308: – managed to overturn their captors and take possession of the fort while Papanna was besieging another fort elsewhere. Simultaneously, Dilawar Khan was advancing on him and, unaware of the situation at Shahpur, Papanna thought it prudent to defend his position by lifting his siege and retreating to his base. When he reached Shahpur he found that the tables were turned on him: he was fired upon by his former captives, using his own cannon, and with the imminent arrival of Khan he was forced to take refuge in the very compound that he had constructed to imprison them. Finding his position there to be untenable, and facing the desertion of some of his own forces, he decamped to the fort at Tatikonda, leaving Khan to take control of the wealth within Shahpur in accordance with instructions of his superior, the governor of Hyderabad.
312:
provision of at least 30,000 soldiers – cavalry and infantry – supplied by local landowners. This concentration of support from Hindu chieftains, together with the fact that they were the first to oppose him when he was originally based at
Tatikonda and evidence that he attacked both Muslims and Hindus, demonstrate that Papanna's motivations and the popular support for them were not based on religious considerations. Claims that he was a "Hindu warrior" are further negated by analysis of the names of his followers noted in the ballads, which appear to demonstrate that those within his group included Muslims and non-Hindu tribal peoples in almost equal proportion to Hindus.
287:, who by that time was beginning to assert some authority as emperor in the fractious post-Aurangzeb court power struggles. Papanna gave the emperor an array of wealth in his search to be recognised as a tribute-paying chieftain, and he was rewarded with an honorific robe. Loud protests followed this recognition, especially from influential Muslims of the area whose relatives had been kidnapped and people who decried that an emperor would recognise a person of a toddy tapper caste. Eaton describes that the robe "... seemed to represent official acknowledgement of his status as a legitimate, tribute-paying
258:, when the city walls would be poorly manned, if at all. In a wider context, the timing was opportunistic as the forces of empire were in some disarray due to a power struggle that had developed upon the death of Aurangzeb in 1707. The city, which had become an important commercial centre, was looted extensively but the larger prize came in the form of the abduction of many wealthy and influential residents, who were then imprisoned at Shahpur in a compound constructed that purpose.
20:
316:
flee in disguise. Although wounded, he was able to reach the village of
Hasanabad before being betrayed by a toddy tapper and captured by the brother-in-law who had previously been his prisoner. He was executed a few days later. The traditional accounts say that the method of execution was that of decapitation, and that thereafter his body was cut into pieces and his head sent to Delhi.
130:(r. 1550–1580) patronised Hindu society and customs, as well as investing in projects to improve irrigation, all of which cemented a relationship reasonably similar to that which might have existed had they been Hindu rulers themselves. The native people of Golkonda or, at least, those in positions of influence, were won over and this was particularly significant with regard to the
242:, to challenge Papanna but the attempt came to naught. A year later, Dil Khan determined to take responsibility for the task himself but again failed. He took a considerable force to Shahpur and laid siege for two months or so, as he had done previously. On this occasion it was money that decided the outcome because Papanna bribed Khan in order to have the siege lifted.
270:. Élite bearers carried him around in a palanquin, and an élite guard accompanied him when mounted on a horse. If he acted like a king, he had actually become a parvenu landholder. For we hear that he raided passing Banjaras (itinerant grain carriers) and seized their cattle, which he put to work ploughing his fields for him.
