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the lowest air temperature, precipitation level, soil water-holding capacity, and nutrient content of all the zones. Being the highest in elevation, it also has the highest levels of solar radiation and night frost. For this reason, vegetation in the superpáramo must be highly resistant to such severe fluctuations in weather. Air temperatures are low—cold at night and cool during the day—with daily oscillations greater than the oscillations of monthly averages. Due to its localization on high mountains, this area is the least disturbed by humans and contains the most endemic species of all the zones. Flora includes
357:
94:
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288:(ITCZ) have a substantial effect on the climate, and these regions tend to be consistently humid (approx. 70–85%) throughout the year. The Andes also play a key role in the climate of these regions as they cause an orographic uplift in which moist air rises. This creates continuous moisture via rain, clouds, and fog, with many of them receiving over 2,000 mm (79 in) of rain annually.
42:
655:
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344:. Recently, there has been an increase in Andisol soils, largely due to more volcanic activity. These soils have a very high water retention rate, which contributes to the rise in cultivation and differential land use. This water supply stored in the soil in the higher elevation páramo in the Andes becomes the water supply for Andean settlements in lower altitudes.
685:
ecosystems suffered accordingly. As more land was needed for cattle, fire was used to clear land, and eventually páramos became excessively burned and overgrazed. Both burning and grazing have damaged vegetation, soils, species diversity, and water storage capacity of the páramos. In burned and disturbed sites that were studied in the Andes the
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Humans have inhabited the páramo of the Andes for approximately the past 15,000 years. Deforestation has been extensive and in some cases, like the northern Andes, 90-95% of forests have been cleared. Other sites in
Venezuela and Colombia show evidence that humans settled there at least 800 years ago
717:
Increases in temperature extremes are forcing many fauna and flora species to higher grounds, and eventually they could face extinction. The flora of páramos is adapted to specific conditions and is thus vulnerable to even small climate changes. Climate change in the Andes is causing glaciers in the
476:
is the lowest and most diverse zone. At 3,000–3,500 m (9,800–11,500 ft), it is a shrub-dominated zone that combines aspects of both the grass páramo above and the forest below. Along with shrubs, this zone also contains small, scattered trees which gradually transition into the grasses and
445:
tend to dominate this zone. Other common vegetation includes large and small shrubs, stunted trees, cushion plants, herbs, and rosette plants. While these are the dominant species, grass páramos can also contain tall- and short-grass communities, including herbaceous and woody vegetation. Due to its
371:
is at the highest elevation and is usually considered to be the transition zone between the higher, permanent snow region and the lower grass páramo zone. The superpáramo zone is generally narrow and exists atop loose stones and sandy soils at about 4,500–4,800 m (14,800–15,700 ft). It has
320:
Soils in páramo ecosystems vary, but most are young and partially weathered. The soil has a relatively low pH because of an abundance of moisture and organic content. Organic content, even within disturbed sites averages very high which contributes to water retention in the soil. During cold and wet
299:
Overall, páramo climates are known for their daily fluctuations in temperature and humidity. While they are generally cold and humid ecosystems, they often undergo a sudden and drastic change in weather in which they fluctuate between temperatures from below freezing to 10 °C (50 °F). This
713:
is becoming an increasingly pressing issue for páramo ecosystems. Growing populations in
Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador have forced settlements in higher elevations covering more páramo. Recent developments such as construction of aqueducts, drainage systems, and roads, mining, and afforestation
503:
conditions, yet the more abrupt changes are generally due to anthropogenic disruption such as cutting, burning, and grazing activities. Because of these high levels of disruption, it is believed that subpáramos are made up of largely secondary-growth communities. The high levels of disruption also
422:
is sometimes used to refer to this specific type. It has continuous vegetation and plant cover with a "yellowish to olive–brown" look due to the combination of dead and living grasses. The grass páramo extends from approximately 3,500–4,100 m (11,500–13,500 ft), and is composed of mostly
291:
The páramos of the northernmost Andes of
Venezuela, northern Colombia, and Costa Rica experience a different climate due to the dry season, which is caused by northeasterly trade winds. Southern Ecuador and northern Peru experience the most severe dryness as they are influenced by an air mass from
511:
Lichens are widely distributed in all types of paramos, however different growth forms may be favoured by environmental conditions. For example, extreme conditions associated with rocky substrates and high elevations favour crustose lichens, while foliose and fruticose lichens are associated with
684:
When
Europeans came to the Americas they introduced exotic plants and animals that greatly affected the land, especially cattle, which were introduced to the páramos in the early 18th century. By the 20th century the growing population of settlers led to an increased demand for land, and páramo
504:
make this zone particularly difficult to define, as humans typically extend and expand the zone for their own purposes, sometimes over hundreds or thousands of years. This has altered forest lines, often lowering them by several hundred meters, which has also affected the
68:
located in the Andes
Mountain Range, South America. Some ecologists describe the páramo broadly as "all high, tropical, montane vegetation above the continuous timberline". A narrower term classifies the páramo according to its regional placement in the northern
352:
Páramos are divided into separate zones based on elevation and vegetative structure, with the three main types of páramo vegetation unequally distributed throughout different zones. As of 2021, more than 3,000 plant species have been discovered in the páramo.
