Round Head Period - Knowledge (XXG)

348: 1121:) in the Algerian Tadrart and Tassili as well as the Libyan Acacus regions of the Sahara. The region was initially peopled by gatherers and hunters in 10,000 BP, and then, peopled by cattle herders in 7500 BP, which gave rise to pastoralism in the region. The cattle and sheep pastoralists, who once occupied higher elevated areas (e.g., mountainous refugia) in 7500 BP, due to increased desertification, likely migrated into lower elevated areas (e.g., near lakes) for part-time settlement prior to 5000 BP. Pastoralists after 5000 BP occupied higher and lower elevated areas on a seasonal basis and possessed often-used lithic grinding tools, ceramics (plain in detail), and, with heightened use, distantly located resources. 667:). Though uncommon, ceramics and lithic complexes were also used. Hunters of the Epipaleolithic especially hunted Barbary sheep, among other animals, as well as used ceramics and basic lithic constructs between 10,000 BP to 8800 BP. Hunters of the Epipaleolithic, who possessed a sophisticated social organization, as well as exceptional stone tools and ceramics, created the Round Head rock art. Amid an early period of the Holocene, semi-settled Epipaleolithic and Mesolithic hunters, who created a refined material culture (e.g., stone tools, decorated pottery) as early as 10,000 BP, also created the engraved Kel Essuf and painted Round Head rock art styles located in the region (e.g., some in the 1058:) and hairstyles (e.g., chignons). 2% of the overall human artforms (i.e., six) have hands and fingers, and some may have had closed fists. The human artforms were generally portrayed as figures with thickly muscled arms and legs. Human artforms consisted of both men and women, though women numbered up to nine in total (4% of overall human artforms). Some aspects of the rock art, though increasingly rare, may have portrayed a mother and her children. There may have also been portrayal of two supernatural individuals. 441:

holder images, 77 horned images, and 34 bow bearer images that have been recognized. In the Tassili region, there are at least 55 arm band wearing images, 43 images with traits similar to form to a "T", 22 connected and 20 disconnected forms shaped like a "half-moon", and 7 "Great God" images. The Round Head rock art of Tassili n’Ajjer are located in urban-like lithic complexes (e.g., rock shelters, rock arches, rock canyons). The final period of the Round Head rock art portrayals have been characterized as

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Lake Chad and the Niger Delta. While some migrated south of the Sahara, other Central Saharan hunter-gatherers may have taken on the custom of pastoralism (e.g., herding domesticated cattle and goats). Given the opportunity to become socially distinguished, to develop food surplus, as well as to acquire and aggregate wealth, this led to the adoption of a domestic cattle pastoral economy by some Central Saharan hunter-gatherers. In exchange, cultural information regarding use of vegetation (e.g.,

1070:, bears the meaning of a person who is alive in contrast to a person is dead, and in African dance, is usually the starting stance that bears the meaning of unlimited expressive possibility. Among asymmetric-armed human artforms, one man is depicted with an extended arm and clenched fist, and another arm drawn back for a subsequent strike. There is also the depicted situation of what may be an adult protecting two children (or two human artforms depicted smaller for unclear an unclear purpose). 529: 371: 739: 22: 936:

of the stick to denote peace and wisdom; afterward, men who have been initiated receive the reserved hunting emblem of the bow. Traditional Sub-Saharan African cultures regularly use horn emblems in reference to their focus on improved reproductive capability and development. Comparatively, Round Head rock art may have been created, in specially chosen rockshelters, by initiating individuals who were undergoing ceremonial rites. As with the Nigerien

284:, the most contentious among academic debates has remained the topic of chronology. Round Head, Kel Essuf, and Bubaline rock art, as the oldest chronological types, have been regarded as less certain compared to the younger chronological types (e.g., rock art depicting Saharan animals, which could be chronologically approximated to a specific timespan). Consequently, two types of chronologies (i.e., high chronology, low chronology) were developed. 383:

superimposed state of Round Head rock art upon Kel Essuf rock art is viewed as showing that Kel Essuf rock art chronologically precedes Round Head rock art and is also perceived as a pattern of development, from simpler detailed Kel Essuf engravings to more complexly detailed (e.g., fingers) Round Head paintings. Mori (1967) has found continued support by Hallier & Hallier (1999) and Streidter et al. (2002 – 2003).

237:) in Africa underwent mass extinction; consequently, the engraved stone portrayals of these macroscopic, undomesticated buffalos in unenclosed rock art zones resulted in them being identified as Bubaline. In contrast, located in enclosed rock art zones, there are engraved Kel Essuf ("spirit of dead" in the Tuareg language) art, which portray short-armed, little human artforms with legs and penile appendages. 415:) of Niger and Algeria. The Round Head rock artists may have originated in this core area, and may have had a cultural practice of association, via long distance, among other Round Head rock artists. The emergence and expansion of ceramics in the Sahara may be linked with the origin of both the Round Head and Kel Essuf rock art, which occupy rockshelters in the same regions (e.g., 969: 984:, also appear in Round Head rock art. In the Round Head rock art of Tassili, mighty deities are portrayed centrally on rockshelter walls. Comparatively, throughout Sub-Saharan African cultures, rocks and caves are regularly viewed as being inhabited by spirits and awe-inspiring mountains of high elevation regularly viewed as being habitations of the 403:

Bous, Air) of Niger. These areas are viewed as archaeologically similar (e.g., pottery). Undomesticated flora and animals were used in Epipaleolithic and Mesolithic hunter-gatherer cultures between 10,000 BP and 8000 BP as well as 8800 BP and 7400 BP. Based on the dates acquired for the ceramics in the northern Sahara (8th millennium BP),

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horns atop the heads of the Kel Essuf forms that are like the Round Head forms in configuration (e.g., shape, position). Due to the absence of these likenesses in Pastoral rock artforms, these likenesses may be concluded as cultural particularities unique to the hunter-gatherers who created the Kel Essuf and Round Head rock artforms.

260:, spiritual animal forms), in painted Round Head rock art. Painted Round Head rock art and engraved Kel Essuf rock art usually share the same region and occasionally the same rockshelters in contrast to engraved Bubaline rock art, which rarely appear in rock art zones where painted Round Head rock art is portrayed predominantly. 445:(e.g., dominant mandible, big lips, rounded nose). A distinct portrayal of a single, domesticated cow created in the Round Head rock art style may serve as evidence for some of the hunter-gatherers, who created the Round Head rock art, adopting the culture of cattle pastoralism from incoming cattle pastoralists. 789:), along with methods (e.g., abrasion, scraping) to form the bone tools. The process occurred locally and the type of lithic implements used in the process of forming the bone tools may have also been used to grind ochre and process flora. Bone tool decorations may reflect a style and design that derive from 71:, spiritual animal forms), in painted Round Head rock art. Painted Round Head rock art and engraved Kel Essuf rock art usually share the same region and occasionally the same rockshelters. The Round Head rock art of Tassili and the surrounding mountainous areas bear considerable similarity with traditional 898:. As one of the primary aspects of Sub-Saharan African cultures are their conservative values, despite change in the material economy, mainstay values remain (e.g., women's role to bear and rear children, men's participation in ceremony to facilitate the positive passing of time). The creators of the 1089:." There is also a situation depicting African dance and likely involving a person of elite stature. The most notable of situations for bent-on-knees human artforms is one portraying two dancing individuals, with white-colored halos around their heads, which may denote the attainment of a particular 935:

A vital aspect for young male and female initiates of Sub-Saharan African ceremonies to partake in is body painting. Body painting symbolisms are regularly used for the purpose of petitioning spirits for improved reproductive capability and security. Young male initiates receive the spiritual emblem