391:
Richard Eaton has commented on how the label of "toddy tapper", with its negative connotations of low standing, poverty and such – remained with
Papanna. Gijs Kruijtzer has agreed, saying that Papanna "... could never shake off the label of Toddy-tapper even though he was a quite successful
311:
Yusuf Khan, the
Hyderabad governor, sent a force of several thousand to besiege Tatikonda and this became a prolonged affair, lasting until March 1710. At that point, Yusuf Khan determined to take personal charge, doubling the number of imperial forces to around 12,000 and being further aided by the
315:
Despite the considerable forces set against him at
Tatikonda, it was bribery that caused significant losses for Papanna: his men, by now weary, hungry and demoralised, were tempted to defect by offers of double pay made in May. The final straw was when Papanna ran out of gunpowder and was forced to
214:
of that area. It was not long before Rao found it necessary to imprison him, as
Papanna's liking for banditry resurfaced, but within months Papanna and all of Rao's other prisoners were freed by the latter's wife, who thought that showing such compassion might cause the health of her sick son to be
319:
Richards and Rao refer to
Papanna's attempt as a "dual rebellion" and that phrase has been used subsequently by the Metcalfs, among others. They say that in leading such a rebellion "against both imperial and local chiefly authority, Papanna struck too boldly at the most basic ordering of society,
159:
and gaining total control of the region in 1687, making it the last of the independent sultanates to be annexed to the Mughal Empire. Many changes followed this event, and they generally caused a reduction in the influence of those people who had once been notable within
Golkonda. Furthermore, the
177:
Papanna had no desire to remain a toddy-tapper and his refusal to work in the traditional occupation of his caste was one of his early acts of defiance. It has been speculated that the contradiction between the position of his caste and the roles in society that his father, brother and sister may
187:
In the 1690s he stole money and property from his wealthy widowed sister, assaulting her in the process. With these funds he built a hill-fort at
Tatikonda and drew a band of men around him who were willing to become highwaymen, and then proceeded to rob traders who used the nearby route between
279:
on 1 June 1708, being the occasion of a Muslim festival. Although many hostages were taken – he had promised silver to those who captured females, and gold if they were of high status – the raid was not as successful as that at
Warangal, at least in part because an accident caused the
274:
By now Papanna's support among the landless peasantry must have been considerable, as evidenced by his ability to raise large numbers of people to fight or to build on his behalf and the numbers that would have been required to tend his 10,000–12,000 captured cattle and extensive landholdings.
234:
Although the siege was successful, forcing Papanna to flee and enabling Khan to blow up the fort, it was not long before the brigands returned. Khan had moved back to Hyderabad and Papanna was able to rebuild the Shahpur fort, this time using a stone construction that was much stronger than the
104:
Gowda, and other modern scholars such as the Metcalfs refer only to the occupation. Eaton has noted that numerous castes recite the Papanna folklore and that this infers his later actions and the support for them were not caste-based. Eaton also notes that there are versions of the ballad still
76:
Much of the information relating to Papanna is of the quasi-historical type. His exploits, and those of other folk heroes of his area and era, are documented primarily in ballads that have passed through the generations and are still sung locally. It is in the context of studying folklore and
105:
recited today that suggest his family may have attained positions in society outside those usually assigned to their caste: his father may have been headman of a village and his brother a minor commander in an army, whilst his sister married into considerable wealth.
56:
and his Hindu populace were rising. Towards the end of his life, after the death of Aurangzeb and amid the subsequent power struggle for succession, Papanna was able to dramatically enhance his fortunes, in particular as a consequence of a raid on the wealthy city of
218:
It was at this time that he began to kidnap women. The outrage caused by this and by his other disruptive activities caused Aurangzeb to be petitioned in order that something might be done to stop Papanna. A force was sent to serve achieve that end but its
112:
region and his birthplace may have been Tatikonda, a village around 40 kilometres (25 mi) southwest of Warangal near Ghanpur. Until 1323 this region had been ruled by a Hindu maharajah and thereafter was under the control of Muslim sultans. The
202:
was to become a theme of his life, in part because of the destabilising threat that he posed to society and, more specifically, to their own vested interests in inherited lands and the power base implicit in their control of local militias.
401:
The provenance of his landholdings is not known: they could have been taken from people whom he defeated, developed from previously uncultivated areas, or a combination of these two methods. He did create at least one new village, called
121:
dynasty. They inherited an area that was relatively easy to govern as, even prior to the sultanate, there was an accepted social structure, which included warrior-cultivator groups and chieftains as well as a shared use of the
261:
The successful raid on Warangal, with all the riches that resulted from it, propelled Papanna to new heights. He was able to arm his fort and his followers with the latest weaponry and, as Eaton describes:
178:
have attained could explain Papanna's refusal to accept the restrictive ritualised norms. That he later married a woman who was almost certainly not of a toddy-tapper caste, since she was the sister of a
295:
families were simply incensed at such impudence." Bahadur Shah had to back down and he announced that Papanna would be killed, with the responsibility for achieving this end being given to Dilawar Khan.