321:
weather, there are few nutrients available and productivity is very low in páramo soils. Soils in páramo ecosystems have changed because of human activity, especially due to burning vegetation to clear land for grazing.
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oscillation often results in a daily freeze-and-thaw cycle. Mean annual temperatures of páramo ecosystems range from 2 to 10 °C (36 to 50 °F), with increasingly colder temperatures at higher latitudes.
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herbs of the grass páramo above. Plant communities in this vegetation zone are also known to include thickets that are mainly composed of shrubby or woody vegetation, including species from the genera
452:
535:
The vegetation of the páramo provides shelter and habitat for a variety of mammals, birds, insects, amphibians, and reptiles. Some animals commonly found in páramo ecosystems include the
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less extreme conditions and mid altitudes. The atmospheric factors such as humidity and temperature positively favour taller lichens, due to an increase in locally available water.
205:(about 20 kilometres (12 mi) south of Bogotá), is the largest páramo in the world. This region was declared a National Park of Colombia in 1977 because of its importance as a
557:
bromeliads. Invertebrates such as grasshoppers, cockroaches, beetles, and flies are found in the subpáramo. Amphibians have been well documented in páramo ecosystems, including
73:
of South
America and adjacent southern Central America. The páramo is the ecosystem of the regions above the continuous forest line, yet below the permanent snowline. It is a "
1030:
Hofstede, Robert; Arnout
Rossenaar (February 1995). "Biomass of Grazed, Burned, and Undisturbed Páramo Grasslands, Colombia. II. Root Mass and Aboveground:Belowground Ratio".
725:
banned all mining operations in the paramos, prioritising the protection of the environment, and terminating 347 mining licenses that had operational rights in the ecosystem.
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and main source of water for the most densely populated area of the country, the Bogotá Savannah. The 5.7-square-kilometre (1,405-acre) Páramo
Wildlife Refuge Park in the
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páramo to disappear and a drop in rainfall, virtually drying up páramo and in turn, drying up the water supply for cities such as Quito, Ecuador and Bogotá, Colombia.
1356:
Suárez, Esteban; Galo Medina (May 2001). "Vegetation
Structure and Soil Properties in Ecuadorian Páramo Grasslands with Different Histories of Burning and Grazing".
1294:
Monge-Nájera, J (2019). "Relative humidity, temperature, substrate type, and height of terrestrial lichens in a tropical paramo. Revista de Biología
Tropical".
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612:), also called "king of the Andes", is known for its wide wingspan, but is no longer frequently seen. The most numerous bird families in the páramo include
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858:
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418:. Grass páramos cover large areas of mountain ranges, while others are limited to small areas on slopes and summits of very high mountains. The term
1275:
Ceron, BW; Quintero, ALP (2009). "Estructura de una comunidad de líquenes y morfología del género Sticta (Stictaceae) en un gradiente altitudinal".