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used for the purpose of dwelling or ritual are absent from the Central Sahara amid the early period of the Holocene, Round Head rock art may be viewed as monumental Central Saharan rock art amid the early period of the Holocene. The possibility of there being some hunter-gatherers who did not create

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While the Round Head rock art is found in less abundance in the mountainous regions (e.g., Tadrart, Acacus) of Algeria and Libya, it is found in greatest abundance in the plateau area of Tassili. The precursors for Round Head rock art may have originated in the mountainous northern area (e.g., Adrar

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are a regular theme in both Round Head rock art and modern African cultures. A limited group of men (e.g., male relatives of the dead and their ancestors, male ritual initiates) are permitted to make physical contact with secret masks. The repeated painting over of Round Head rock art in Tassili is

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In the Tadrart Acacus region of Libya, hunter-gatherers may have begun to dwell starting between 10,721 cal BP and 10,400 cal BP. Hunter-gatherers dwelled in various locations at Tin Torha (e.g., Torha East, Torha North, Two Caves). At Torha East, hunter-gatherers used bones, lustrous lithic items,

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does not give prominence to humans, Round Head rock art does give prominence to humans; the difference in human prominence depicted by Bubaline rock artists and Round Head rock artists, as indicative of increasing awareness of the importance and agency of humans, may be viewed as a representational

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Credence to the high chronology is given via decoratively detailed Saharan ceramics dated to 10,726 BP. A spatula and lithic grinding tools with ocher remnants on them, which serves as evidence of painting, were found in an Acacus rockshelter with Round Head rock art. Paint from Round Head rock art

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As cattle pastoralism had endured in the Sahara since 7500 BP, Central Saharan hunters and herders may have lived together in a common area for a long period of time. Desertification may have resulted in migrations from the Central Saharan region, where the Round Head paintings are located, toward

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With the exception of the depicted artform of a giraffe, depicted artforms of undomesticated animals, animals that were favored for hunting, and hunting situations, are absent from the Round Head rock art at Jebel Uweinat. Rather, Round Head rock art at Jebel Uweinat is primarily composed of human

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hunter-gatherers hunted different kinds of animals and used numerous grinding and flaking stone technologies and ceramics for the purpose of improving the overall number of undomesticated vegetation gathered. Among hunter-gatherers of the Mesolithic, there was use of ceramics, due to the increased

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Round Head rock art is the earliest painted rock art in the Central Sahara. Round Head rock art number up to several thousand depictions in the Central Sahara. In the region (e.g., Tassili, Tadrart) of Algeria and region (e.g., Acacus) of Libya, there are at least 149 painted body images, 85 stick

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Comparative analysis of the rock art from Tassili n’Ajjer and Djado resulted in the conclusion that the Round Head rock art of Djado was the precursor to the Round Head rock art of Tassili n’Ajjer. With the enneris of the mountainous area of Djado as its origin, the creators of the Round Head rock

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existed. Between 16th to 15th millennium BP, the environment was humid. From 20,000 BP to 13,000 BP, there was a varied climate system. The high elevated regions with mountains were considerably more wet than low elevated regions without mountains, which led to the variation in climate. Regions of

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A cultural particularity unique to the Kel Essuf rock art, in contrast to the Round Head rock art, are penile forms; these penile forms, or additional appendages, may be indicative of maleness, and may be absent from the Round Head rock art due to taboo. Aside this absence, both the Kel Essuf and

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The striking likenesses between the Kel Essuf and Round Head rock artforms, along with likeness in shape, include the following notable traits: forms shaped like a “half-moon” connected to the shoulder(s), engraved forms shaped like a “half-moon” near “figures”, forms bearing bows and sticks, and

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While the Kel Essuf rock art and Bubaline rock art have not been found layered above one another, in addition to the Kel Essuf rock art being found within a dark hued patina, it has been found layered beneath Round Head rock art. Due to the layering and the artistic commonalities between the Kel

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There are considerable affinities between Sub-Saharan Africans and Round Head rock art in the performative roles of women. For example, in many traditional Sub-Saharan African cultures, men are usually the primary ceremonial leaders and women are usually performing secondary, but, nevertheless,

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Mori (1967) first hypothesized that Round Head rock art evolved from Kel Essuf rock art in the Acacus region; this hypothesized evolution of one rock art type into another receives support due to Round Head rock art having been superimposed upon Kel Essuf rock art in the Tadrart of Algeria. The

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The "pecked Djado-Roundheads", or Kel Essuf rock art, in the Djado mountains of northern Niger are viewed as having great likeness with the Round Head rock art in the region (e.g., Tadrart, Tassili) of Algeria and to some rock art in the region (e.g., Acacus) of Libya; hence, this is viewed as

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Compared to painted Round Head rock art, in addition to its art production method, depictions of domesticated cattle are what makes engraved/painted Pastoral rock art distinct; these distinct depictions in the Central Sahara serve as evidence for different populations entering the region. The

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and basic lithic constructs between 10,000 BP to 8800 BP. Hunters of the Epipaleolithic, who possessed a sophisticated social organization, as well as exceptional stone tools and ceramics, created the Round Head rock art. Amid an early period of the Holocene, semi-settled Epipaleolithic and

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Out of the 146 various ways that human artforms were portrayed, 35% were symmetric-armed and standing, 16% were asymmetric-armed and standing, 16% were bent-on-knees, 11% had one leg free, 11% were running and walking, 10% were kneeling and sitting, and 1% were jumping or tiptoeing.

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engaging in what may have been choreographed African dance movements. Among human artforms (e.g., jumping or tiptoeing, running/walking), there are individuals with chignons. Among kneeling and sitting human artforms, there are more individuals portrayed sitting than kneeling.

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Traditional Sub-Saharan African cultures bear notable likeness with Round Head rock art. For example, men predominantly partake in the primary ceremonies of traditional Sub-Saharan African cultures, while women may neither obtain in-depth sacred understanding (e.g.,

921:) nor partake in many of the ceremonies. Sub-Saharan African ceremonies being predominantly acted out by men and spiritual knowledge being reserved for men who have been ritually initiated culturally corresponds with 95% of Round Head rock art depictions being men. 991:

The considerable commonalities, absent in modern North African cultures, are present and able to be found between Round Head paintings and modern Sub-Saharan African cultures. Saharan ceramics are viewed as having clear likeness with the oldest ceramics found in

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who resided in the Tassili region long ago. The dark skin complexion of the hunters who created the Round Head rock art was verified via the testing of skin samples taken from human remains located in the Acacus region of Libya and the Tassili region of Algeria.

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marks that differ; linear design patterns are exclusive to male art forms, whereas, crescent-shaped and concentric circular design patterns are exclusive to female art forms. Between the 5th millennium BCE and the 4th millennium BCE, the Central

583:, there was a child mummy (5405 ± 180 BP) and an adult (7823 ± 95 BP/7550 ± 120 BP). In the Tassili n'Ajjer region, at Tin Hanakaten rockshelter, there was a child (7900 ± 120 BP/8771 ± 168 cal BP), with cranial deformations due to disease or 1035:) and arrows composing 9% of the overall rock art. Some parts (e.g., arms) of the polychrome-colored human artforms, which may have had body embellishments, were red-colored and other parts (e.g., loincloths, accessories, some hairstyles, 964:

are an example of ceremonies where women are the primary actors. Comparatively, ceremonial depictions in Round Head rock art (e.g., at Tan Zoumaitak) portray female human artforms bearing sticks and rounded forms connected to their arms.