188:
Hyderabad and Warangal, the erstwhile capital of Golkonda. The bandits did not stay at Tarikonda for long: the disruption and loss caused by their raids led to them being driven out by the local
238:
Another imperial attempt to curb Papanna occurred in 1706, when Khan had returned to the region following a posting elsewhere. Khan engaged the services of another bandit, who was probably
958:
Singh, Surinder (2008), "Mughal Centralisation and Local Resistance in North Western India: An Exploration in the Ballad of Dulla Bhatti", in Singh, Surinder; Gaur, I. D. (eds.),
382:, defined as "peasant outlaws whom the lord and state regard as criminals, but who remain within peasant society, and are considered by their people as heroes, as champions."
1063:
164:
epidemics and other disasters, between 1686 and 1690, while the post-conquest era saw Aurangzeb bleeding Golkonda of its wealth in order to finance projects elsewhere.
235:
previous edifice. He went on to wage campaigns that resulted in the capture of other local forts and enhanced his growing reputation as a potential regional warlord.
215:
blessed. Papanna moved to Shahpur, not far from his old haunt at Tarikonda, where he established another hill-fort and again recruited people to pursue his banditry.
33:; died 1710) was a freedom fighter of early-18th century India who rose from humble beginnings to become a folklore hero. His deeds have been described by historians
254:
former capital city of Warangal with a force of between 2500 and 3500 men. This action was planned to coincide with the eve of the Muslim celebrations of
938:
Richards, J. F.; Rao, V. Narayana (1998), "Banditry in Mughal India: Historical and Folk Traditions", in Alam, Muzaffar; Subrahnanyam, Sanjay (eds.),
328:
Aside from the folklore upon which much of the knowledge regarding Papanna relies, there has been at least one film production telling his story:
995:
969:
901:
874:
854:
831:
949:
1048:
304:
The beginning of the fall of Papanna can be dated to June 1709. Prisoners at Shahpur – including his brother-in-law, the
155:
from the Qutb Shahi sultan and then sent his son, Aurangzeb, to represent him in Golkonda. Aurangzeb eventually succeeded in
139:
The mutual respect that ensued enabled Golkonda to become an extremely wealthy region, as evidenced by the construction of
1043:
1073:
101:. Which of the several Telugu toddy-tapping castes he may have belonged to is uncertain. Eaton believes that he was a
392:
entrepreneur in banditry and most of his direct relatives were not directly involved in palm wine production either."
136:
chieftains, whom Eaton describes as having "an ethic of courage and steadfast loyalty to their political overlords."
1053:
335:
65:
788:
77:
linguistics that much of the evidence, such as it is, has been collected. However, there is also the work of
330:
320:
and thus mobilized against him all those with a stake in the established hierarchies of caste and wealth."
1068:
339:
910:
Richards, J. F.; Rao, V. N. (January 1980), "Banditry in Mughal India: Historical and Folk Perceptions",
81:, a contemporary chronicler who based his writings on official reports circulating in the Mughal empire.
117:
broke up into five smaller kingdoms in the sixteenth century and Golkonda came under the control of the
283:
In 1709 Papanna demonstrated his desire for recognition when he attended an audience at Hyderabad with
41:
as "Robin Hood-like", while another historian, Richard Eaton, considers him to be a good example of a
1058:
1022:
927:
883:
34:
19:
239:
64:
Between 1702 and 1709 Papanna and his men were besieged four times while occupying the fort at
991:
965:
945:
897:
887:
870:
850:
827:
156:
127:
114:
38:
1014:
919:
228:
224:
123:
805:
284:
250:
Papanna was emboldened by this success. On 31 March 1708 he initiated an attack on the
42:
1037:
931:
840:
379:
255:
251:
132:
90:
52:
had expanded its interests in South India and when tensions between the Muslim ruler
49:
351:
98:
959:
939:
891:
864:
844:
821:
412:
280:
insurgents to give away their intentions. Eaton has described it as a "fiasco".
