattle were introduced into North Africa, admixed with domesticated African cattle (Bos primigenius opisthonomous), resulting in offspring (the oldest being the Egyptian/Sudanese longhorn, some to all of which are viewed as Sanga cattle), or more likely, domesticated African cattle originated in Africa (including Egyptian longhorn), and became regionally diversified (e.g., taurine cattle in North Africa, zebu cattle in East Africa).

1284: 1151: 851: 467: 209: 20: 1331:. Burial mounds (e.g., conical tumuli, v-type) were created set a part from others and small-sized burial mounds were created closely together. Final Pastoral peoples kept small pastoral animals (e.g., goats) and increasingly utilized plants. At Takarkori rockshelter, Final Pastoral peoples created burial sites for several hundred individuals that contained non-local, luxury goods and drum-type architecture in 3000 BP, which made way for the development of the 114:. Burial mounds (e.g., conical tumuli, v-type) were created set a part from others and small-sized burial mounds were created closely together. Final Pastoral peoples kept small pastoral animals (e.g., goats) and increasingly utilized plants. At Takarkori rockshelter, Final Pastoral peoples created burial sites for several hundred individuals that contained non-local, luxury goods and drum-type architecture in 3000 BP, which made way for the development of the 1172:) in the Central Sahara (e.g., Uan Tabu, Uan Muhuggiag) was shared by Late Acacus hunter-gatherers with incoming Early Pastoral peoples. In the Tadrart Acacus, settlements were most abundant in enclosed spaces. Early Pastoral peoples may have dwelled in open plains areas to gather as well as access water sources (e.g., lakes) and dwelled in mountains with rockshelters during arid seasons. Areas occupied by Early Pastoral peoples left behind sandstone-based 237:

Pastoral Period and the Middle Pastoral Period. At Wadi al-Ajal, there were ten scattered archaeological sites - nine sites from the Early Pastoral Period and Middle Pastoral Period as well as one site likely from the Pre-Pastoral Period. Numerous engraved Pastoral rock art of animals may reflect an increase in activity (e.g., increased utilization of natural resources) among pastoralists amid the Early Pastoral Period and Middle Pastoral Period.

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mid-Holocene at Gobero. The tumuli tradition of the Central Sahara likely developed as a result of interactions between culturally and ethnically different Central Saharan peoples (e.g., as depicted in Central Saharan rock art), within the context of changing and varied Central Saharan ecology. The traits (e.g., hierarchy, social complexity) of the earlier Central Saharan pastoral culture contributed to the latter development of

625:

Sahara, between 10,000 BP and 8000 BP. Cattle (Bos) remains may date as early as 9000 BP in Bir Kiseiba and Nabta Playa. While the mitochondrial divergence between Eurasian and African cattle in 25,000 BP can be viewed as supportive evidence for cattle being independently domesticated in Africa, introgression from undomesticated African cattle in Eurasian cattle may provide an alternative interpretation of this evidence.

1247:

human remains as well as two female human remains that had undergone incomplete, natural mummification were found at Takarkori rockshelter, which were dated to the Middle Pastoral Period (6100 BP – 5000 BP). More specifically, with regard to the mummies, one of the naturally mummified females was dated to 6090 ± 60 BP and the other was dated to 5600 ± 70 BP. These two naturally

174:

While there is some evidence from archaeology to support this spontaneous development in 6500 BP, the amount of evidence from archaeology needed to support the short chronology, in providing explanation of the complex cultural developments (e.g., regional diversification, enduring continuity of local pastoral and pottery traditions, rock art) in the Central Sahara, is lacking.

1164:

to the Central Sahara (e.g., Tadrart Acacus), and given the opportunity for becoming socially distinguished, to develop food surplus, as well as to acquire and aggregate wealth, led to the adoption of a cattle pastoral economy by some Central Saharan hunter-gatherers of the Late Acacus. In exchange, cultural information regarding utilization of vegetation (e.g.,

1227:

identity, death, drying of the Sahara, initiation, marriage, transhumance) for the occurrence of cattle sacrificial ceremonies may not be able to verified, it may be the case that they occurred during events when distinct pastoral groups assembled together. Altogether, this has been characterized as being an African Cattle Complex.

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pastoralists. By the end of the 8th millennium BP, domesticated cattle are thought to have been brought into the Central Sahara. The Central Sahara (e.g., Tin Hanakaten, Tin Torha, Uan Muhuggiag, Uan Tabu) was a major intermediary area for the distribution of domesticated animals from the Eastern Sahara to the Western Sahara.

1209:). Stone monuments are also often found in proximity to these engraved Pastoral rock art. A complete cattle pastoral economy (e.g., dairying) developed in the Acacus and Messak regions of southwestern Libya. Semi-sedentary settlements were used seasonally by Middle Pastoral peoples depending on the weather patterns (e.g., 963:. As the earliest dated mummy in Africa, the child mummy of Uan Muhuggiag may date at least one thousand years older than the mummies of ancient Egypt, and may belong to a Central Saharan mummification tradition that may date hundreds to thousands of years prior to the mummification of the child mummy of Uan Muhuggiag. At 94:). Stone monuments are also often found in proximity to these engraved Pastoral rock art. A complete cattle pastoral economy (e.g., dairying) developed in the Acacus and Messak regions of southwestern Libya. Semi-sedentary settlements were used seasonally by Middle Pastoral peoples depending on the weather patterns (e.g., 911:(e.g., Mesopotamia, Palestine) and from the Eastern Sahara. Saharan pastoral culture spanned throughout northern Africa (e.g., Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Niger, Sudan), including in Niger where human burials, pottery, and rock art were found. At Uan Muhuggiag, the pastoral culture, which has been characterized as 70:), and given the opportunity for becoming socially distinguished, to develop food surplus, as well as to acquire and aggregate wealth, led to the adoption of a cattle pastoral economy by some Central Saharan hunter-gatherers of the Late Acacus. In exchange, cultural information regarding utilization of vegetation (e.g., 1036:(e.g., myths, rituals) and cultural distinctions between genders (e.g., men associated with bulls, violence, hunting, and dogs as well as burials at monumental funerary sites; women associated with cows, birth, nursing, and possibly the afterlife) had developed. Preceded by assumed earlier sites in the Eastern 1184:

Pastoral peoples, ceased to be practiced. Early Pastoral peoples buried more of their dead in comparison to late Middle Pastoral peoples at least partly due to seasonal dwelling and possibly discovering earlier burials made by Early Pastoral peoples. Early Pastoral peoples buried their dead via stone-covered

106:, between 5000 BP and 4200 BP, Late Pastoral peoples herded goats, seasonally (e.g., winter), and began a millennia-long tradition of creating megalithic monuments, utilized as funerary sites where individuals were buried in stone-covered tumuli that were usually away from areas of dwellings in 5000 BP. 826:). There are various types of stone constructions (e.g., Keyhole: 4300 BCE – 3200 BCE; Platform: 3800 BCE – 1200 BCE; Cone-Shaped: 3750 BCE; Crescent – 3300 BCE – 1900 BCE; Aligned Structures: 1900 BCE – Beginning of Islamic Period; Crater Tumulus: 1900 BCE – Beginning of Islamic Period) in Niger. At 410:

phenotypes residing among other African ethnic groups and also seem to portray some women with yellow-colored hair. While this may be the case, the uncertainty of whether or not the rock art portrayals actually reflect the phenotypic differences found among the African ethnic groups that occupied the

236:

Patina containing an abundant amount of manganese underlie 53% of engraved animal rock art has been found at Wadi al-Ajal, which determines it to be probable that the engraved animal rock art (e.g., elephant, hartebeest, reedbuck, rhino) at Wadi al-Ajal were engraved amid, or even prior to, the Early

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cultures, which remains largely unsubstantiated. The traditional view is that of Pastoral rock art ending, followed by Horse rock art beginning and ending, and then Camel rock art beginning and ending, yet it is likely more complicated (e.g., cross-regional mixing, overlaps, long rock art traditions,

1296:

Amid the Late Pastoral Period, animals associated with the modern savanna decreased in appearance on Central Saharan rock art and animals suited for dry environments and animals associated with the modern Sahelian increased in appearance on Central Saharan rock art. Rockshelters in mountainous areas

1163:

In the Tadrart Acacus, the period of the Late Acacus hunter-gatherers was followed by an arid period in 8200 BP, which made way for the period of incoming Early Pastoral peoples. The Early Pastoral Period spanned from 6300 BCE to 5400 BCE, or from 7400 BP to 5200 BP. Domesticated cattle were brought

592:

Rather than the domesticating of cattle happening in the region of the Tadrart Acacus, it is considered more likely that domesticated cattle were introduced to the region. Cattle are thought to not have entered Africa independently, but rather, are thought to have been brought into Africa by cattle

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peoples. Most rock art is thought to predominantly depict Mediterranean peoples and depict fewer Sub-Saharan African peoples by 4000 BP. However, other scholars have contested this as Joseph Ki-Zerbo argues this view reflected modern, racial theories which "give prominence to influences from outside