1011:, which spanned from 3rd century BCE to 13th century CE. The masks found in Round Head paintings bear close resemblance with masks found in modern Sub-Saharan African cultures. Among other parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, but especially in 940:, who wore large middle finger rings to provide security against forces that can harm and malevolent spirits, the bands, worn by 90% of male Round Head rock artforms, may have been worn to provide a similar kind of spiritual security. 347: 1065:

Among symmetric-armed human artforms, there are individuals portrayed in combat-ready poses. There are also individuals depicted in an "A-pose" – the most common of depicted posted in the Round Head rock art at Uweinat, which, in

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decreased appearance of large undomesticated organisms and increased appearance of one-humped camels and horses depicted in latter rock art (e.g., Pastoral, Camelline, Cabelline) throughout the Sahara serves as evidence for the

816:), which were expertly created, designed, and used by the Tin Torha hunter-gatherers, may have served as collective identity markers and those created bone objects may have served a vital purpose in trade with other groups. 1160:

As late as 2500 BP in the Central Sahara, groups from the Round Head period may have continued to persist as hunters. Central Saharan hunter-gatherers, amid the Horse period of the Central Sahara, were identified by

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Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia) is shown via their presence in Round Head rock art throughout the Central Sahara (e.g., Libyan region of Tadrart Acacus, Algerian region of Tassili n’Ajjer). Barbary sheep were

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Migration of hunter-gatherers and cattle herders out of the Central Sahara occurred as the Green Sahara underwent desertification in 4000 BP. Seasonal waterways were the likely migratory route taken to the

856:) were milked and managed, by hunter-gatherers near the Takarkori rockshelter, which is representative of the broader Sahara; this continued until the beginning of the Pastoral Neolithic in the Sahara. 864:

settling and acquiring of undomesticated vegetation, and considerable use of lithic grinding tools, between 8800 BP and 7400 BP. At Uan Afuda, Mesolithic hunter-gatherer settlements had remnants of

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settling and acquiring of undomesticated vegetation, and considerable use of lithic grinding tools, between 8800 BP and 7400 BP. At Uan Afuda, Mesolithic hunter-gatherer settlements had remnants of

1023:, the conservativeness of traditional Sub-Saharan African cultures shown; symbolisms found in Round Head paintings are also found in these cultures, which may be indication of cultural continuity. 944:

essential functions, within ceremonies. Men usually are the primary actors in central ceremonies of varying purpose (e.g., healing, fire, rainmaking) and women are secondary actors who contribute

1149:. Dwelling in the Sahelian region began to occur as long inhabited settlement and funerary sites of the northern region of Niger stopped being used. Migration of Central Saharan peoples into the 299:, which portray undomesticated animals, has been estimated to a minimum of 15,000 BP; this has been used as an additional consideration for Bubaline rock art dating well before 10,000 BP. 191:

and managed, by hunter-gatherers near the Takarkori rockshelter, which is representative of the broader Sahara; this continued until the beginning of the Pastoral Neolithic in the Sahara.

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The date for Bubaline rock art was approximated to the late period of the Pleistocene or early period of the Holocene using remnants of clay, manganese, and iron oxide in the dark hued

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high elevation had occurrences of considerable rainfall, to the extent that lakes developed, whereas, regions of low elevation had occurrences of considerable dryness. Amid the

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The World of Petroglyphs: "Roundheads" In The Djado And Tassili-Mountains (N-Niger / S-Algeria): Pecked and painted human figures in the rock picture inventory of these regions

773:). A bone tool, with decorations, may have been used as a handle for a leadership emblem. A human bone, which may show evidence of human intervention, is also present. Various 106:). Though uncommon, ceramics and lithic complexes were also utilized. Hunters of the Epipaleolithic especially hunted Barbary sheep, among other animals, as well as utilized 407:(8949 BP), Libya (8950 BP), and Tin Hanakaten (9420 BP), the core area for the most ancient ceramics of the Sahara may have likely been in the shared region (e.g., Tassili, 976:

Common traits between Round Head rock art and Sub-Saharan African cultures include concepts of down-headed animals and mighty deities. Down-headed animals, which appear in

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Essuf rock art and Round Head rock art of the Central Sahara, the engraved Kel Essuf rock art is regarded to be the artistic precursor to the painted Round Head rock art.

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showing that the hunting societies who created these rock art were of the same cultural unit and cultural ideology, though having cultural varieties unique to each area.

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Before the migration of cattle herders into Jebel Uweinat between 4400 BCE and 3300 BCE, African hunter-gatherers may have created the painted Round Head rock art at

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in the region (e.g., Acacus) of Libya was also tested and dated to 6379 BP. Altogether, these show continuation of the Round Head rock art tradition well into the

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markings (e.g., breasts, belly, thighs, shoulders, calves), was created by Africans, during the Round Head Period of Tassili N’Ajjer, in Tanzoumaitak, Algeria.

339:, with its varied climate system, the mountainous environment remained sufficiently humid, which allowed for animal, plant, and human life to be sustained. 291:. Rock walls were estimated to have developed between 9200 BP and 5500 BP using substances of organic origin found within the depths of the rock walls. The 655:, which may have been suitable for the mobile lifestyle of semi-sedentary Epipaleolithic hunter-gatherers. Epipaleolithic hunter-gatherers built a simple 90:, which may have been suitable for the mobile lifestyle of semi-sedentary Epipaleolithic hunter-gatherers. Epipaleolithic hunter-gatherers built a simple 395:

art of Djado migrated, from Djado to Tassili, and, as continuation of the Djado artistic tradition, produced the Round Head rock art of Tassili n’Ajjer.

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at Torha Two Caves dates between 9774 cal BP and 9534 cal BP and the earliest bone tool at Torha East Rinf dates between 9679 cal BP and 9536 cal BP.

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Based on 13 sediment samples from the floor directly at or near the walls of Round Head rock art in Sefar and Ti-n-Tazarift, and determined via the

663:. In 10,000 BP, Epipaleolithic hunter-gatherers, to some extent, engaged in processing of flora, and were specialists in the use of Barbary sheep ( 949: 631:

of different appearance were therefore living in the Tassili and most probably in the whole Central Sahara as early as the 10th millennium BP."

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date of 9000 BP to 10,000 BP. Most scholars are of the view that, from 9500 BP to 7500 BP, Round Head rock artists created Round Head rock art.

2988: 2968: 2922: 2855: 2662: 1530: 1133:) in the Central Sahara (e.g., Uan Tabu, Uan Muhuggiag) was shared by Central Saharan hunter-gatherers with incoming Early Pastoral peoples. 115:) as early as 10,000 BP, also created the engraved Kel Essuf and painted Round Head rock art styles located in the region (e.g., some in the 2145: 945: 1073:

Among bent-on-knees human artforms, there are semi-squatted individuals. These depicted individuals may portray, as is found throughout

2639: 3232: 3170: 3070: 2417: 2359: 1835: 1722: 1039:, large armbands) were white-colored. Though likely more, at least 43% of Round Head rock art at Jebel Uweinat portrays traditional 315: 2742:"The Bone Artifact Collection from Wadi Ti-n-Torha (Northern Tadrart Akakus, Libya): A Reappraisal Based on Technological Analysis" 928:

similar to the repeated painting over that occurs for young male initiates in Mali rockshelters (where masks are kept), among the

43:, which was largely created from 9500 BP to 7500 BP and ceased being created by 3000 BP. The Round Head Period is preceded by the 3269: 2577:"Re-entering the central Sahara at the onset of the Holocene: A territorial approach to Early Acacus hunter–gatherers (SW Libya)" 1192:, there were equitable transactions of materials (e.g., gold) made between Sub-Saharan West Africans and North Africans (e.g., 731:) also was increasingly used in concert with lithic tools purposed for grinding and pottery purposed for boiling. The earliest 3274: 1876: 584: 51:. Round Head rock art number up to several thousand depictions in the Central Sahara. Human and undomesticated animal (e.g., 3103: 1100:

Among one leg free human artforms, there are depictions of African dance involving squat-and-kick movements. Two women with

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Central Saharan hunter-gatherers, such as those of the Acacus region, had a sense of monumentality. While architectural

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The Round Head rock art of Tassili and the surrounding mountainous areas bear considerable similarity with traditional

797:, cords), which may be similar to basket weaving (e.g., basketry, rope) and pottery design found in the Acacus region. 3259: 477:, crocodiles, and fish are portrayed in Round Head rock art. Round Head rock art also features depictions related to 1989:"OSL dating of quaternary deposits associated with the parietal art of the Tassili-n-Ajjer plateau (Central Sahara)" 777:

methods (e.g., fracturing, sawing) were employed on selected bones, using various kinds of lithic implements (e.g.,

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Amid the early Sahara, Round Head rock artists, who had a sophisticated culture and engaged in the activity of

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in the Sahara. Between 7500 BCE and 3500 BCE, amid the Green Sahara, undomesticated central Saharan flora were

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Amid the early Sahara, Round Head rock artists, who had a sophisticated culture and engaged in the activity of

83: 3203: 2054: 591:, as well as another child and three adults (9420 ± 200 BP/10,726 ± 300 cal BP). Based on examination of the 782: 2256:"Prehistoric Colonization of the Central Sahara: Hunters versus Herders and the Evidence from the Rock Art" 956:. While men become psychologically entranced, via dance, women provide aid to men (e.g., Southern African 3222: 533: 513: 3151:"All that Glitters is Not Gold: Facing the Myths of Ancient Trade between North and Sub-Saharan Africa" 836:

in stone enclosures near Uan Afuda cave. From up to 9500 BP, this continued until the beginning of the

659:, dated to 10,508 ± 429 cal BP/9260 ± 290 BP, which may have been used for the purpose of serving as a 167:

in stone enclosures near Uan Afuda cave. From up to 9500 BP, this continued until the beginning of the

94:, dated to 10,508 ± 429 cal BP/9260 ± 290 BP, which may have been used for the purpose of serving as a 1872:"Coprolites from Rock Shelters: Hunter-Gatherers "Herding" Barbary Sheep in the Early Holocene Sahara" 595:

child mummy and Tin Hanakaten child, the results verified that these Central Saharan peoples from the

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in the Sahara. Between 7500 BCE and 3500 BCE, amid the Green Sahara, undomesticated central Saharan

1189: 1101: 981: 899: 778: 571:. Long-dwelling Tuareg from the same area also recognized the Round Head rock art as a creation of 528: 370: 227: 1172:", who are indicated to have been pursued by Garamantes. Contrary to the popular academic myth of 738: 21: 3184: 3084: 2994: 2777: 2668: 2620: 2557: 2499: 2431: 2373: 2320: 2229: 2126: 2063: 2032: 1969: 1909: 1728: 1630: 1346: 1154: 1074: 1051: 837: 620: 449: 319: 168: 72: 3150: 680: 497: 128: 3102:

Tohamy, Adel Kamel Tohamy Geady; Farag, Handouqa Ibrahim; Ali, Asmaa Abdelalim (October 2022).

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Most bone tools were found in Torha East. Bone tools derive from various kinds of fauna (e.g.,

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What Ever Happened to the People? Humans and Anthropomorphs in the Rock Art of Northern Africa

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What Ever Happened to the People? Humans and Anthropomorphs in the Rock Art of Northern Africa

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What Ever Happened to the People? Humans and Anthropomorphs in the Rock Art of Northern Africa

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with undomesticated vegetation within them and cords, which date between 8700 BP and 8300 BP.

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dating method, the Round Head rock art may have been created amid the Holocene and may have a

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with undomesticated vegetation within them and cords, which date between 8700 BP and 8300 BP.

103: 3104:"Economic Life in the Age of the Round Heads in North Africa through Rock Art (7000-3000) BC" 2980: 1871: 3158: 3118: 2976: 2753: 2654: 2650: 2596: 2533: 2467: 2347: 2304: 2205: 2102: 2008: 1951: 1943: 1932:"Plant behaviour from human imprints and the cultivation of wild cereals in Holocene Sahara" 1885: 1710: 1622: 1322: 1078: 1004: 872: 770: 518: 458: 408: 363: 336: 219: 44: 40: 827:, also developed pottery, used vegetation, and managed animals. The cultural importance of 512:, 70% of which is composed of anthropomorphic art forms; male and female art forms feature 158:, also developed pottery, used vegetation, and managed animals. The cultural importance of 1036: 883: 824: 604: 359: 331: 308: 223: 215: 155: 98:. In 10,000 BP, Epipaleolithic hunter-gatherers, to some extent, engaged in processing of 48: 111:

Mesolithic hunters, who created a refined material culture (e.g., stone tools, decorated

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depiction of a horned running woman, who may have been a goddess or a dancer with body

505: 420: 116: 79: 800:

The distinct designs of the various bone objects (e.g., item with an hourglass shape,

3253: 3188: 3088: 3058: 2998: 2781: 2741: 2672: 2624: 2561: 2503: 2377: 2324: 2233: 2209: 2036: 1913: 1823: 1732: 1714: 1702: 1634: 1610: 1350: 1193: 1114: 1047: 1040: 993: 906:. The dark-skinned ethnic groups, who created the Round Head rock art, differed from 853: 743: 728: 676: 592: 564:. The dark-skinned ethnic groups, who created the Round Head rock art, differed from 541: 522: 424: 375: 355: 351: 249: 241: 184: 124: 60: 52: 36: 26: 3122: 2435: 2130: 2067: 1931: 226:, Caballine, Cameline), based on a variety of factors (e.g., art method, organisms, 2649:. The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology and Anthropology of Rock Art. p. 16. 2106: 1973: 1326: 1094: 1000: 977: 929: 879: 849: 786: 754: 628: 612: 572: 265: 180: 3059:"Cultural adaptations at Uan Tabu from the Upper Pleistocene to the Late Holocene" 968: 2600: 2308: 2083:"Decorated boulders and other neglected features of the Central Saharan rock art" 2012: 1626: 1169: 1138: 1118: 1067: 1055: 1008: 997: 712: 708: 580: 478: 462: 269: 2757: 2351: 2194:"The Earliest Rock Paintings of the Central Sahara: Approaching Interpretation" 1157:

is verified via Saharan influenced pottery that appear in the Sahelian region.

485:; for example, there is Round Head rock art at Tassili N’Ajjer that features a 427:) as well as have common resemblances (e.g., traits, shapes) with one another. 3180: 3162: 2932: 2865: 2773: 2616: 2553: 2487: 2225: 2122: 2028: 1947: 1905: 1889: 1794:"Penis only for Gods? Sexual Imagery in the Earliest Central Saharan Rock Art" 1540: 1342: 1177: 1146: 1142: 957: 860: 828: 794: 720: 704: 656: 600: 412: 195: 159: 91: 3242: 3130: 3040: 2892: 2765: 2608: 2545: 2537: 2479: 2369: 2316: 2267: 2217: 2169: 2161: 2114: 2020: 1897: 1845: 1805: 1664: 1611:"Places, monuments, and landscape: Evidence from the Holocene central Sahara" 1592: 1470: 1384: 1334: 3080: 2427: 1166: 1162: 1130: 903: 732: 660: 643:, the walls of rockshelters (e.g., Tin Torha, Tin Hanakaten) were used as a 608: 588: 561: 553: 466: 234: 95: 82:, the walls of rockshelters (e.g., Tin Torha, Tin Hanakaten) were used as a 2911:"Round Heads: Religion and spirituality of ancient central Saharan hunters" 2495: 1965: 615:

study showed that the skeletons could be divided into two types, the first

1150: 1126: 1086: 1032: 809: 774: 493: 245: 211: 107: 56: 1956: 1653:"Women and prehistoric rituals in the Round head rock art of the Sahara" 2471: 1181: 1028: 910: 865: 820: 805: 801: 724: 716: 688: 684: 652: 624: 616: 568: 501: 474: 442: 404: 200: 188: 176: 151: 136: 132: 112: 87: 3155:

Landscapes, Sources and Intellectual Projects of the West African Past

3227:. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 3, 19–24, 45–55, 105, 107. 1581:"Leading role of male hunters in Central Saharan prehistoric rituals" 907: 845: 833: 813: 565: 288: 281: 172: 164: 3028: 2910: 2880: 2843: 2255: 2082: 1988: 1793: 1652: 1580: 1518: 1458: 1372: 1302: 557:

any rock art in the Central Sahara has also been previously raised.