207:
923:
1018:
144:
118:
78:
190:
140:
53:
826:, New Cambridge History of India, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
411:
Papanna's wife assisted her brother and his fellow captives by smuggling
109:
58:
1005:
Richards, John F. (February 1976). "The Imperial Crisis in the Deccan".
1026:
276:
180:
161:
152:
61:. Although of humble origin, he assumed some of the manners of a king.
223:
was killed in fighting. The matter was then passed into the hands of
148:
94:
438:
436:
434:
432:
143:. However, by the 1630s it was apparent that troubles lay ahead.
823:
A Social History of the Deccan, 1300–1761: Eight Indian Lives
275:
Despite his enhanced status, Papanna desired more and raided
160:
conquest had caused or coincided with crop failures, famine,
707:
705:
703:
701:
642:
640:
184:(military governor), is also a possible indicator of this.
961:
Popular literature and pre-modern societies in South Asia
210:, Papanna spent a period in the employ of Venkat Rao, a
676:
674:
672:
670:
657:
655:
627:
625:
612:
610:
597:
595:
593:
508:
506:
504:
491:
489:
487:
291: ... Landholders claiming descent from ancient
415:
that they used to free themselves from their chains
266:He also began comporting himself in the style of a
988:Power, administration, and finance in Mughal India
264:
442:
8:
746:
735:
572:
231:, who determined to lay siege on the fort.
89:Papanna was born in the 17th century to a
912:Indian Economic and Social History Review
524:
48:Papanna lived during the period when the
1064:People executed by India by decapitation
466:
68:. He was captured and executed in 1710.
18:
866:Xenophobia in Seventeenth-Century India
428:
368:
944:, New Delhi: Oxford University Press,
758:
723:
711:
692:
680:
661:
646:
631:
616:
601:
584:
560:
548:
536:
512:
495:
478:
454:
194:(hereditary chieftain-landlords) and
7:
206:Moving over a hundred miles away to
789:"Sardar Pananna releasing tomorrow"
14:
791:. bharatwaves.com. 24 August 2006
147:, who was the Mughal emperor at
126:and literature. Sultans such as
896:, Cambridge University Press,
869:, Amsterdam University Press,
108:Papanna's family lived in the
1:
804:Boyle, J. A. (January 1874),
97:whose occupation was that of
1007:The Journal of Asian Studies
443:Metcalf & Metcalf (2002)
964:, Pearson Education India,
1090:
986:Richards, John F. (1993).
941:The Mughal State 1526–1750
924:10.1177/001946468001700103
893:A Concise History of India
820:Eaton, Richard M. (2005),
1019:10.1017/s0021911800080700
747:Richards & Rao (1998)
736:Richards & Rao (1980)
573:Richards & Rao (1980)
227:, the deputy-governor of
863:Kruijtzer, Gijs (2009),
378:is a concept devised by
342:, was released in 2006.
336:Pratani Ramakrishna Goud
198:. The opposition of the
990:. Aldershot: Variorum.
1049:Executed Indian people
806:"Telugu Ballad Poetry"
272:
23:
884:Metcalf, Barbara Daly
22:
1044:History of Telangana
810:The Indian Antiquary
157:conquering Hyderabad
1074:17th-century births
481:, pp. 155, 160
888:Metcalf, Thomas R.
714:, pp. 168–169
649:, pp. 164–165
563:, pp. 157–158
85:Historical context
24:
1054:Indian highwaymen
997:978-0-86078-366-4
971:978-81-317-1358-7
903:978-0-521-63974-3
876:978-90-8728-068-0
856:978-0-297-86531-5
833:978-0-521-25484-7
773:, 24 August 2006.