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More recently, black/dark patina, abundant in manganese, has been climatologically connected with the Green Sahara, connected with the engraving being performed before the development of the patina, and archaeologically connected with the Early Pastoral Period and before. Gray, light-colored patina,

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are what makes engraved/painted Pastoral rock art distinct; these distinct depictions in the Central Sahara serve as evidence for different populations entering the region. The decreased appearance of large undomesticated organisms and increased appearance of one-humped camels and horses depicted in

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pastoralism, have been found at Late Pastoral Period sites. At Takarkori rockshelter, between 5000 BP and 4200 BP, Late Pastoral peoples herded goats, seasonally (e.g., winter), and began a millennia-long tradition of creating megalithic monuments, utilized as funerary sites where individuals were

1196:

Amid and shortly after aridification in the Acacus region, between 7300 cal BP and 6900 cal BP, Middle Pastoral peoples and Early Pastoral peoples interacted with one another, resulting in the merging of Middle Pastoral peoples and Early Pastoral peoples and replacing of Early Pastoral peoples with

675:

as their offspring. Rather than accept the common assumption, admixture with taurine and humped cattle is viewed as having likely occurred within the last few hundred years, and Sanga cattle are viewed as having originated from among African cattle within Africa. Regarding possible origin scenarios

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Critique of overly simplistic and errant views presented in the long chronology is the value shown in the short chronology. Yet, the rather spontaneous development of Central Saharan rock art said to occur in the later 7th millennium BP, which is presented in the short chronology, is its challenge.

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had 42 stone monuments (e.g., mostly corbeilles, stone structures and platforms, tumuli). Ceramics (e.g., potsherds) and stone implements were found along with 9 monuments bearing engraved rock art. From 5200 BCE to 3800 BCE, burial of animals occurred. Nine decorated ceramics (e.g., mostly rocker

1246:

At Takarkori rockshelter, Middle Pastoral peoples developed a completely cattle (Bos taurus) pastoralist-driven economic system (e.g., pottery, milking) between 6100 BP and 5100 BP. Middle Pastoral peoples, who occupied rockshelters seasonally, buried their dead in pits at varied depths. Thirteen

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cross, a fertility amulet worn by Fulani women, may be associated with the hexagon-shaped carnelian piece of jewelry depicted in the rock art at Tin Felki. At Tin Tazarift, the depiction of a finger may allude to the hand of the mythic figure, Kikala, the first Fulani pastoralist. At Uan Derbuaen

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the cattle (e.g., Bos taurus), were ceremonially set near the head of sacrificed cattle or stone monuments. These ceremonies were shown across several centuries worth of excavated sites. Goats or hoofed animals were found as well. While the possible reason (e.g., appeal for rain, convey cultural

1023:

Pastoralism, possibly along with social stratification, and Pastoral rock art, emerged in the Central Sahara between 5200 BCE and 4800 BCE. Funerary monuments and sites, within possible territories that had chiefdoms, developed in the Saharan region of Niger between 4700 BCE and 4200 BCE. Cattle

474:

In the Acacus region, at the Uan Muhuggiag rockshelter, there was a child mummy (5405 ± 180 BP) and an adult (7823 ± 95 BP/7550 ± 120 BP). In the Tassili n'Ajjer region, at Tin Hanakaten rockshelter, there was a child (7900 ± 120 BP/8771 ± 168 cal BP), with cranial deformations due to disease or

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of a human form wearing a jackal mask may date one thousand years earlier than 5600 BP (date based on tested organic material from rock shelter wall crevice) and appears one thousand years earlier than in the Nile Valley, and Central Saharan pottery was found in the Nile Valley, Central Saharan

295:

A considerably arid environment may have been present, which also involved wind-caused erosion in rockshelters. After 5000 BP, physical breakdown of rockshelters may have occurred as intense aridity began to set in throughout the region of the Sahara and a plant landscape (e.g., grasslands with

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to discern the age of a particular rock art style, such as engravings, can be viewed as rather undependable. In the case of Pastoral rock art, what may be more dependable is the likelihood that painted cattle, engraved cattle (which compose more than half of all engraved rock art), and pastoral

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At Takarkori rockshelter, Early Pastoral peoples utilized fireplaces between 7400 BP and 6400 BP. Early Pastoral peoples established a centuries-long burial tradition of utilizing rockshelters as special locations for burial of the dead (e.g., women, children), which, by the time of the Middle

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The mitochondrial divergence of undomesticated Indian cattle, European cattle, and African cattle (Bos primigenius) from one another in 25,000 BP is viewed as evidence supporting the conclusion that cattle may have been domesticated in Northeast Africa, particularly, the eastern region of the

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that has been characterized as pastoral is based on only two cattle remnants and an absence of sheep/goat remnants; until the end of the mid-Holocene, there is limited evidence for nomadic lifeways; there is also anatomical evidence that is indicative of general population continuity amid the

987:, which was dated to 6000 BP and stands in contrast to local pottery that were not decorated, was also found. As Central Saharan cattle pastoral culture emerged thousands of years earlier than when it reached its apex in the Nile Valley, Central Saharan pastoral culture produced the cultural 710:

While this does not negate that it is possible for cattle from the Near East to have migrated into Africa, a greater number of African cattle in the same area share the T1 mitochondrial haplogroup and atypical haplotypes than in other areas, which provides support for Africans independently

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Amid the Late Pastoral Period and Final Pastoral Period (3800 BCE – 1000 BCE), out of all of the engraved animal rock art, which included desert-adaptable animals (e.g., Barbary sheep, Ostriches), red-colored patina developed and underlay 33% of the engraved animal rock art at Wadi al-Ajal.

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Round Head rock art portrays human artforms with additional attributes (e.g., occasionally wielding bows, body designs, masks) and undomesticated animals (e.g., Barbary sheep, antelope, elephants, giraffes); the final period of the Round Head rock art portrayals have been characterized as

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In the Western Desert, at the E-75-6 archaeological site, amid 10th millennium cal BP and 9th millennium cal BP, African pastoralists may have managed North African cattle (Bos primigenius) and continually used the watering basin and well and as water source. In the northern region of

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were composed by the same group of people. More work needs to be done to incorporate rock art styles that portray undomesticated animals (e.g., some dating after Pastoral rock art depicting cattle and some which may date before) into the existing chronological and cultural model.

367:) and Eastern Sahara are believed to have migrated into the Central Sahara, along with their pastoral animals (e.g., cattle, goats). Based on the view that some rock art from the Acacus region of Libya portrayed persons with the phenotype (e.g., style and profile of the face) of 558:, who are descendants of these Neolithic agriculturalists, share the lactase persistence variant –13910*T. While shared by Fulani and Tuareg herders, compared to the Tuareg variant, the Fulani variant of –13910*T has undergone a longer period of haplotype differentiation. The 232:

is limited for the Early Pastoral Period (dated to the early 6th millennium BCE), increases to established cattle pastoral economy for the Middle Pastoral Period (dated to the 5th millennium BCE), and decreases by the Garamantian period (e.g., classical period, late period).

101:

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The Middle Pastoral Period (5200 cal BCE – 3800 cal BCE) is when most of the Pastoral rock art was developed. In the Messak region of southwestern Libya, there were cattle remains set in areas in proximity to engraved Pastoral rock art depicting cattle (e.g.,

85:

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has been radiocarbon dated, via the deepest coal layer where it was found, to 7438 ± 220 BP, and, via the animal hide it was wrapped in, to 5405 ± 180 BP, which has been calibrated to 6250 cal BP. Another date for the animal hide made from the skin of an

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reliably dated to 7750 BP, domesticated cattle may have appeared earlier, near the Nile, and then expanded to the western region of the Sahara. Though undomesticated aurochs are shown, via archaeological evidence and rock art, to have dwelled in

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From 8000 BP to 7500 BP, the climate of the Central Sahara may have been arid. From 6900 BP to 6400 BP, the climate of the highlands and lowlands of the Central Sahara may have been humid; consequently, from 6600 BP to 6500 BP, the lakes in

399:(e.g., dominant mandible, big lips, rounded nose). Pastoral rock art, as distinct (e.g., technique, themes) from Round Head rock art, portrays situations from pastoral life and domesticated cattle; its portrayals have been characterized as 462:

After having dwelled among one another in the Central Sahara, by 4000 BP, some of the hunter-gatherers, who created the Round Head rock art, may have associated with, admixed with, and adapted the culture of incoming cattle pastoralists.

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began dwelling by 7500 BP; these phenotypically (e.g., tall and robust compared smaller and tiny) and culturally (e.g., hunter-gatherer compared to pastoralist) distinct peoples are viewed as being similar to what occurred in the

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The state of the Central Saharan environment amid the Early Pastoral Period and Middle Pastoral Period were favorable. Between the two periods, there was an arid period, which lasted from 7300 cal BP to 6900 cal BP.