2647:

The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology and Anthropology of Rock Art

2576: 2193: 248:) artforms are usually portrayed, with a variety of details (e.g., 59:) artforms are usually portrayed, with a variety of details (e.g., 1519:"Similarity between Round-Head Paintings and Kel Essuf Engravings" 1016: 985: 841: 762: 696: 692: 672: 509: 416: 369: 346: 144: 140: 120: 99: 20: 960:

women musically encircling San men as they dance around a fire).

886:, the formal finish of Round Head paintings occurred by 3000 BP. 587:

that bears a resemblance with ones performed among Neolithic-era

2290:"Saharan Rock Art, A Reflection Of Climate Change In The Sahara" 1020: 1012: 648: 1303:"Central Saharan rock art: Considering the kettles and cupules" 2881:"Tassili Paintings: Ancient roots of current African beliefs?" 2456:"Male genital modification: A sexual selection interpretation" 1768: 1766: 1764: 1762: 1459:"Tassili Paintings: Ancient roots of current African beliefs?" 1760: 1758: 1756: 1754: 1752: 1750: 1748: 1746: 1744: 1742: 3029:"Rain and rock art in the Sahara: a possible interpretation" 2575:

Cancellieri, Emanuele; Di Lernia, Savino (23 January 2014).

1215: 1213: 1211: 1209: 86:

for proto-village huts that families resided in, as well as

2950: 2948: 2946: 2944: 2942: 2688: 2686: 2684: 2682: 1085:), a set of traditional African dance techniques known as " 448:

The Round Head rock art tradition is a continuation of the

391:

Round Head rock art are largely composed of male artforms.

1525:. Royal Academy for Overseas Sciences: 173, 175–177, 179. 2850:. Royal Academy for Overseas Sciences: 321–323, 325–330. 1684: 1682: 1680: 1678: 1676: 1674: 1046:

As found in traditional African cultures (e.g., tattoos,

532:

Round Head depiction of a horned running woman with body

1373:"Saharan rock art sites as places for celebrating water" 3063:

Uan Tabu in the Settlement History of the Libyan Sahara

2404:. Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 14–15. 25:

Round Head figures and zoomorphic figures, including a

3224:

Round Heads: The Earliest Rock Paintings in the Sahara

2402:

The Rainbow Bridge: Rainbows in Art, Myth, and Science

3149:

Magnavita, Sonja; Magnavita, Carlos (18 July 2018).

1930:

Mercuri, Anna Maria; et al. (29 January 2018).