252:heavily fortified
151:, began to exact
128:Ibrahim Qutb Shah
115:Bahmani Sultanate
1081:
1030:
1001:
974:
954:
934:
906:
879:
859:
836:
816:
800:
798:
796:
774:
768:
762:
756:
750:
744:
738:
733:
727:
721:
715:
709:
696:
690:
684:
678:
665:
659:
650:
644:
635:
629:
620:
614:
605:
599:
588:
582:
576:
570:
564:
558:
552:
546:
540:
534:
528:
525:Kruijtzer (2009)
522:
516:
510:
499:
493:
482:
476:
470:
464:
458:
452:
446:
445:, pp. 30–31
440:
416:
409:
403:
399:
393:
389:
383:
373:
1089:
1088:
1084:
1083:
1082:
1080:
1079:
1078:
1034:
1033:
1004:
998:
985:
982:
980:Further reading
977:
972:
957:
952:
937:
909:
904:
882:
877:
862:
857:
849:, Hachette UK,
839:
834:
819:
803:
794:
792:
787:
778:
777:
769:
765:
757:
753:
745:
741:
734:
730:
722:
718:
710:
699:
691:
687:
679:
668:
660:
653:
645:
638:
630:
623:
615:
608:
600:
591:
583:
579:
571:
567:
559:
555:
547:
543:
535:
531:
523:
519:
511:
502:
494:
485:
477:
473:
467:Hobsbawm (2010)
465:
461:
453:
449:
441:
430:
420:
419:
410:
406:
400:
396:
390:
386:
374:
370:
360:
348:
326:
324:Popular culture
302:
289:nayaka-zamindar
248:
175:
170:
124:Telugu language
106:
87:
74:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1087:
1085:
1077:
1076:
1071:
1066:
1061:
1056:
1051:
1046:
1036:
1035:
1032:
1031:
1013:(2): 237–256.
1002:
996:
981:
978:
976:
975:
970:
955:
950:
935:
907:
902:
880:
875:
860:
855:
841:Hobsbawm, Eric
837:
832:
817:
801:
784:
776:
775:
763:
751:
739:
728:
716:
697:
685:
666:
651:
636:
621:
606:
589:
577:
565:
553:
551:, p. 156.
541:
529:
517:
500:
483:
471:
459:
447:
427:
426:
418:
417:
404:
394:
384:
367:
366:
359:
356:
355:
354:
347:
344:
334:, directed by
331:Sardar Papanna
325:
322:
301:
298:
285:Bahadur Shah I
247:
244:
174:
171:
169:
166:
103:
86:
83:
73:
70:
39:Thomas Metcalf
16:Sarvai Papanna
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1086:
1075:
1072:
1070:
1069:Telugu people
1067:
1065:
1062:
1060:
1057:
1055:
1052:
1050:
1047:
1045:
1042:
1041:
1039:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1003:
999:
993:
989:
984:
983:
979:
973:
967:
963:
962:
956:
953:
951:9780195639056
947:
943:
942:
936:
933:
929:
925:
921:
918:(1): 95–120,
917:
913:
908:
905:
899:
895:
894:
889:
885:
881:
878:
872:
868:
867:
861:
858:
852:
848:
847:
842:
838:
835:
829:
825:
824:
818:
815:
811:
807:
802:
790:
786:
785:
783:
782:
772:
767:
764:
761:, p. 108
760:
755:
752:
749:, p. 514
748:
743:
740:
737:
732:
729:
726:, p. 171
725:
720:
717:
713:
708:
706:
704:
702:
698:
695:, p. 173
694:
689:
686:
683:, p. 167
682:
677:
675:
673:
671:
667:
664:, p. 166
663:
658:
656:
652:
648:
643:
641:
637:
634:, p. 163
633:
628:
626:
622:
619:, p. 172
618:
613:
611:
607:
604:, p. 162
603:
598:
596:
594:
590:
587:, p. 159