1068:). Between 7500 BP and 7400 BP, amid the Late Pastoral Neolithic, religious ceremony and ceremonial burials, with megaliths, may have served as a cultural precedent for the latter religious reverence of the goddess 1326:

The Final Pastoral Period (1500 BCE – 700 BCE) was a transitory period from nomadic pastoralism toward becoming increasingly sedentary. Final Pastoral peoples were scattered, semi-migratory groups who practiced

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1008:). Though the descendants of the people of Uan Muhuggiag may have vacated the region five hundred years after the embalming of the child of Uan Muhuggiag due to increasing aridification, and the occurrence of 1301:, resulting in settlements in those areas being temporary. Consequently, development of increasingly nomadic forms of pastoralism began to occur and broad distribution of Late Pastoral settlements (e.g., 419:

The earliest pastoralists, who brought domesticated sheep, goat, and cattle along with them to the Central Sahara, amid the Pastoral Period (8000 BP – 7000 BP), have been characterized as Proto-

1280:) increased in the Central Sahara. In the Central Sahara, the tumuli tradition originated in the Middle Pastoral Period and transformed amid the Late Pastoral Period (4500 BP – 2500 BP). 695:

African cattle as a form of reliable food source and as a short-term adaptation to the dry period of the Green Sahara, which resulted in a limited availability of edible flora. African

3056: 3135: 566:, between 9686 BP and 7534 BP, possibly around 8500 BP; corroborating this timeframe for the Fulani, by at least 7500 BP, there is evidence of herders engaging in the act of 617:. After aurochs were domesticated in the Near East, cattle pastoralists may have migrated, along with domesticated aurochs, through the Nile Valley and, by 8000 BP, through 3666: 1335:

civilization. Final Pastoral peoples were in contact the Garamantes. Later, Garamantes acquired a monopoly on the oasis-based economy of the southern region of Libya.

939:– removal of organs from the abdomen, chest, and thorax, followed by replacement with organic preservatives to prevent decomposition, and wrapped in the skin of an 671:

Indian humped cattle (Bos indicus) and North African/Middle Eastern taurine cattle (Bos taurus) are commonly assumed to have admixed with one another, resulting in

919:) and fauna (e.g., hippopotamuses, crocodiles, elephants, lions, giraffe, gazelle). At the Uan Muhuggiag rock shelter, around 5600 BP, a two and a half year old 822:

concepts) occupied these regions, and thus, occupied the Central Sahara (e.g., Fozziagiaren I, Imenennaden, Takarkori, Uan Muhuggiag) and Eastern Sahara (e.g.,

4163:"Modern Beams For Ancient Mummies Computerized Tomography Of The Holocene Mummified Remains From Wadi Takarkori (Acacus, South-Western Libya; Middle Pastoral)" 1222:

stamp/plain edge design, sometimes alternately pivoting stamp design) and sixteen stone maces were found. Some stone maces, used literally or symbolically to

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Osypińska (2021) indicates that an "archaeozoological discovery made at Affad turned out to be of great importance for the entire history of cattle on the

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Due to its reliance on evidence of changes caused by windblown sand, which can vary depending on the area of rock that is exposed to it, the common use of

4110:"Medical imaging as a taphonomic tool: The naturally-mummified bodies from Takarkori rock shelter (Tadrart Acacus, SW Libya, 6100-5600 uncal BP)" 519:

of different appearance were therefore living in the Tassili and most probably in the whole Central Sahara as early as the 10th millennium BP.”

984: 4091: 3961: 2155: 652:. These are the oldest remains of the auroch in Sudan, and they also mark the southernmost range of this species in the world. Based on the 58:, along with various animals (e.g., cattle, sheep, goats, dogs), spanning from 6300 BCE to 700 BCE. The Pastoral Period is preceded by the 699:

fossils, which have been dated between 11th millennium cal BP and 10th millennium cal BP, have been found at Bir Kiseiba and Nabta Playa.

979:) as well as a presence of cattle culture, and particularly, near a circularly arranged set of stone monuments, evidence of cattle being 907:

migrated into the Central Sahara, along with their pastoral animals (e.g., cattle, goats). The pastoralists may have migrated from the

2186:"A revision of the identified prehistoric rock art styles of the central Libyan Desert (Eastern Sahara) and their relative chronology" 2132: 4330: 4053: 3820: 3612: 3069: 2814: 2667: 2615: 2383: 2197: 1701: 1553: 180:

frequently serves as a basis for the intuitively reconstructed short chronology and long chronology. Nevertheless, a chronological

668:. The idea of domestic cattle in Africa coming from the Fertile Crescent exclusively is now seen as having serious shortcomings." 4370: 3392:"Re-entering the central Sahara at the onset of the Holocene: A territorial approach to Early Acacus hunter–gatherers (SW Libya)" 1140: 1033: 956: 184:

that can provide explication of the complex nature of the Holocene and the Sahara (e.g., cultures, peoples), at-large, is ideal.

4375: 3535: 2512: 2479: 2304: 476: 691:, between 11th millennium cal BP and 10th millennium cal BP, semi-sedentary African hunter-gatherers may have independently 3890:"Expansions and Contractions: World-Historical Change And The Western Sudan World-System (1200/1000 B.C. - 1200/1250 A.D.)" 1012:

is possible, it is more likely that knowledge from the Central Saharan pastoral culture may have been transmitted into the

2469: 1135:. The engraved cattle pastoral rock art of Dhar Tichitt, which are displayed in enclosed areas that may have been used to 1044:. These megalithic monuments in the Saharan region of Niger and the Eastern Sahara may have served as antecedents for the 780: 2580:

Artistic styles in the engravings of the ancient rock art in Wadi al Baqar (Valley of Cows) in the Sahara Desert in Libya

1131:

bear resemblance (e.g., color markings of the cattle) with the engraved cattle portrayed in the Dhar Tichitt rock art in

1946:"Persistent deathplaces and mobile landmarks: The Holocene mortuary and isotopic record from Wadi Takarkori (SW Libya)" 4360: 2578: 391:

Africa are based on flimsy foundations" and rather all African physical types are reflected in the rock iconography.

775:

Among thousands of archaeological sites, which usually have several different periods of rock art traditions (e.g.,

4318: 3979:"Takarkori rock shelter (SW Libya): an archive of Holocene climate and environmental changes in the central Sahara" 438:

dwelled amid the early period of the Holocene and ceased doing so by 8500 BP; after one thousand years of vacancy,

1359:"Working in a UNESCO WH site. problems and practices on the rock art of tadrart akakus (SW Libya, central Sahara)" 4380: 4365: 976: 707:, at El Barga, cattle fossils found in a human burial serve as supportive evidence for cattle being in the area. 4162: 3457: 2364:"Dry Climatic Events and Cultural Trajectories: Adjusting Middle Holocene Pastoral Economy of the Libyan Sahara" 664:

and Letti, Osypiński (2022) indicates that it is "justified to raise again the issue of the origin of cattle in

1001: 411:

region of ancient Libya has resulted in caution about the opinions formed regarding these rock art portrayals.

483:, as well as another child and three adults (9420 ± 200 BP/10,726 ± 300 cal BP). Based on examination of the 3269:"Tracing the History of Goat Pastoralism: New Clues from Mitochondrial and Y Chromosome DNA in North Africa" 716: 540:

variants, including –13910*T, and may have been subsequently supplanted by later migrations of peoples. The

2769: 2603: 2549:"Prehistoric Colonization of the Central Sahara: Hunters versus Herders and the Evidence from the Rock Art" 2234:"Patina and Environment in the Wadi al-Hayat: Towards a Chronology for the Rock Art of the Central Sahara" 1310: 952: 884:

environment (akin to the savanna environments of contemporary Kenya, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe), egalitarian

688: 555: 3230:"Domestication Processes and Morphological Change Through the Lens of the Donkey and African Pastoralism" 2655: 2190:

The Signs of Which Times? Chronological and Palaeoenvironmental Issues in the Rock Art of Northern Africa

747:(specifically, 7100 BP – 7000 BP). Domesticated sheep, which are thought to have probable origins in the 3129: 1297:

may have become utilized infrequently and bodies of water (e.g., lakes) in plains areas began to become

1260: 831: 819: 683:

may be viewed as parallel evidence for the domestication of amid the early period of the Holocene. Near

187:

With the exception of a few instances, the common assumption is that Pastoral rock art corresponds with

157:

latter rock art (e.g., Pastoral, Camelline, Cabelline) throughout the Sahara serves as evidence for the

4092:"Paleopathology Of Two Mummified Bodies From The Takarkori Rock Shelter (Sw Libya, 6100-5600 Years Bp)" 2703: 4319:"A Brief Introduction To A Geochemical Method Used In Assessing Migration In Biological Anthropology" 4229: 3990: 3739:"'Here come the brides': Reading the neolithic paintings from Uan Derbuaen (Tasili-n-Ajjer, Algeria)" 3403: 2985: 2911: 1855: 1749: 1738:"Trapping or tethering stones (TS): A multifunctional device in the Pastoral Neolithic of the Sahara" 1605: 1465: 1263: 1210: 877: 862: 337: 225: 95: 1422: 633:

The time and location for when and where cattle were domesticated in Africa remains to be resolved.