102:, and were specialists in the use of Barbary sheep ( 611:complexions. Soukopova (2013) thus concludes: “The 3022: 3020: 3018: 3016: 3014: 3012: 3010: 3008: 2844:"Uweinat Roundhead: Body Proportions and Postures" 560:The creators of the Round Head rock art possessed 2740:Petrullo, Giacoma; Barich, Barbara (March 2021). 2053:Hallier, U. W.; Hallier, Brigitte C. (May 2004). 1113:There is an abundance of ancient rock art (e.g., 2904: 2902: 2640:"The Archaeology of Rock Art in Northern Africa" 2249: 2247: 2245: 2243: 2187: 2185: 2183: 2181: 2179: 1512: 1510: 1508: 1506: 1504: 1502: 1500: 1452: 1450: 1448: 1446: 1444: 1442: 1440: 1438: 1436: 1434: 1432: 1430: 1428: 1426: 1424: 1422: 1420: 1418: 1416: 1414: 1787: 1785: 1783: 1781: 1498: 1496: 1494: 1492: 1490: 1488: 1486: 1484: 1482: 1480: 1412: 1410: 1408: 1406: 1404: 1402: 1400: 1398: 1396: 1394: 1093:as a result of the energetic, rhythmic African 1003:of Djenne-Djenno was likely established by the 2917:. Royal Academy For Overseas Sciences: 8, 14. 2842:Noguera, Alessandro Menardi (September 2015). 2449: 2447: 2445: 1646: 1644: 1604: 1602: 1574: 1572: 1570: 1366: 1364: 1362: 1360: 330:From 60,000 BP or 40,000 BP to 20,000 BP, the 2396:Lee, Raymond L.; Fraser, Alistair B. (2001). 1568: 1566: 1564: 1562: 1560: 1558: 1556: 1554: 1552: 1550: 980:, and portray shamanic animal sacrifice as a 703:ostrich eggshells, and pottery. Flora (e.g., 639:At the start of 10th millennium BP, amid the 78:At the start of 10th millennium BP, amid the 16:Earliest rock paintings of the Central Sahara 8: 3144: 3142: 3140: 2735: 2733: 2297:Tabona: Revista de Prehistoria y Arqueología 1828:The Oxford Handbook of Prehistoric Figurines 1817: 1815: 1296: 1294: 1292: 1290: 1288: 1286: 1284: 1282: 1280: 1278: 1276: 1274: 1272: 1270: 1268: 1266: 1264: 1262: 1260: 1258: 1256: 1254: 1252: 1250: 1248: 214:is categorized into different groups (e.g., 2973:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics 2837: 2835: 2833: 2831: 2829: 2827: 2825: 2823: 2821: 2819: 2817: 2815: 2813: 2811: 2731: 2729: 2727: 2725: 2723: 2721: 2719: 2717: 2715: 2713: 2346:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 301–302. 2283: 2281: 2279: 2277: 1870:Rotunno, Rocco; et al. (9 July 2019). 1246: 1244: 1242: 1240: 1238: 1236: 1234: 1232: 1230: 1228: 579:In the Acacus region, at the Uan Muhuggiag 2809: 2807: 2805: 2803: 2801: 2799: 2797: 2795: 2793: 2791: 2645:. In David, Bruno; McNiven, Ian J (eds.). 2048: 2046: 1925: 1923: 1865: 1863: 1861: 1859: 1857: 1855: 3052: 3050: 2954: 2704: 2692: 2515: 2513: 1955: 1772: 1703:"Africa, north: Sahara, West and Central" 1688: 1615:Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa 1219: 1830:. Oxford University Press. p. 108. 996:, which have been dated to 250 BCE. The 967: 737: 527: 431:Round Head Rock Art and Hunter-Gatherers 3065:. All’Insegna del Giglio. p. 233. 1205: 240:Human and undomesticated animal (e.g., 2981:10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.397 2391: 2389: 2387: 2338:Barich, Barbara E. (4 December 2012). 2655:10.1093/OXFORDHB/9780190607357.013.17 651:that families resided in, as well as 496:, Round Head rock art was created at 7: 3221:Soukopova, Jitka (16 January 2013). 2340:"Gender in North African Prehistory" 1188:of Sub-Saharan West Africans during 1050:), some human artforms may have had 2909:Soukopova, Jitka (September 2015). 2879:Soukopova, Jitka (September 2015). 2081:Soukopova, Jitka (September 2018). 1517:Soukopova, Jitka (September 2015). 1457:Soukopova, Jitka (September 2015). 675:, in the region (e.g., some in the 123:, in the region (e.g., some in the 1184:-driven capture, enslavement, and 358:from the Round Heads depicting an 343:Origins of the Round Head Rock Art 14: 2967:Vydrin, Valentin (30 July 2018). 1822:Barich, Barbara (December 2018). 1701:Barich, Barbara (December 2008). 687:, in the region (e.g., Djado) of 316:optically stimulated luminescence 135:, in the region (e.g., Djado) of 3111:Journal of Aswan Faculty of Arts 3057:Garcea, Elena A.A. (July 2019). 2638:Di Lernia, Savino (March 2017). 2454:Rowanchilde, Raven (June 1996). 2344:A Companion to Gender Prehistory 2288:Aïn-Séba, Nagète (3 June 2022). 2210:10.2752/175169711X12961583765333 1715:10.1016/B978-012373962-9.00320-4 1301:Soukopova, Jitka (August 2017). 742:Zoomorphic figures, including a 3123:10.21608/mkasu.2022.133968.1041 2522:"The lesser gods of the Sahara" 1792:Soukopova, Jitka (March 2017). 1609:Di Lernia, Savino (June 2013). 1579:Soukopova, Jitka (March 2016). 623:affinities, the other a robust 492:During the early period of the 2192:Soukopova, Jitka (July 2011). 2107:10.1016/J.JARIDENV.2018.05.001 1987:Mercier, Norbert (July 2012). 1877:Journal of African Archaeology 1709:. Academic Press. p. 63. 1371:Soukopova, Jitka (June 2016). 1327:10.1016/J.JARIDENV.2016.12.011 585:artificial cranial deformation 536:markings, who may have been a 337:late period of the Pleistocene 1: 2746:African Archaeological Review 1091:psychological/spiritual state 859:Between 8800 BP and 7400 BP, 194:Between 8800 BP and 7400 BP, 39:, monumental form of Central 2601:10.1016/J.QUAINT.2013.08.030 2309:10.25145/j.tabona.2022.22.15 2087:Journal of Arid Environments 2013:10.1016/J.QUAGEO.2011.11.010 1627:10.1080/0067270X.2013.788867 1307:Journal of Arid Environments 896:Sub-Saharan African cultures 374:Round Head figure wearing a 73:Sub-Saharan African cultures 3206:. Harvard University Press. 2975:. Oxford University Press. 2144:Ahmed, Achrati (May 2020). 1707:Encyclopedia of Archaeology 962:First menstrual cycle rites 3296: 2758:10.1007/s10437-020-09374-x 2352:10.1002/9781118294291.ch14 848:, stored, and cooked, and 671:, some in the Tadrart) of 119:, some in the Tadrart) of 3163:10.1163/9789004380189_003 3157:. Brill. pp. 25–26. 3027:Soukopova, Jitka (2020). 2520:Keenan, Jeremy H (2002). 2254:Soukopova, Jitka (2020). 2062:. StoneWatch. p. 2. 1948:10.1038/s41477-017-0098-1 1890:10.1163/21915784-20190005 1651:Soukopova, Jitka (2019). 35:rock art is the earliest 2581:Quaternary International 2538:10.1179/pua.2002.2.3.131 2398:"The Bridge to the Gods" 1993:Quaternary Geochronology 767:Phacochoerus aethiopicus 691:, and the region (e.g., 619:-African type with some 280:For the rock art of the 139:, and the region (e.g., 3270:History of North Africa 1031:that wield bows (e.g., 978:South African rock art 973: 746: 544: 457:transition in Central 379: 367: 29: 3275:History of the Sahara 971: 741: 531: 373: 350: 268:undergoing increased 233:In 5000 BP, buffalo ( 24: 483:animal domestication 47:and followed by the 2593:2014QuInt.320...43C 2410:2001rbra.book.....L 2099:2018JArEn.156...96S 2005:2012QuGeo..10..367M 1319:2017JArEn.143...10S 1190:classical antiquity 1007:progenitors of the 900:Round Head rock art 804:-knife made from a 679:, most abundant in 436:Round Head Rock Art 127:, most abundant in 3260:Prehistoric Africa 2526:Public Archaeology 2472:10.1007/BF02692110 1180:) engaging in the 1155:Sub-Saharan Africa 1102:chignon hairstyles 1075:Sub-Saharan Africa 1052:body modifications 974: 838:Pastoral Neolithic 747: 647:for proto-village 607:periods possessed 545: 465:period toward the 450:Kel Essuf rock art 380: 368: 362:very close to the 320:terminus ante quem 169:Pastoral Neolithic 30: 2990:978-0-19-938465-5 2969:"Mande Languages" 2924:978-90-756-5260-4 2857:978-90-756-5260-4 2664:978-0-19-060735-7 2262:: 59–60, 62, 66. 