1221:
Rai, H; Khare, R; Baniya, CB; Upreti, DK; Gupta, RK (2015). "Elevational gradients of terricolous lichen species richness in the Western Himalaya".
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Sixty-nine species of birds are considered to be "total users" of páramo habitats, with "41 species making it their primary habitat and 16 as
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77:
high mountain biome with a vegetation composed mainly of giant rosette plants, shrubs and grasses". According to scientists, páramos may be "
1517:
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the Amazon Basin, which releases its moisture on the eastern slopes, as well as another air mass from the west that is influenced by the
1537:
756:
Baruch, Zdravko (20 March 1984). "Ordination and Classification of Vegetation along an Altitudinal Gradient in the Venezuelan Páramos".
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easier access and high levels of grass, this zone is more impacted by humans and suffers from both burning and grazing activities.
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The 2023 short documentary, "Sun and Thunder" about La Nasa indigenous activist Nora Taquines, was filmed in the páramo region.
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in Costa Rica and Panama is another páramo ecoregion. In the strictest sense of the term, all páramo ecosystems are in the
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Páramo climates differ slightly depending on the specific location. In Colombia and northern Ecuador, air masses from the
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988:"La Sierra de Santo Domingo: "Biogeographic reconstructions for the Quaternary of a former snowy mountain range""
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632:. Some hummingbirds tolerate the cold climate by going into "a kind of nightly hibernation."
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Sklenar, P; Jorgensen, PM (July 1999). "Distribution Patterns of Paramo Plants in Ecuador".
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Páramos: A Checklist of Plant Diversity, Geographical Distribution, and Botanical Literature
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of Costa Rica and the westernmost part of Panama has páramo. In northern Ecuador, the
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latitudes, these ecosystems are mainly in the northwest corner of South America, in
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or Andean bear is the only surviving species of bear native to South America.
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of Costa Rica "protects tropical forest areas in the high elevations of the
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contains 329.9 square kilometres (81,524 acres) of protected land in the
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1119:"Páramos at Risk: The Interconnected Threats to a Biodiversity Hotspot"
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Armstrong, RA; Welch, AR (2007). "Competition in lichen communities".
551:) which occasionally forages in the high páramo for its favored food,
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17:
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273:
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1067:"Clay mineralogy of the soils in the south Ecuadorian páramo region"
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651:. Many of the larger mammals of the páramo are rare due to hunting.
324:
Soils in the south Ecuadorian páramo are characterized broadly into
81:
hot spots", meaning that it's among the fastest evolving regions on
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1454:] (in Spanish). Bogotá: Instituto Geográfico Agustín Codazzi.
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concentration in the soil are higher than in non-burned sites.
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The feature film, "A Vanishing Fog" was filmed in the páramo.
887:"Guatemala's Altos de Chiantla: Changes on the High Frontier"
227:
of Ecuador. Much of this park is páramo. Its flora includes
1392:"Decisión de la Corte frena 347 títulos mineros en páramos"
686:
103:
The Northern Andean Páramo global ecoregion includes the
1065:
Buytaert, W; Sevink, J; De Leeuw, B; Deckers, J (2005).
495:. Fragmented forests can appear in the subpáramo due to
1186:
Rogers, RW (1990). "Ecological strategies of lichens".
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in the páramo, while birds and smaller mammals such as
1446:Nieto Escalante, Juan Antonio; et al. (2010).
816:. Bronx, New York: New York Botanical Garden Press.
185:The majority of the páramo ecosystems occur in the
1112:
1110:
1411:Wise, Monica; Noriega, Christina (15 June 2023).
714:have been a huge additional páramo disturbance.
579:species. Reptiles include lizards of the genera
119:(Colombia, Ecuador) terrestrial ecoregions. The
681:and used the land for agriculture and hunting.
635:Hummingbirds, bees and flies are all important
1330:
1328:
1326:
832:"High Above Sea Level, Evolutionary Hot Spots"
8:
885:Steinberg, Michael; Taylor, Matthew (2008).