2097: 1283: 1150: 988: 920: 850: 727:

From the Near East, between 6500 BP and 5000 BP, sheep and goats expanded into the Central Sahara.

537: 466: 387: 229: 208: 201: 149: 142: 62:

and followed by the Caballine Period. The Early Pastoral Period spanned from 6300 BCE to 5400 BCE.

19: 4296: 4271: 4198: 4143: 4067: 4022: 3941: 3919: 3870: 3834: 3776: 3712: 3626: 3560: 3488: 3435: 3372: 3314: 3249: 3191: 3037: 2951: 2880: 2780: 2750: 2629: 2584: 2397: 2337: 2269: 2161: 2108: 2065: 1989: 1907: 1715: 1637: 1567: 1497: 1394: 1239:, which was accompanied by remnants of a grind stone and a necklace made from the eggshell of an 1097: 1017: 997: 912: 811: 508: 383: 376: 360: 260:

availed new areas to creating Pastoral rock art that were previously unavailable in prior times.

221: 188: 1120: 1075:

By at least 4th millennium BCE, as indicated via the painted rock art of Tassili n’Ajjer, Proto-

915:, may have begun earlier than 5500 BP. In the region, there were various kinds of flora (e.g., 4336: 4326: 4263: 4245: 4190: 4182: 4174: 4135: 4059: 4049: 4014: 4006: 3957: 3911: 3862: 3853: 3826: 3816: 3768: 3760: 3704: 3696: 3660: 3618: 3608: 3552: 3480: 3427: 3419: 3364: 3356: 3306: 3298: 3290: 3183: 3175: 3117: 3075: 3065: 3029: 3011: 3003: 2943: 2935: 2927: 2872: 2864: 2820: 2810: 2742: 2734: 2726: 2673: 2663: 2621: 2611: 2556: 2518: 2508: 2485: 2475: 2451: 2389: 2379: 2329: 2321: 2261: 2253: 2203: 2193: 2151: 2057: 2049: 1981: 1973: 1899: 1881: 1873: 1793: 1775: 1767: 1707: 1697: 1629: 1621: 1559: 1549: 1489: 1481: 1386: 1378: 1057: 1049: 59: 2447: 4253: 4237: 4125: 4117: 3998: 3949: 3901: 3808: 3750: 3600: 3592: 3544: 3472: 3411: 3348: 3280: 3241: 3229: 3167: 3109: 3019: 2993: 2919: 2856: 2718: 2371: 2368:

Droughts, Food and Culture: Ecological Change And Food Security In Africa's Later Prehistory

2313: 2245: 2147: 2143: 2041: 2033: 1965: 1957: 1889: 1863: 1783: 1757: 1613: 1541: 1473: 1370: 1223: 1206: 1032:(6350 BP), in Chin Tafidet, and in Tuduf (2400 cal BCE – 2000 cal BCE). Thus, by this time, 980: 896: 888: 835: 665: 649: 606: 529: 525: 439: 181: 134: 91: 55: 31: 3095:"Unearthing a Middle Nile crossroads – exploring the prehistory of the Letti Basin (Sudan)" 3058:

From Faras to Soba: 60 years of Sudanese–Polish cooperation in saving the heritage of Sudan

2704:"Sahelian pastoralism from the perspective of variants associated with lactase persistence" 1040:, tumuli with megalithic monuments developed as early as 4700 BCE in the Saharan region of 923:

boy (determined through examination of the complete set of human remains, which included a

3531:"The Emergence of Mobile Pastoral Elites during the Middle to Late Holocene in the Sahara" 3268: 1318:

buried in stone-covered tumuli that were usually away from areas of dwellings in 5000 BP.

1136: 1116: 1009: 968: 859: 840: 748: 696: 645: 487:

and Tin Hanakaten child, the results verified that these Central Saharan peoples from the

435: 334: 257: 138: 130: 3652: 2300:"Changing Places: Rock Art and Holocene Landscapes in the Wadi al-Ajal, South-West Libya" 971:), there was engraved rock art depicting cattle and human forms with animal heads (e.g., 4233: 3994: 3407: 2989: 2915: 1859: 1753: 1609: 1469: 371:, Savino Di Lernia characterized the Central Saharan pastoral culture that produced the 4258: 4217: 3155: 1894: 1843: 1788: 1737: 1306: 964: 936: 869: 803: 776: 751:(7000 BP), may have, due to climate instability and water shortages, migrated from the 488: 444: 348: 344: 297: 177: 67: 4354: 4300: 4147: 4109: 4071: 4041: 4026: 3978: 3923: 3889: 3874: 3838: 3800: 3738: 3716: 3630: 3564: 3530: 3492: 3439: 3376: 3336: 3195: 3024: 2884: 2802: 2784: 2754: 2633: 2588: 2401: 2363: 2341: 2299: 2273: 2233: 2165: 2112: 2069: 2021: 1993: 1945: 1719: 1689: 1641: 1571: 1535: 1501: 1453: 1398: 1358: 1302: 1231: 1108: 1085: 1053: 993: 948: 944: 892: 807: 744: 680: 551: 548: 484: 372: 352: 305: 275: 241: 79: 47: 35: 4275: 4202: 4002: 3780: 3318: 3253: 3094: 2955: 1844:"Inside the "African Cattle Complex": Animal Burials in the Holocene Central Sahara" 141:, Caballine, Cameline), based on a variety of factors (e.g., art method, organisms, 3113: 3041: 2142:. The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology and Anthropology of Rock Art. p. 16. 1911: 1617: 1477: 1328: 1277: 1252: 1144: 1112: 904: 885: 799: 692: 672: 544: 516: 500: 368: 330: 249: 158: 111: 82:) was shared by Late Acacus hunter-gatherers with incoming Early Pastoral peoples. 63: 43: 1690:"Cultural adaptations at Uan Tabu from the Upper Pleistocene to the Late Holocene" 3953: 3476: 3415: 2037: 1868: 1762: 4121: 3064:. Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology/University of Warsaw. p. 460. 1332: 1025: 1013: 866: 823: 795: 787: 764: 684: 601: 597: 563: 541: 364: 341: 162: 115: 4241: 2978:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

596:

Based on cattle remains near the Nile dated to 9000 BP and cattle remains near

4249: 4186: 4139: 4018: 3830: 3772: 3708: 3556: 3548: 3431: 3368: 3352: 3187: 3079: 2939: 2738: 2625: 2522: 2333: 2265: 2249: 2061: 1985: 1961: 1779: 1633: 1493: 1390: 1270: 1029: 827: 760: 740: 618: 492: 301: 252:

between the southern region of the Messak and Wadi al-Ajal may have occurred.

39: 4340: 4178: 4010: 3915: 3866: 3764: 3700: 3484: 3423: 3360: 3302: 3294: 3179: 3121: 3015: 3007: 2931: 2876: 2868: 2824: 2730: 2677: 2560: 2474:(Abridged ed.). University of California Press. 1990. pp. 294–295. 2455: 2375: 2325: 2257: 2207: 2053: 2022:"Places, monuments, and landscape: Evidence from the Holocene central Sahara" 1977: 1885: 1877: 1771: 1625: 1563: 1485: 1382: 876:. As the monsoon rain system moved northward into the Central Sahara, amid a 4063: 3651:

Department of the Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas (October 2002).

3622: 3604: 3285: 2998: 2923: 2489: 2393: 2317: 1711: 1374: 1314: 1273: 1256: 1248: 1177: 1169: 960: 928: 908: 648:, were discovered at sites dating back 50,000 years and associated with the 614: 533: 522: 496: 480: 407: 356: 103: 75: 4267: 4194: 3801:"Weapons, Tools, and Objects: Material Culture Systems In African rock Art" 3310: 2947: 2860: 2746: 1903: 1797: 996:(e.g., decoration of pottery; cattle pastoralism; funerary culture and the 503:

study showed that the skeletons could be divided into two types, the first

224:

for the engraved rock art is established via evidence from archaeology for

3906: 3755: 3033: 983:

and pottery given as ritual offering. In the Nile Valley region of Sudan,

763:

Valley (6000 BP), then to the Central Sahara (6000 BP), and finally, into

4130: 3812: 2779:. African Union InterAfrican Bureau for Animal Resources. pp. 6, 8. 1236: 1173: 1165: 1132: 1045: 940: 932: 791: 400: 245: 126: 71: 4090:

Ventura, Luca; Mercurio, Cinzia; Fornaciari, Gino (September 10, 2019).