2150:Rock Art Research 1532:978-90-756-5260-4 1083:African-Americans 751:Ammotragus lervia 665:Ammotragus lervia 454:Bubaline rock art 452:tradition. While 297:prehistoric Egypt 293:Qurta petroglyphs 230:, superimposed). 104:Ammotragus lervia 3287: 3280:Saharan rock art 3265:Stone Age Africa 3246: 3208: 3207: 3199: 3193: 3192: 3146: 3135: 3134: 3108: 3099: 3093: 3092: 3054: 3045: 3044: 3024: 3003: 3002: 2964: 2958: 2952: 2937: 2936: 2906: 2897: 2896: 2876: 2870: 2869: 2839: 2786: 2785: 2737: 2708: 2702: 2696: 2690: 2677: 2676: 2644: 2635: 2629: 2628: 2572: 2566: 2565: 2517: 2508: 2507: 2451: 2440: 2439: 2393: 2382: 2381: 2335: 2329: 2328: 2294: 2285: 2272: 2271: 2251: 2238: 2237: 2189: 2174: 2173: 2141: 2135: 2134: 2078: 2072: 2071: 2061: 2050: 2041: 2040: 1984: 1978: 1977: 1959: 1927: 1918: 1917: 1867: 1850: 1849: 1819: 1810: 1809: 1789: 1776: 1775:, p. 19-24. 1770: 1737: 1736: 1698: 1692: 1686: 1669: 1668: 1648: 1639: 1638: 1606: 1597: 1596: 1576: 1545: 1544: 1514: 1475: 1474: 1454: 1389: 1388: 1368: 1355: 1354: 1298: 1223: 1222:, p. 45–55. 1217: 1079:African diaspora 1068:West African art 972:Great God figure 771:Vulpes rueppelli 635:Cultural history 548:Hunter-Gatherers 519:Saharan rock art 459:Saharan rock art 235:Bubalus antiquus 45:Kel Essuf Period 41:Saharan rock art 3295: 3294: 3290: 3289: 3288: 3286: 3285: 3284: 3250: 3249: 3235: 3220: 3217: 3212: 3211: 3204:"The Histories" 3201: 3200: 3196: 3173: 3148: 3147: 3138: 3106: 3101: 3100: 3096: 3073: 3056: 3055: 3048: 3026: 3025: 3006: 2991: 2966: 2965: 2961: 2953: 2940: 2925: 2908: 2907: 2900: 2878: 2877: 2873: 2858: 2841: 2840: 2789: 2739: 2738: 2711: 2703: 2699: 2691: 2680: 2665: 2642: 2637: 2636: 2632: 2574: 2573: 2569: 2519: 2518: 2511: 2453: 2452: 2443: 2420: 2395: 2394: 2385: 2362: 2337: 2336: 2332: 2303:(22): 308–310. 2292: 2287: 2286: 2275: 2253: 2252: 2241: 2191: 2190: 2177: 2143: 2142: 2138: 2080: 2079: 2075: 2059: 2052: 2051: 2044: 1986: 1985: 1981: 1929: 1928: 1921: 1869: 1868: 1853: 1838: 1821: 1820: 1813: 1791: 1790: 1779: 1771: 1740: 1725: 1700: 1699: 1695: 1687: 1672: 1650: 1649: 1642: 1608: 1607: 1600: 1578: 1577: 1548: 1533: 1516: 1515: 1478: 1456: 1455: 1392: 1370: 1369: 1358: 1300: 1299: 1226: 1218: 1207: 1202: 1111: 1037:bows and arrows 1027:artforms, with 982:rainfall ritual 892: 884:desertification 852:animals (e.g., 681:Tassili n'Ajjer 637: 550: 498:Tassili N'Ajjer 438: 433: 345: 332:Aterian culture 328: 309:Pastoral Period 278: 222:, Round Heads, 209: 207:Classifications 183:animals (e.g., 129:Tassili n'Ajjer 49:Pastoral Period 17: 12: 11: 5: 3293: 3291: 3283: 3282: 3277: 3272: 3267: 3262: 3252: 3251: 3248: 3247: 3233: 3216: 3213: 3210: 3209: 3194: 3171: 3136: 3094: 3071: 3046: 3004: 2989: 2959: 2957:, p. 105. 2955:Soukopova 2013 2938: 2923: 2898: 2871: 2856: 2787: 2752:: 2–3, 14–18. 2709: 2705:Soukopova 2013 2697: 2695:, p. 107. 2693:Soukopova 2013 2678: 2663: 2630: 2567: 2509: 2441: 2418: 2383: 2360: 2330: 2273: 2239: 2175: 2136: 2073: 2042: 1979: 1919: 1851: 1836: 1811: 1777: 1773:Soukopova 2013 1738: 1723: 1693: 1689:Soukopova 2013 1670: 1640: 1598: 1546: 1531: 1476: 1390: 1356: 1224: 1220:Soukopova 2013 1204: 1203: 1201: 1198: 1174:North Africans 1110: 1107: 1077:and among the 1056:facial tattoos 919:creation myths 891: 888: 791:basket weaving 759:Gazella dorcas 641:Epipaleolithic 636: 633: 597:Epipaleolithic 549: 546: 506:Tadrart Acacus 437: 434: 432: 429: 344: 341: 327: 324: 277: 274: 208: 205: 175:, stored, and 80:Epipaleolithic 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3292: 3281: 3278: 3276: 3273: 3271: 3268: 3266: 3263: 3261: 3258: 3257: 3255: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3234:9781443845793 3230: 3226: 3225: 3219: 3218: 3214: 3205: 3198: 3195: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3172:9789004380189 3168: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3145: 3143: 3141: 3137: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3105: 3098: 3095: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3072:9788878141841 3068: 3064: 3060: 3053: 3051: 3047: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3023: 3021: 3019: 3017: 3015: 3013: 3011: 3009: 3005: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2963: 2960: 2956: 2951: 2949: 2947: 2945: 2943: 2939: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2905: 2903: 2899: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2875: 2872: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2838: 2836: 2834: 2832: 2830: 2828: 2826: 2824: 2822: 2820: 2818: 2816: 2814: 2812: 2810: 2808: 2806: 2804: 2802: 2800: 2798: 2796: 2794: 2792: 2788: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2736: 2734: 2732: 2730: 2728: 2726: 2724: 2722: 2720: 2718: 2716: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2701: 2698: 2694: 2689: 2687: 2685: 2683: 2679: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2641: 2634: 2631: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2571: 2568: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2516: 2514: 2510: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2450: 2448: 2446: 2442: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2419:0-271-01977-8 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2392: 2390: 2388: 2384: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2361:9781118294291 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2334: 2331: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2302: 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1697: 1694: 1691:, p. 20. 1690: 1685: 1683: 1681: 1679: 1677: 1675: 1671: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1647: 1645: 1641: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1605: 1603: 1599: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1575: 1573: 1571: 1569: 1567: 1565: 1563: 1561: 1559: 1557: 1555: 1553: 1551: 1547: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1513: 1511: 1509: 1507: 1505: 1503: 1501: 1499: 1497: 1495: 1493: 1491: 1489: 1487: 1485: 1483: 1481: 1477: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1453: 1451: 1449: 1447: 1445: 1443: 1441: 1439: 1437: 1435: 1433: 1431: 1429: 1427: 1425: 1423: 1421: 1419: 1417: 1415: 1413: 1411: 1409: 1407: 1405: 1403: 1401: 1399: 1397: 1395: 1391: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1367: 1365: 1363: 1361: 1357: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1297: 1295: 1293: 1291: 1289: 1287: 1285: 1283: 1281: 1279: 1277: 1275: 1273: 1271: 1269: 1267: 1265: 1263: 1261: 1259: 1257: 1255: 1253: 1251: 1249: 1247: 1245: 1243: 1241: 1239: 1237: 1235: 1233: 1231: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1216: 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614: 