1471:Nuestro patrimonio, 100 tesoros de Colombia
182:is a fairly undisturbed páramo ecosystem.
158:. Páramo ecosystems are also found in the
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27:High-altitude wet tundra in South America
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539:(sometimes called the páramo wolf), the
1477:] (in Spanish). Bogotá: El Tiempo.
1475:Our heritage, 100 treasures of Colombia
745:
414:The most broadly described zone is the
154:In Venezuela, the páramo occurs in the
1358:Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research
1312:
1301:
1012:
1001:
1469:Wills, Fernando; et al. (2001).
1117:Rasolt, Daniel Henryk (13 May 2021).
56:
7:
162:in Colombia, and in the regions of
25:
1508:Montane grasslands and shrublands
891:Mountain Research and Development
1533:Natural regions of South America
1157:10.1046/j.1365-2699.1999.00324.x
986:Sánchez Dávila, Gabriel (2016).
723:Constitutional Court of Colombia
703:in a páramo, caused by wind and
451:
433:and other grasses of the genera
676:Human impact and climate change
1400:(in Spanish). 8 February 2016.
1336:"Biodiversity: Paramo Regions"
1094:10.1016/j.geoderma.2004.11.021
382:and species from the families
286:Intertropical Convergence Zone
1:
1513:Ecoregions of Central America
1223:Biodiversity and Conservation
996:10.13140/RG.2.2.21325.38886/1
667:in the Pan de Ázucar páramo,
30:For the butterfly genus, see
863:. WWF Global. Archived from
160:Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
61:) may refer to a variety of
1518:Ecoregions of South America
180:Guandera Biological Station
113:Cordillera de Merida páramo
1559:
1538:Regions of Central America
1032:Arctic and Alpine Research
567:species and frogs such as
172:Sierra de los Cuchumatanes
29:
1277:Acta Biológica Colombiana
1235:10.1007/s10531-014-0848-6
1200:10.1017/S002428299000010X
812:Luteyn, James L. (1999).
272:sp. in Páramo de Chiles,
105:Cordillera Central páramo
935:"Paramo Wildlife Refuge"
721:On 8 February 2016, the
467:Playa de los Frailejones
430:Calamagrostis intermedia
195:Altiplano Cundiboyacense
1523:Ecoregions of the Andes
1145:Journal of Biogeography
176:Cordillera de Talamanca
36:Páramo (disambiguation)
1311:Cite journal requires
1011:Cite journal requires
860:Northern Andean Paramo
707:
672:
532:
411:
407:, Páramo de Guerrero,
365:
317:
281:
221:Cotopaxi National Park
117:Northern Andean páramo
100:
54:Spanish pronunciation:
46:
34:. For other uses, see
1452:Geography of Colombia
1448:Geografía de Colombia
1420:52 Documentary Series
699:
657:
523:
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96:
44:
830:(November 7, 2013).
665:Espeletia boyacensis
506:altitudinal zonation
375:Azorella pedunculata
362:Azorella pedunculata
207:biodiversity hotspot
170:of Guatemala in the
156:Cordillera de Mérida
1416:(short documentary)
1086:2005Geode.127..114B
967:on 18 December 2011
729:Cultural References
312:Páramo de Rabanal,
215:Talamanca Mountains
1422:. Voice of America
770:10.1007/BF00037333
708:
673:
630:tyrant flycatchers
626:thraupid "finches"
549:Tremarctos ornatus
533:
525:Tremarctos ornatus
508:for many animals.
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366:
318:
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121:Costa Rican páramo
109:Santa Marta páramo
101:
47:
45:Páramo in Colombia
32:Paramo (butterfly)
1543:Neotropical realm
1461:978-958-8323-38-1
1413:"Sun and Thunder"
1188:The Lichenologist
959:Marbache, Julie.
602:indicator species
541:white-tailed deer
225:Cotopaxi Province
211:San José Province
201:of the Colombian
107:(Ecuador, Peru),
58:[ˈpaɾamo]
16:(Redirected from
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937:. Archived from
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191:Sumapaz Páramo
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369:Superpáramo
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