2974:"Mitochondrial diversity and the origins of African and European cattle" 2045: 1969: 640:

continent. A large skull fragment and a nearly complete horn core of an

562:

lactase persistence variant –13910*T may have spread, along with cattle

3171: 2722: 1240: 1218: 1202: 1124: 924: 881: 815: 567: 512: 504: 456: 452: 420: 396: 152:, in addition to its art production method, depictions of domesticated 87: 51: 3337:"The Origin of African Sheep: Archaeological and Genetic Perspectives" 3156:"An African origin for African cattle? — some archaeological evidence" 4218:"Ancestral mitochondrial N lineage from the Neolithic 'green' Sahara" 1298: 1185: 1093: 1089: 1080: 1076: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1037: 1005: 972: 873: 752: 736: 653: 641: 637: 571: 559: 427: 406:

Some rock art from the Pastoral period seem to portray Africans with

196: 153: 3684: 2973: 2548: 2471:

UNESCO General History of Africa. Methodology and African prehistory

1593: 316:

The environment became increasingly dry and oases began to develop.

4290: 4114:

Journal of Cultural Heritage Management and Sustainable Development

3391: 3245: 2899: 2844: 2185: 2140:

The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology and Anthropology of Rock Art

1545: 992:

pastoral culture may have contributed to the latter development of

1128: 1041: 916: 900: 849: 844: 756: 704: 661: 610: 448: 431: 308:

plants) similar to a steppe and desert region may have developed.

2900:"African pastoralism: genetic imprints of origins and migrations" 609:, aurochs are thought to have been independently domesticated in 479:

that bears a resemblance with ones performed among Neolithic-era

4323:

Migration History in World History: Multidisciplinary Approaches

3458:"Saharan Rock Art, A Reflection Of Climate Change In The Sahara" 1214: 1101: 712: 3593:"Palaeoclimate, Food And Culture Change In Africa: An Overview" 2507:(Revised and expanded ed.). Collier Books. pp. 1–25. 2098:"Thoughts on the rock art of the Tadrart Acacus Mts., SW Libya" 1594:"Central Saharan rock art: Considering the kettles and cupules" 1079:

culture may have been present in area of Tassili n’Ajjer. The

657: 2583:. University of Newcastle. pp. 27, 46–47, 49–50, 77–78. 1454:"Animal engravings in the central Sahara: A proxy of a proxy" 333:

hunter-gatherers may have migrated northward, along with the

3390:

Cancellieri, Emanuele; Di Lernia, Savino (23 January 2014).

2370:. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. pp. 232, 235–237. 711:

domesticating African cattle. Based on a small sample size (

588:

Near Eastern Introduction of Domesticated Cattle Into Africa

3240:(S4). The University of Chicago Press Journals: S397–S413. 578:

Origins of Pastoral Animals and Locations of Domestication

4292:

Megalithism and monumentality in prehistoric North Africa

1107:

After migrating from the Central Sahara, by 4000 BP, the

1088:

during the Pastoral Period, Pastoral rock artists (e.g.,

2845:"The Dawn of African Pastoralisms: An Introductory Note" 1119:

in the Western Sahara. The painted Pastoral rock art of

3685:"Hand Prints, Footprints And The Imprints Of Evolution" 1694:

Uan Tabu in the Settlement History of the Libyan Sahara

891:

also migrated northward into the Central Sahara (e.g.,

872:

changed direction and moved northward into the Central

2660:

Round Heads: The Earliest Rock Paintings in the Sahara

1357:

Gallinaro, Marina; Di Lernia, Savino (November 2011).

739:(7500 BP – 7000 BP) were found in the eastern Sahara, 629:

Independent Domestication of African Cattle In Africa

2777:

The story of cattle in Africa: Why diversity matters

1313:). Some stones and ceramics, as well as evidence of 2770:"Why cattle matter: An enduring and essential bond" 2610:. Brookings Institution Press. p. Unnumbered. 1944:Di Lernia, Savino; Tafuri, Mary Anne (March 2013). 1251:females were the earliest dated mummies to undergo 499:complexions. Soukopova (2013) thus concludes: “The 228:in the Central Sahara. Archaeological evidence for 3805:Weapons And Tools In Rock Art: A World Perspective 3799:Holl, Augustin F. C.; Chang, Gao (February 2021). 3335:Muigai, Anne W.T.; Hanotte, Olivier (March 2013). 2184:Huyge, D.; Van Noten, F.; Swinne, D. (June 2010). 1188:, where the entombed dead were covered in stones. 1139:cattle, is supportive evidence for cattle bearing 1060:, tumuli were present at various locations (e.g., 3228:Marshall, Fiona; Weissbrod, Lior (October 2011). 3134:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 ( 2446:Hooke, Chris; Mosely, Gillian (7 February 2003). 2298:Barnett, Tertia; Guagnin, Maria (December 2014). 955:, this may indicate that it was a compassionate, 66:cattle were brought to the Central Sahara (e.g., 4097:. European Congress of Pathology. pp. 5, 7. 3948:. Encyclopedia of Prehistory. pp. 245–259. 2133:"The Archaeology of Rock Art in Northern Africa" 2015: 2013: 2011: 2009: 2007: 2005: 2003: 1540:. Edizioni All'Insegna del Giglio. p. 374. 818:skeletal types (which are outdated, problematic 783:, were also created during the Pastoral Period. 355:; thereafter, in 7000 BP, pastoralists from the 3646: 3644: 3642: 3640: 2649: 2647: 2645: 2643: 2357: 2355: 2353: 2351: 2091: 2089: 2087: 2085: 2083: 2081: 2079: 790:as well as the early and middle periods of the 4108:Profico, Antonio; et al. (October 2019). 3977:Cremaschi, Mauro; et al. (October 2014). 2126: 2124: 2122: 1939: 1937: 1935: 1933: 1931: 1929: 1927: 1925: 1923: 1921: 1587: 1585: 1583: 1581: 1352: 1350: 1348: 1111:of West Africa established their agropastoral 943:and leaves for insulation) utilizing advanced 880:which brought along with the development of a 735:The most early domesticated sheep remnants in 3852:Abd-El-Moniem, Hamdi Abbas Ahmed (May 2005). 2809:. Oxford University Press. pp. 108–110. 2697: 2695: 2693: 2691: 2689: 2687: 2662:. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 22. 2572: 2570: 2227: 2225: 2223: 2221: 2219: 2217: 1736:Gallinaro, Marina; Di Lernia, Savino (2018). 1072:during the dynastic period of ancient Egypt. 8: 4216:Vai, Stefania; et al. (March 5, 2019). 3665:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3465:Tabona: Revista de Prehistoria y Arqueología 2807:The Oxford Handbook of Prehistoric Figurines 2542: 2540: 2538: 2536: 2534: 2532: 2192:. Royal Academy for Overseas Sciences: 222. 1837: 1835: 1833: 1831: 1829: 1827: 1696:. All’Insegna del Giglio. pp. 232–235. 129:is categorized into different groups (e.g., 30:rock art is the most common form of Central 16:Most Common Type of Central Saharan rock art 4048:. Cambridge University Press. p. 281. 3946:Encyclopedia of Prehistory Volume 1: Africa 3794: 3792: 3790: 3451: 3449: 3223: 3221: 3219: 3217: 3215: 3213: 3211: 3209: 3207: 3205: 3055:Osypińska, Marta; Osypiński, Piotr (2021). 2702:Priehodová, Edita; et al. (Nov 2020). 1825: 1823: 1821: 1819: 1817: 1815: 1813: 1811: 1809: 1807: 1731: 1729: 4085: 4083: 4081: 3732: 3730: 3728: 3726: 3678: 3676: 3599:. Droughts, Food and Culture. p. 17. 3149: 3147: 3145: 2967: 2965: 2293: 2291: 2289: 2287: 2285: 2283: 2138:. In David, Bruno; McNiven, Ian J (eds.). 1423:"Rock Art of the Tassili n Ajjer, Algeria" 536:, may have been the source population for 347:into the Central Sahara, particularly the 329:Di Lernia et al. theorized: In 10,000 BP, 4257: 4129: 3905: 3754: 3586: 3584: 3582: 3580: 3578: 3576: 3574: 3524: 3522: 3330: 3328: 3284: 3023: 2997: 2796: 2794: 2711:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 2656:"Central Sahara: Climate and Archaeology" 2441: 2439: 2437: 2435: 2433: 2431: 2026:Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa 1893: 1867: 1787: 1761: 1683: 1681: 1679: 1677: 1675: 1673: 1671: 1534:Mori, Lucia; et al. (October 2013). 1447: 1445: 1443: 1441: 1439: 1416: 1414: 1412: 1410: 1408: 759:(6500 BP – 6800 BP), then to the central 78:) in the Central Sahara (e.g., Uan Tabu, 4312: 4310: 4161:Di Vincenzo, Fabio; et al. (2015). 3935: 3933: 3520: 3518: 3516: 3514: 3512: 3510: 3508: 3506: 3504: 3502: 2429: 2427: 2425: 2423: 2421: 2419: 2417: 2415: 2413: 2411: 2179: 2177: 2175: 1669: 1667: 1665: 1663: 1661: 1659: 1657: 1655: 1653: 1651: 1282: 1149: 465: 382:Pastoral rock art is thought to portray 207: 18: 4046:Mummies, Disease & Ancient Cultures 3855:A New Recording of Mauritanian Rock Art 3102:Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 2838: 2836: 2834: 1842:Di Lernia, Savino; et al. (2013). 1421:Coulson, David; Campbell, Alec (2010). 1344: 1287:Human figure with boomerang and animals 278:and Uan Kasa growing to their largest. 248:in the area of Wadi al-Ajal as well as 3658: 3127: 3093:Osypiński, Piotr (December 30, 2022). 2849:Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 2505:Africa in history: themes and outlines 1950:Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 1529: 1527: 1525: 1523: 1521: 1519: 1517: 1515: 1513: 1511: 1230:At the Uan Muhuggiag rockshelter, the 3861:. University of London. p. 210. 3737:Holl, Augustin F. C. (January 2016). 2148:10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780190607357.013.17 951:was buried with a necklace made from 7: 2654:Soukopova, Jitka (16 January 2013). 23:Warrior/Shepherd figures and animals 3154:Grigson, Caroline (December 1991). 2608:Algeria and Transatlantic Relations 2604:"7,000 Years Ago: The First Berber" 2362:Di Lernia, Savino (January 2002). 1127:and engraved Pastoral rock art of 771:Pastoral Rock Art and Pastoralists 14: 4040:Ascenzi, Antonio (January 1998). 3894:Journal of World-Systems Research 3655:. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 3456:Aïn-Séba, Nagète (June 3, 2022). 3267:Pereira, Filipe (December 2009). 3160:The African Archaeological Review 2801:Barich, Barbara (December 2018). 2768:Hanott, Olivier (December 2019). 2232:Guagnin, Maria (September 2014). 495:, and Pastoral periods possessed 470:Dancing figures and animal figure 403:(e.g., thin lips, pointed nose). 240:Amid the Middle Pastoral Period, 4042:"The Uan Muhuggiag Infant Mummy" 2448:"The Mystery of the Black Mummy" 1688:Garcea, Elena A.A. (July 2019). 1452:Guagnin, Maria (February 2015). 1143:significance for the peoples of 4317:Keita, Shomarka (Jan 1, 2010). 4003:10.1016/J.QUASCIREV.2014.07.004 3273:Molecular Biology and Evolution 2602:Addou, Rachida (Jan 29, 2019). 2020:Di Lernia, Savino (June 2013). 1269:In 5000 BP, the development of 511:affinities, the other a robust 4167:Journal of History of Medicine 3888:Kea, Ray (November 26, 2004). 3536:Journal of African Archaeology 3114:10.31338/uw.2083-537X.pam31.13 2305:Journal of African Archaeology 2131:Di Lernia, Savino (Mar 2017). 1618:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2016.12.011 1478:10.1179/1749631414Y.0000000026 1363:Journal of African Archaeology 1255:inspection. The two naturally 477:artificial cranial deformation 1: 3341:African Archaeological Review 2577:Abdulhamid, Louai A. (2015). 2238:African Archaeological Review 3954:10.1007/978-1-4615-1193-9_19 3529:Brass, Michael (June 2019). 3477:10.25145/j.tabona.2022.22.15 3416:10.1016/J.QUAINT.2013.08.030 2244:(3): 408–409, 411, 413–414. 2038:10.1080/0067270X.2013.788867 2032:(2): 176, 179–181, 183–186. 1869:10.1371/journal.pone.0056879 1763:10.1371/journal.pone.0191765 1598:Journal of Arid Environments 1232:child mummy of Uan Muhuggiag 1024:funerary sites developed in 949:child mummy of Uan Muhuggiag 373:child mummy of Uan Muhuggiag 4122:10.1108/jchmsd-06-2019-0066 3942:"Saharo-Sudanese Neolithic" 3807:. Oxbow Books. p. 30. 621:, into the Central Sahara. 4397: 4242:10.1038/s41598-019-39802-1 3983:Quaternary Science Reviews 3597:Droughts, Food and Culture 2096:Di Lernia, Savino (2012). 786:In the late period of the 717:sequences of whole genomes 528:, who may have resided in 4325:. Brill. pp. 57–72. 4289:Muscat, Iona (May 2012). 3653:"The Fulani/Fulbe People" 3549:10.1163/21915784-20190003 3353:10.1007/S10437-013-9129-0 2898:Hanotte, Olivier (2002). 2547:Soukopova, Jitka (2020). 2250:10.1007/S10437-014-9161-8 1962:10.1016/J.JAA.2012.07.002 1592:Soukopova, Jitka (2017). 1458:Environmental Archaeology 1369:(2): 162, 167, 169, 173. 1197:Middle Pastoral peoples. 1096:migrated into regions of 1000:guardian of the dead and 985:decorated Saharan pottery 556:European agriculturalists 485:Uan Muhuggiag child mummy 3396:Quaternary International 2503:Davidson, Basil (1991). 2376:10.1007/0-306-47547-2_14 1028:(6450 BP/5400 cal BCE), 820:physical anthropological 507:-African type with some 4371:History of North Africa 4295:. University of Malta. 3743:Trabajos de Prehistoria 3683:Achrati, Ahmed (2008). 3605:10.1007/0-306-47547-2_2 3116:(inactive 2024-09-19). 2999:10.1073/pnas.93.10.5131 2972:MacHugh, David (1996). 