610: 606: 602: 598: 594: 593:Uan Muhuggiag 590: 586: 582: 577: 574: 570: 567: 563: 558: 555: 547: 543: 539: 535: 534:scarification 530: 526: 524: 523:scarification 520: 515: 514:scarification 511: 507: 503: 499: 495: 490: 488: 484: 480: 476: 472: 468: 464: 460: 455: 451: 446: 444: 435: 430: 428: 426: 422: 418: 414: 410: 406: 400: 396: 392: 388: 384: 377: 376:Barbary sheep 372: 365: 361: 360:anthropomorph 357: 354:: example of 353: 352:Djado Plateau 349: 342: 340: 338: 333: 325: 323: 321: 317: 312: 310: 304: 300: 298: 294: 290: 285: 283: 275: 273: 271: 267: 261: 259: 255: 251: 247: 243: 242:Barbary sheep 238: 236: 231: 229: 225: 221: 217: 213: 206: 204: 202: 197: 192: 190: 186: 185:Barbary sheep 182: 178: 174: 170: 166: 161: 157: 153: 148: 146: 142: 138: 134: 130: 126: 122: 118: 114: 109: 105: 101: 97: 93: 89: 85: 81: 76: 74: 70: 66: 62: 58: 54: 53:Barbary sheep 50: 46: 42: 38: 34: 28: 27:Barbary sheep 23: 19: 3223: 3215:Bibliography 3197: 3154: 3114: 3110: 3097: 3062: 3032: 2972: 2962: 2914: 2884: 2874: 2847: 2749: 2745: 2707:, p. 3. 2700: 2646: 2633: 2584: 2580: 2570: 2529: 2525: 2463: 2460:Human Nature 2459: 2401: 2343: 2333: 2300: 2296: 2259: 2201: 2197: 2153: 2149: 2146:"RAR Review" 2139: 2090: 2086: 2076: 2055: 1996: 1992: 1982: 1957:11567/979083 1939: 1935: 1884:(1): 76–94. 1881: 1875: 1827: 1824:"The Sahara" 1797: 1706: 1696: 1656: 1618: 1614: 1584: 1522: 1462: 1376: 1310: 1306: 1159: 1135: 1123: 1112: 1099: 1087:getting down 1072: 1064: 1060: 1045: 1025: 1001:civilization 990: 975: 954:rhythmically 942: 934: 930:Dogon people 923: 915: 893: 880:Green Sahara 877: 870: 858: 850:domesticated 818: 799: 755:Canis aureus 748: 701: 638: 629:Black people 613:osteological 578: 573:black people 559: 551: 491: 447: 439: 401: 397: 393: 389: 385: 381: 378:-styled mask 329: 313: 305: 301: 286: 279: 266:Green Sahara 262: 239: 232: 210: 193: 181:domesticated 149: 77: 32: 31: 18: 3202:Herodotus. 2887:: 116–120. 1465:: 116–119. 1170:Troglodytes 1147:Nile Valley 1139:Niger River 1119:petroglyphs 1009:Bozo people 998:egalitarian 890:Ethnography 882:undergoing 808:tooth, two 713:Panicoideae 709:Echinochloa 581:rockshelter 479:agriculture 463:Paleolithic 270:desiccation 3254:Categories 3181:1041204346 3033:Expression 2933:1091181355 2885:Expression 2866:1091181355 2774:8936533854 2617:5146151649 2554:5525845873 2532:(3): 138. 2488:5656566239 2466:(2): 191. 2260:Expression 2226:8322366572 2204:(2): 195. 2156:(1): 109. 2123:8156836407 2029:5901395315 1999:: 2, 5–6. 1906:8197143305 1798:Expression 1657:Expression 1621:(2): 178. 1585:Expression 1541:1091181355 1463:Expression 1377:Expression 1343:7044514678 1200:References 1178:Garamantes 1167:Aithiopian 1153:region of 1143:Chad Basin 902:possessed 861:Mesolithic 829:shepherded 795:basketware 721:Pennisetum 705:Brachiaria 657:stone wall 645:foundation 601:Mesolithic 489:antelope. 413:Adrar Bous 276:Chronology 254:ceremonies 196:Mesolithic 160:shepherded 92:stone wall 84:foundation 65:ceremonies 33:Round Head 3243:826685273 3189:201331821 3131:2735-4164 3089:133766878 3041:2499-1341 2999:240363385 2893:2499-1341 2782:216390833 2766:0263-0338 2673:134533475 2625:128897709 2609:1040-6182 2562:140954728 2546:1465-5187 2504:206820828 2480:1045-6767 2378:129703953 2370:815474264 2325:249349324 2317:2530-8327 2268:2499-1341 2234:143429582 2218:1751-696X 2170:809603634 2162:0813-0426 2115:0140-1963 2037:140611969 2021:1871-1014 1942:(2): 73. 1914:198731047 1898:2191-5784 1846:944462988 1806:2499-1341 1733:128002774 1665:2499-1341 1635:162877973 1593:2499-1341 1587:: 68–71. 1471:2499-1341 1385:2499-1341 1351:132225521 1335:0140-1963 1313:: 10–12. 1163:Herodotus 1131:Digitaria 1115:paintings 1033:long bows 946:musically 904:dark skin 878:With the 834:corralled 825:gathering 783:bladelets 733:bone tool 661:windbreak 609:dark skin 589:Nigerians 562:dark skin 554:monuments 504:, and at 467:Neolithic 461:from the 364:Kel Essuf 220:Kel Essuf 165:corralled 156:gathering 96:windbreak 3081:48360794 2496:24203319 2436:16848465 2428:41951270 2131:91151284 2068:44206739 1966:29379157 1151:Sahelian 1127:Cenchrus 810:pendants 775:debitage 761:, Large 753:, Bird, 605:Pastoral 494:Holocene 469:period. 356:painting 246:antelope 224:Pastoral 216:Bubaline 212:Rock art 108:ceramics 57:antelope 2589:Bibcode 2406:Bibcode 2095:Bibcode 2001:Bibcode 1974:3302383 1315:Bibcode 1182:chariot 1176:(e.g., 1081:(e.g., 1054:(e.g., 1029:archers 950:vocally 938:Songhai 911:Berbers 866:baskets 821:hunting 806:warthog 802:spatula 793:(e.g., 725:Sorghum 717:Panicum 689:Nigeria 685:Algeria 677:Tadrart 653:hearths 625:Negroid 569:Berbers 538:goddess 502:Algeria 487:muzzled 471:Buffalo 443:Negroid 425:Tadrart 405:Tibesti 326:Climate 250:dancing 201:baskets 187:) were 152:hunting 137:Nigeria 133:Algeria 125:Tadrart 113:pottery 88:hearths 61:dancing 37:painted 3241: 3231: 3187: 3179: 3169: 3129: 3087: 3079: 3069: 3039: 3035:: 79. 2997: 2987: 2931: 2921: 2891: 2864: 2854: 2780: 2772: 2764: 2671: 2661: 2623: 2615: 2607: 2587:: 59. 2560: 2552: 2544: 2502: 2494: 2486: 2478: 2434: 2426: 2416: 2376: 2368: 2358: 2323: 2315: 2266: 2232: 2224: 2216: 2168: 2160: 2129: 2121: 2113: 2093:: 98. 2066: 2035: 2027: 2019: 1972: 1964: 1912: 1904: 1896: 1844: 1834: 1804: 1800:: 69. 1731: 1721: 1663: 1659:: 54. 1633: 1591: 1539: 1529: 1469: 1383: 1379:: 69. 1349: 1341: 1333: 1145:, and 1109:Legacy 1019:, and 986:divine 952:, and 908:Tuareg 846:farmed 814:emblem 787:flakes 779:blades 669:Acacus 627:type. 617:Melano 603:, and 566:Tuareg 542:dancer 475:cattle 421:Acacus 289:patina 282:Sahara 228:motifs 189:milked 179:, and 177:cooked 173:farmed 117:Acacus 3185:S2CID 3117:(1). 3107:(PDF) 3085:S2CID 2995:S2CID 2778:S2CID 2669:S2CID 2643:(PDF) 2621:S2CID 2558:S2CID 2500:S2CID 2432:S2CID 2374:S2CID 2321:S2CID 2293:(PDF) 2230:S2CID 2127:S2CID 2064:S2CID 2060:(PDF) 2033:S2CID 1970:S2CID 1910:S2CID 1729:S2CID 1631:S2CID 1347:S2CID 1186:trade 1095:dance 1017:Niger 1005:Mande 925:Masks 844:were 842:flora 763:Bovid 697:Niger 695:) of 693:Djado 683:) of 673:Libya 540:or a 510:Libya 508:, in 500:, in 417:Djado 366:model 258:masks 145:Niger 143:) of 141:Djado 131:) of 121:Libya 100:flora 69:masks 3239:OCLC 3229:ISBN 3177:OCLC 3167:ISBN 3127:ISSN 3077:OCLC 3067:ISBN 3037:ISSN 2985:ISBN 2929:OCLC 2919:ISBN 2889:ISSN 2862:OCLC 2852:ISBN 2770:OCLC 2762:ISSN 2659:ISBN 2613:OCLC 2605:ISSN 2550:OCLC 2542:ISSN 2492:PMID 2484:OCLC 2476:ISSN 2424:OCLC 2414:ISBN 2366:OCLC 2356:ISBN 2313:ISSN 2264:ISSN 2222:OCLC 2214:ISSN 2166:OCLC 2158:ISSN 2119:OCLC 2111:ISSN 2025:OCLC 2017:ISSN 1962:PMID 1902:OCLC 1894:ISSN 1842:OCLC 1832:ISBN 1802:ISSN 1719:ISBN 1661:ISSN 1589:ISSN 1537:OCLC 1527:ISBN 1467:ISSN 1381:ISSN 1339:OCLC 1331:ISSN 1165:as " 1021:Chad 1013:Mali 823:and 649:huts 481:and 154:and 3159:doi 3119:doi 2977:doi 2754:doi 2651:doi 2597:doi 2585:320 2534:doi 2468:doi 2348:doi 2305:doi 2206:doi 2103:doi 2091:156 2009:doi 1952:hdl 1944:doi 1886:doi 1711:doi 1623:doi 1323:doi 1311:143 1196:). 958:San 409:Air 295:of 3256:: 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