586:
581:
578:
574:
569:
566:
562:
557:
554:
550:
545:
542:
539:, p. 170
538:
533:
530:
527:, p. 140
526:
521:
518:
515:, p. 174
514:
509:
507:
505:
501:
498:, p. 160
497:
492:
490:
488:
484:
480:
475:
472:
468:
463:
460:
457:, p. 155
456:
451:
448:
444:
439:
437:
435:
433:
429:
425:
424:
414:
408:
405:
398:
395:
388:
385:
381:
380:Eric Hobsbawm
377:
376:Social bandit
372:
369:
365:
364:
357:
353:
350:
349:
345:
343:
341:
338:and starring
337:
333:
332:
323:
321:
317:
313:
309:
307:
299:
297:
294:
290:
286:
281:
278:
271:
269:
263:
259:
257:
253:
245:
243:
241:
236:
232:
230:
226:
222:
216:
213:
209:
204:
201:
197:
193:
192:
185:
183:
182:
172:
167:
165:
163:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
137:
135:
134:
129:
125:
120:
116:
111:
102:
100:
99:toddy tapping
96:
92:
84:
82:
80:
71:
69:
67:
62:
60:
55:
51:
50:Mughal Empire
46:
44:
43:social bandit
40:
36:
32:
28:
21:
1010:
1006:
987:
960:
940:
915:
911:
892:
865:
845:
822:
813:
809:
793:. Retrieved
781:Bibliography
780:
779:
770:
766:
759:Singh (2008)
754:
742:
731:
724:Eaton (2005)
719:
712:Eaton (2005)
693:Eaton (2005)
688:
681:Eaton (2005)
662:Eaton (2005)
647:Eaton (2005)
632:Eaton (2005)
617:Eaton (2005)
602:Eaton (2005)
585:Eaton (2005)
580:
575:, p. 97
568:
561:Eaton (2005)
556:
549:Eaton (2005)
544:
537:Eaton (2005)
532:
520:
513:Eaton (2005)
496:Eaton (2005)
479:Eaton (2005)
474:
469:, p. 13
462:
455:Eaton (2005)
450:
422:
421:
407:
397:
387:
375:
371:
362:
361:
352:Dulla Bhatti
329:
327:
318:
314:
310:
305:
303:
292:
288:
282:
273:
267:
265:
260:
249:
237:
233:
220:
217:
211:
205:
199:
195:
189:
186:
179:
176:
138:
131:
107:
93:family of a
88:
75:
63:
47:
30:
26:
25:
1059:1710 deaths
771:Bharatwaves
1038:Categories
402:Hasanabad.
358:References
145:Shah Jahan
119:Qutb Shahi
79:Khafi Khan
932:145230793
843:(2010) ,
795:4 January
423:Citations
240:Riza Khan
229:Hyderabad
200:zamindars
191:zamindars
141:Hyderabad
54:Aurangzeb
29:(born as
890:(2002),
346:See also
225:Dil Khan
212:zamindar
196:faujdars
168:Exploits
110:Golkonda
59:Warangal
1027:2053981
846:Bandits
340:Krishna
306:faujdar
277:Bhongir
221:faujdar
181:faujdar
162:cholera
153:tribute
72:Sources
66:Shahpur
35:Barbara
31:Papanna
1025:
994:
968:
948:
930:
900:
873:
853:
830:
293:nayaka
256:Ashura
208:Kaulas
133:Nayaka
91:Telugu
27:Papadu
1023:JSTOR
928:S2CID
413:files
363:Notes
149:Delhi
95:caste
992:ISBN
966:ISBN
946:ISBN
898:ISBN
871:ISBN
851:ISBN
828:ISBN
797:2012
300:Fall
268:raja
246:Peak
173:Rise
37:and
1015:doi
920:doi
1040::
1021:.
1011:35
1009:.
926:,
916:17
914:,
886:;
812:,
808:,
700:^
669:^
654:^
639:^
624:^
609:^
592:^
503:^
486:^
431:^
45:.
1029:.
1017::
1000:.
922::
814:3
799:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