2924:10.1126/science.1069878 2318:10.3213/2191-5784-10258 1537:Life and death at Fewet 1375:10.3213/2191-5784-10198 1154:Human and bovid figures 959:burial relating to the 931:) was mummified (e.g., 320:Origins of Pastoralists 3940:Smith, Andrew (2001). 3591:Hassan, F. A. (2002). 2861:10.1006/jaar.1998.0318 1288: 1192:Middle Pastoral Period 1155: 927:skull and remnants of 903:). Later, in 7000 BP, 855: 471: 282:Middle Pastoral Period 244:and cattle grazing at 213: 24: 4376:History of the Sahara 3907:10.5195/JWSR.2004.286 3756:10.3989/TP.2016.12170 3286:10.1093/molbev/msp200 1322:Final Pastoral Period 1286: 1243:, is 4225 ± 190 BCE. 1159:Early Pastoral Period 1153: 853: 644:, a wild ancestor of 469: 312:Final Pastoral Period 269:Early Pastoral Period 211: 161:undergoing increased 104:Takarkori rockshelter 22: 3813:10.2307/j.ctv13pk6wz 3234:Current Anthropology 1292:Late Pastoral Period 291:Late Pastoral Period 226:domesticated animals 148:Compared to painted 4234:2019NatSR...9.3530V 3995:2014QSRv..101...36C 3408:2014QuInt.320...43C 2990:1996PNAS...93.5131B 2916:2002Sci...296..336H 2717:(3): 423–424, 436. 1860:2013PLoSO...856879D 1754:2018PLoSO..1391765G 1610:2017JArEn.143...10S 1470:2015EnvAr..20...52G 921:Sub-Saharan African 660:) remains found at 538:lactase persistence 388:Sub-Saharan African 230:domesticated cattle 150:Round Head rock art 4361:Prehistoric Africa 4222:Scientific Reports 3172:10.1007/BF01117218 2723:10.1002/ajpa.24116 1309:, Tadrart Acacus, 1289: 1156: 1098:Sub-Saharan Africa 1018:cultural diffusion 858:In 10,000 BP, the 856: 847:, and the Sahara. 472: 340:rain system, from 222:terminus post quem 214: 189:Pastoral Neolithic 25: 3963:978-0-306-46255-9 3689:Rock Art Research 3279:(12): 2765–2773. 2910:(5566): 338–339. 2843:Holl, A. (1998). 2555:: 58–60, 62, 66. 2157:978-0-19-060735-7 1092:) of the Central 1058:Predynastic Egypt 953:ostrich eggshells 865:rain system from 781:religious symbols 325:Pastoral Rock Art 145:, superimposed). 60:Round Head Period 42:styles depicting 4388: 4381:Saharan rock art 4366:Stone Age Africa 4345: 4344: 4314: 4305: 4304: 4286: 4280: 4279: 4261: 4213: 4207: 4206: 4158: 4152: 4151: 4133: 4105: 4099: 4098: 4096: 4087: 4076: 4075: 4037: 4031: 4030: 3974: 3968: 3967: 3937: 3928: 3927: 3909: 3885: 3879: 3878: 3860: 3849: 3843: 3842: 3796: 3785: 3784: 3758: 3734: 3721: 3720: 3680: 3671: 3670: 3664: 3656: 3648: 3635: 3634: 3588: 3569: 3568: 3543:(1): 16–20, 24. 3526: 3497: 3496: 3462: 3453: 3444: 3443: 3387: 3381: 3380: 3332: 3323: 3322: 3288: 3264: 3258: 3257: 3225: 3200: 3199: 3151: 3140: 3139: 3133: 3125: 3099: 3090: 3084: 3083: 3063: 3052: 3046: 3045: 3027: 3001: 2969: 2960: 2959: 2895: 2889: 2888: 2840: 2829: 2828: 2798: 2789: 2788: 2774: 2765: 2759: 2758: 2708: 2699: 2682: 2681: 2651: 2638: 2637: 2599: 2593: 2592: 2574: 2565: 2564: 2544: 2527: 2526: 2500: 2494: 2493: 2466: 2460: 2459: 2443: 2406: 2405: 2359: 2346: 2345: 2295: 2278: 2277: 2229: 2212: 2211: 2181: 2170: 2169: 2137: 2128: 2117: 2116: 2102: 2093: 2074: 2073: 2017: 1998: 1997: 1941: 1916: 1915: 1897: 1871: 1839: 1802: 1801: 1791: 1765: 1733: 1724: 1723: 1685: 1646: 1645: 1589: 1576: 1575: 1531: 1506: 1505: 1449: 1434: 1433: 1427: 1418: 1403: 1402: 1354: 1305:, Erg Van Kasa, 1303:Edeyen of Murzuq 1207:cattle sacrifice 947:methods. As the 897:Acacus Mountains 889:hunter-gatherers 843:in West Africa, 679:The managing of 666:Northeast Africa 607:Northeast Africa 530:Northeast Africa 526:agriculturalists 436:hunter-gatherers 276:Edeyen of Murzug 92:cattle sacrifice 56:animal husbandry 32:Saharan rock art 4396: 4395: 4391: 4390: 4389: 4387: 4386: 4385: 4351: 4350: 4349: 4348: 4333: 4316: 4315: 4308: 4288: 4287: 4283: 4215: 4214: 4210: 4160: 4159: 4155: 4107: 4106: 4102: 4094: 4089: 4088: 4079: 4056: 4039: 4038: 4034: 3976: 3975: 3971: 3964: 3939: 3938: 3931: 3887: 3886: 3882: 3858: 3851: 3850: 3846: 3823: 3798: 3797: 3788: 3736: 3735: 3724: 3682: 3681: 3674: 3657: 3650: 3649: 3638: 3615: 3590: 3589: 3572: 3528: 3527: 3500: 3460: 3455: 3454: 3447: 3389: 3388: 3384: 3334: 3333: 3326: 3266: 3265: 3261: 3227: 3226: 3203: 3153: 3152: 3143: 3126: 3097: 3092: 3091: 3087: 3072: 3061: 3054: 3053: 3049: 2971: 2970: 2963: 2897: 2896: 2892: 2842: 2841: 2832: 2817: 2800: 2799: 2792: 2772: 2767: 2766: 2762: 2706: 2701: 2700: 2685: 2670: 2653: 2652: 2641: 2618: 2601: 2600: 2596: 2576: 2575: 2568: 2546: 2545: 2530: 2515: 2502: 2501: 2497: 2482: 2468: 2467: 2463: 2445: 2444: 2409: 2386: 2361: 2360: 2349: 2297: 2296: 2281: 2231: 2230: 2215: 2200: 2183: 2182: 2173: 2158: 2135: 2130: 2129: 2120: 2100: 2095: 2094: 2077: 2019: 2018: 2001: 1943: 1942: 1919: 1841: 1840: 1805: 1748:(1): e0191765. 1735: 1734: 1727: 1704: 1687: 1686: 1649: 1591: 1590: 1579: 1556: 1533: 1532: 1509: 1451: 1450: 1437: 1425: 1420: 1419: 1406: 1356: 1355: 1346: 1341: 1324: 1294: 1194: 1161: 1121:Tassili n'Ajjer 1034:cattle religion 1010:demic diffusion 969:Wadi Mathendous 841:state formation 802:, peoples with 773: 749:Sinai Peninsula 733: 725: 697:Bos primigenius 646:domestic cattle 631: 590: 585: 580: 570:in the Central 417: 327: 322: 314: 293: 284: 271: 266: 258:Desertification 212:Dancing figures 171: 137:, Round Heads, 124: 122:Classifications 17: 12: 11: 5: 4394: 4392: 4384: 4383: 4378: 4373: 4368: 4363: 4353: 4352: 4347: 4346: 4331: 4306: 4281: 4208: 4153: 4100: 4077: 4054: 4032: 3969: 3962: 3929: 3900:(3): 737–738. 3880: 3844: 3821: 3786: 3749:(2): 222–225. 3722: 3672: 3636: 3613: 3570: 3498: 3445: 3382: 3324: 3259: 3246:10.1086/658389 3201: 3141: 3085: 3070: 3047: 2961: 2890: 2830: 2815: 2790: 2760: 2683: 2668: 2639: 2616: 2594: 2566: 2528: 2513: 2495: 2480: 2461: 2450:. Sky Vision. 2407: 2384: 2347: 2312:(2): 174–176. 2279: 2213: 2198: 2171: 2156: 2118: 2075: 1999: 1917: 1803: 1725: 1702: 1647: 1577: 1554: 1546:10.1400/220016 1507: 1464:(1): 1–2, 12. 1435: 1404: 1343: 1342: 1340: 1337: 1323: 1320: 1311:Wadi Tanezzuft 1307:Mesak Settafet 1293: 1290: 1259:women carried 1193: 1190: 1160: 1157: 1004:of embalming, 965:Mesak Settafet 895:rock shelter, 870:western Africa 772: 769: 732: 729: 724: 721: 689:Western Desert 630: 627: 589: 586: 584: 581: 579: 576: 489:Epipaleolithic 416: 413: 345:western Africa 326: 323: 321: 318: 313: 310: 298:Chenopodiaceae 292: 289: 283: 280: 270: 267: 265: 262: 178:Circular logic 170: 167: 123: 120: 118:civilization. 68:Tadrart Acacus 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4393: 4382: 4379: 4377: 4374: 4372: 4369: 4367: 4364: 4362: 4359: 4358: 4356: 4342: 4338: 4334: 4332:9789004186453 4328: 4324: 4320: 4313: 4311: 4307: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4293: 4285: 4282: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4260: 4255: 4251: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4212: 4209: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4173:(2): 575–88. 4172: 4168: 4164: 4157: 4154: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4132: 4131:11568/1033540 4127: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4104: 4101: 4093: 4086: 4084: 4082: 4078: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4055:9780521580601 4051: 4047: 4043: 4036: 4033: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3973: 3970: 3965: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3936: 3934: 3930: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3908: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3884: 3881: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3857: 3856: 3848: 3845: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3824: 3822:9781789254914 3818: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3795: 3793: 3791: 3787: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3757: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3733: 3731: 3729: 3727: 3723: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3679: 3677: 3673: 3668: 3662: 3654: 3647: 3645: 3643: 3641: 3637: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3614:0-306-46755-0 3610: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3587: 3585: 3583: 3581: 3579: 3577: 3575: 3571: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3537: 3532: 3525: 3523: 3521: 3519: 3517: 3515: 3513: 3511: 3509: 3507: 3505: 3503: 3499: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3459: 3452: 3450: 3446: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3386: 3383: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3331: 3329: 3325: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3287: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3263: 3260: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3224: 3222: 3220: 3218: 3216: 3214: 3212: 3210: 3208: 3206: 3202: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3150: 3148: 3146: 3142: 3137: 3131: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3096: 3089: 3086: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3071:9788395336256 3067: 3060: 3059: 3051: 3048: 3043: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3026: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3000: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2968: 2966: 2962: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2894: 2891: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2839: 2837: 2835: 2831: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2816:9780199675616 2812: 2808: 2804: 2797: 2795: 2791: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2771: 2764: 2761: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2712: 2705: 2698: 2696: 2694: 2692: 2690: 2688: 2684: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2669:9781443845793 2665: 2661: 2657: 2650: 2648: 2646: 2644: 2640: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2617:9780960012701 2613: 2609: 2605: 2598: 2595: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2581: 2573: 2571: 2567: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2543: 2541: 2539: 2537: 2535: 2533: 2529: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2510: 2506: 2499: 2496: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2477: 2473: 2472: 2465: 2462: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2442: 2440: 2438: 2436: 2434: 2432: 2430: 2428: 2426: 2424: 2422: 2420: 2418: 2416: 2414: 2412: 2408: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2385:0-306-47547-2 2381: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2358: 2356: 2354: 2352: 2348: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2306: 2301: 2294: 2292: 2290: 2288: 2286: 2284: 2280: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2228: 2226: 2224: 2222: 2220: 2218: 2214: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2199:9789075652512 2195: 2191: 2187: 2180: 2178: 2176: 2172: 2167: 2163: 2159: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2134: 2127: 2125: 2123: 2119: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2099: 2092: 2090: 2088: 2086: 2084: 2082: 2080: 2076: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2016: 2014: 2012: 2010: 2008: 2006: 2004: 2000: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1956:: 3–5, 8–14. 1955: 1951: 1947: 1940: 1938: 1936: 1934: 1932: 1930: 1928: 1926: 1924: 1922: 1918: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1896: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1870: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1854:(2): e56879. 1853: 1849: 1845: 1838: 1836: 1834: 1832: 1830: 1828: 1826: 1824: 1822: 1820: 1818: 1816: 1814: 1812: 1810: 1808: 1804: 1799: 1795: 1790: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1764: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1732: 1730: 1726: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1703:9788878141841 1699: 1695: 1691: 1684: 1682: 1680: 1678: 1676: 1674: 1672: 1670: 1668: 1666: 1664: 1662: 1660: 1658: 1656: 1654: 1652: 1648: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1588: 1586: 1584: 1582: 1578: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1555:9788878145948 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1538: 1530: 1528: 1526: 1524: 1522: 1520: 1518: 1516: 1514: 1512: 1508: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1448: 1446: 1444: 1442: 1440: 1436: 1432:: 30, 33, 35. 1431: 1424: 1417: 1415: 1413: 1411: 1409: 1405: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1353: 1351: 1349: 1345: 1338: 1336: 1334: 1330: 1321: 1319: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1291: 1285: 1281: 1279: 1275: 1272: 1267: 1265: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1244: 1242: 1238: 1233: 1228: 1225: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1198: 1191: 1189: 1187: 1181: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1158: 1152: 1148: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1109:Mande peoples 1105: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1086:aridification 1082: 1078: 1073: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1054:ancient Egypt 1051: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1021: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 994:ancient Egypt 990: 986: 982: 978: 974: 970: 966: 962: 958: 954: 950: 946: 945:mummification 942: 938: 934: 930: 926: 922: 918: 914: 910: 906: 902: 898: 894: 893:Uan Muhuggiag 890: 887: 886:black African 883: 879: 875: 871: 868: 864: 861: 852: 848: 846: 842: 837: 833: 832:Proto-Berbers 829: 825: 821: 817: 813: 812:Mediterranean 809: 805: 801: 797: 793: 789: 784: 782: 778: 770: 768: 766: 762: 758: 754: 750: 746: 745:Red Sea Hills 742: 738: 730: 728: 722: 720: 718: 714: 708: 706: 700: 698: 694: 690: 686: 682: 681:Barbary sheep 677: 674: 669: 667: 663: 659: 655: 651: 647: 643: 639: 634: 628: 626: 622: 620: 616: 612: 608: 603: 599: 594: 587: 582: 577: 575: 573: 569: 565: 561: 557: 553: 550: 549:North African 546: 543: 539: 535: 531: 527: 524: 520: 518: 514: 510: 509:Mediterranean 506: 502: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 478: 468: 464: 460: 458: 454: 450: 446: 441: 437: 433: 429: 424: 422: 414: 412: 409: 404: 402: 398: 392: 389: 385: 384:Mediterranean 380: 378: 374: 370: 366: 362: 358: 354: 353:Uan Muhuggiag 350: 346: 343: 339: 336: 332: 331:black African 324: 319: 317: 311: 309: 307: 306:psammophilous 303: 299: 290: 288: 281: 279: 277: 268: 263: 261: 259: 253: 251: 247: 243: 242:dairy farming 238: 234: 231: 227: 223: 218: 210: 206: 203: 198: 193: 190: 185: 183: 179: 175: 168: 166: 164: 160: 155: 151: 146: 144: 140: 136: 132: 128: 121: 119: 117: 113: 107: 105: 99: 97: 93: 89: 83: 81: 80:Uan Muhuggiag 77: 73: 69: 65: 61: 57: 54:in scenes of 53: 49: 45: 41: 37: 34:, created in 33: 29: 21: 4322: 4291: 4284: 4225: 4221: 4211: 4170: 4166: 4156: 4113: 4103: 4045: 4035: 3986: 3982: 3972: 3945: 3897: 3893: 3883: 3854: 3847: 3804: 3746: 3742: 3692: 3688: 3596: 3540: 3534: 3468: 3464: 3399: 3395: 3385: 3344: 3340: 3276: 3272: 3262: 3237: 3233: 3166:: 119, 139. 3163: 3159: 3130:cite journal 3105: 3101: 3088: 3057: 3050: 2984:(10): 5135. 2981: 2977: 2907: 2903: 2893: 2855:(2): 81–83. 2852: 2848: 2806: 2803:"The Sahara" 2776: 2763: 2714: 2710: 2659: 2607: 2597: 2579: 2552: 2504: 2498: 2470: 2464: 2367: 2309: 2303: 2241: 2237: 2189: 2139: 2104: 2046:11573/514585 2029: 2025: 1970:11573/491908 1953: 1949: 1851: 1847: 1745: 1741: 1693: 1601: 1597: 1536: 1461: 1457: 1429: 1366: 1362: 1329:transhumance 1325: 1295: 1278:architecture 1268: 1264:haplogroup N 1253:histological 1245: 1229: 1199: 1195: 1182: 1162: 1145:Dhar Tichitt 1113:civilization 1106: 1074: 1022: 1020:in 6000 BP. 998:mythological 905:pastoralists 857: 854:Oxen figures 810:, and Proto- 800:North Africa 785: 774: 734: 726: 709: 701: 693:domesticated 678: 673:Sanga cattle 670: 635: 632: 623: 595: 591: 547:Fulani, the 545:West African 521: 517:Black people 501:osteological 473: 461: 440:pastoralists 425: 418: 415:Pastoralists 405: 393: 381: 369:white people 328: 315: 294: 285: 272: 254: 250:transhumance 239: 235: 219: 215: 194: 186: 176: 172: 159:Green Sahara 147: 125: 112:transhumance 108: 100: 84: 64:Domesticated 44:pastoralists 27: 26: 4228:(1): 3530. 3471:(22): 312. 1333:Garamantian 1141:ritualistic 1026:Nabta Playa 1014:Nile Valley 937:eviscerated 867:Sub-Saharan 824:Nabta Playa 796:West Africa 788:Pleistocene 767:(3700 BP). 765:West Africa 685:Nabta Playa 602:Bir Kiseiba 598:Nabta Playa 564:pastoralism 542:Sub-Saharan 365:Mesopotamia 342:Sub-Saharan 163:desiccation 116:Garamantian 4355:Categories 4250:8016433183 4187:6006456486 4140:8547102666 4019:5903241925 3989:: 40, 56. 3831:1236250756 3773:7179753558 3709:7128530168 3557:8197260980 3432:5146151649 3369:5659261365 3188:5547025047 3080:1374884636 2940:5553773601 2739:8674413468 2626:1085173896 2553:Expression 2523:1341240341 2514:0684826674 2481:0520066960 2334:6876608321 2266:5690447542 2062:5136086464 1986:5902856678 1780:7315414106 1634:7044514678 1494:8659976399 1391:7787754660 1339:References 1271:megalithic 1100:, such as 1030:Adrar Bous 981:sacrificed 957:ceremonial 913:mixed race 828:Adrar Bous 777:Wild Fauna 761:Nile River 741:Nile Delta 619:Wadi Howar 493:Mesolithic 455:region of 447:region of 377:mixed race 351:region of 302:Compositae 169:Chronology 50:-wielding 4341:457129864 4301:133240608 4179:0394-9001 4148:210638746 4072:160070228 4027:129380392 4011:0277-3791 3924:147397386 3916:1076-156X 3875:130112115 3867:500051500 3839:244880238 3765:0082-5638 3717:128003222 3701:0813-0426 3631:126608903 3565:198759644 3493:249349324 3485:2530-8327 3440:128897709 3424:1040-6182 3377:162199977 3361:0263-0338 3303:466762292 3295:0737-4038 3196:162307756 3180:0263-0338 3122:1234-5415 3108:: 55–56. 3016:117495312 3008:0027-8424 2932:0036-8075 2885:144518526 2877:361174899 2869:0278-4165 2825:944462988 2785:226832881 2755:221179656 2731:0002-9483 2678:826685273 2634:159071329 2589:131359526 2561:2499-1341 2456:911956810 2402:128088259 2342:161435510 2326:1612-1651 2274:128480258 2258:0263-0338 2208:840887024 2166:134533475 2113:211732682 2107:: 34–35. 2105:Adoranten 2070:162877973 2054:0067-270X 1994:144968825 1978:0278-4165 1886:828565064 1878:1932-6203 1772:1932-6203 1720:133766878 1642:132225521 1626:0140-1963 1604:: 10–12. 1572:159219731 1564:881264296 1502:128628375 1486:1461-4103 1430:Adoranten 1399:162084812 1383:1612-1651 1315:ovicaprid 1274:monuments 1257:mummified 1249:mummified 1224:slaughter 1178:potsherds 1170:Digitaria 1056:. 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