950:
647:
47:
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602:
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861:. Some biologists reject this delineation, advocating the disuse of the term "parapatric" outright, "because many different spatial distributions can result in intermediate levels of gene flow". Others champion this position and suggest the abandonment of geographic classification schemes (geographic modes of speciation) altogether.
1203:
are often cited as evidence of parapatric speciation and numerous examples have been documented to exist in nature; many of which contain hybrid zones. These clinal patterns, however, can also often be explained by allopatric speciation followed by a period of secondary contact—causing difficulty for
1125:
Parapatric speciation is very difficult to observe in nature. This is due to one primary factor: patterns of parapatry can easily be explained by an alternate mode of speciation. Particularly, documenting closely related species sharing common boundaries does not imply that parapatric speciation was
884:
Due to the continuous nature of a parapatric population distribution, population niches will often overlap, producing a continuum in the species' ecological role across an environmental gradient. Whereas in allopatric or peripatric speciation—in which geographically isolated populations may evolve
911:
effectively produce a new species; of which was subsequently confirmed mathematically. Further mathematical models have been developed to demonstrate the possibility of clinal speciation with most relying on, what Coyne and Orr assert are, "assumptions that are either restrictive or biologically
984:
Referred to as a "stepping-stone" model by Coyne and Orr, it differs by virtue of the species population distribution pattern. Populations in discrete groups undoubtedly speciate more easily than those in a cline due to more limited gene flow. This allows for a population to evolve reproductive
769:
Mathematical models, laboratory studies, and observational evidence supports the existence of parapatric speciation's occurrence in nature. The qualities of parapatry imply a partial extrinsic barrier during divergence; thus leading to a difficulty in determining whether this mode of speciation
915:
A mathematical model for clinal speciation was developed by Caisse and
Antonovics that found evidence that, "both genetic divergence and reproductive isolation may therefore occur between populations connected by gene flow". This research supports clinal isolation comparable to a ring species
970:
Nevertheless, ring species are more convincing than cases of clinal isolation for showing that gene flow hampers the evolution of reproductive isolation. In clinal isolation, one can argue that reproductive isolation was caused by environmental differences that increase with distance between
965:
original conception of a ring species does not describe allopatric speciation, "but speciation occurring through the attenuation of gene flow with distance". They contend that ring species provide evidence of parapatric speciation in a non-conventional sense. They go on to conclude that:
760:
proposed an alternative, "discrete population" model (the "stepping-stone model). Since Darwin, a great deal of research has been conducted on parapatric speciation—concluding that its mechanisms are theoretically plausible, "and has most certainly occurred in nature".
1337:
It is widely thought that parapatric speciation is far more common in oceanic species due to the low probability of the presence of full geographic barriers (required in allopatry). Numerous studies conducted have documented parapatric speciation in marine organisms.
1099:
often lends support to the occurrence of parapatry. This is due to the fact that, in symaptric speciation, gene flow within a population is unrestricted; whereas in parapatric speciation, gene flow is limited—thus allowing reproductive isolation to evolve easier.
996:
Several mathematical models have been developed to test whether this form of parapatric speciation can occur, providing theoretical possibility and supporting biological plausibility (dependent on the models parameters and their concordance with nature).
1186:
that grows on soil contaminated with high levels of copper, leached from an unused mine. Adjacent is the non-contaminated soil. The populations are evolving reproductive isolation due to differences in flowering. The same phenomenon has been found in
867:
has been shown to be the primary driver in parapatric speciation (among other modes), and the strength of selection during divergence is often an important factor. Parapatric speciation may also result from reproductive isolation caused by
2683:"Evidence for parapatric speciation in the Mormyrid fish, Pollimyrus castelnaui (Boulenger, 1911), from the Okavango–Upper Zambezi River Systems: P. marianne sp. nov., defined by electric organ discharges, morphology and genetics"
1026:, suggested that parapatric speciation can result from the same components that cause allopatric speciation. Called para-allopatric speciation, populations begin diverging parapatrically, fully speciating only after allopatry.
736:(environmental gradients), "stepping-stone" (discrete populations), and stasipatric speciation in concordance with most of the parapatric speciation literature. Henceforth, the models are subdivided following a similar format.
1204:
researchers attempting to determine their origin. Thomas B. Smith and colleagues posit that large ecotones are "centers for speciation" (implying parapatric speciation) and are involved in the production of
1126:
the mode that created this geographic distribution pattern. Coyne and Orr assert that the most convincing evidence of parapatric speciation comes in two forms. This is described by the following criteria:
1005:
and colleagues developed numerous analytical and dynamical models of parapatric speciation that have contributed significantly to the quantitative study of speciation. (See the "Further reading" section)
1116:
previously) concerning sympatric and parapatric speciation. They contend that the laboratory evidence is more robust than often suggested, citing laboratory populations sizes as the primary shortcoming.
1076:
are unlikely to cause speciation. Nevertheless, data does support that chromosomal rearrangements can possibly lead to reproductive isolation, but it does not mean speciation results as a consequence.
705:
whose ranges do not significantly overlap but are immediately adjacent to each other; they do not occur together except in a narrow contact zone. Parapatry is a geographical distribution opposed to
654:). Reproductive isolation occurs upon the formation of a hybrid zone. In most cases, the hybrid zone is eliminated due to a selective disadvantage. This effectively completes the speciation process.
2617:
David
Tarkhnishvili, Marine Murtskhvaladze, and Alexander Gavashelishvili (2013), "Speciation in Caucasian lizards: climatic dissimilarity of the habitats is more important than isolation time",
2569:
I. Loera, V. Sosa, and S. M. Ickert-Bond (2012), "Diversification in North
American arid lands: niche conservatism, divergence and expansion of habitat explain speciation in the genus Ephedra",
931:
with the exception that there is never a secondary contact event. The authors conclude that, "spatially localized interactions along environmental gradients can facilitate speciation through
2503:
M. L. Niemiller, B. M. Fitzpatrick, and B. T. Miller (2008), "Recent divergence with gene flow in
Tennessee cave salamanders (Plethodontidae: Gyrinophilus) inferred from gene genealogies",
650:
A diagram representing population subject to a selective gradient of phenotypic or genotypic frequencies (a cline). Each end of the gradient experiences different selective conditions (
4419:
318:
1352:); whereas Rocha and Bowen contend that parapatric speciation is the primary mode among coral-reef fish. Evidence for a clinal model of parapatric speciation was found to occur in
859:
2163:
Anders Ă–deen and Ann-Britt Florin (2000), "Effective population size may limit the power of laboratory experiments to demonstrate sympatric and parapatric speciation",
3025:
2897:
2645:
2603:
2555:
2443:
2016:
1730:
1674:
1499:
2981:
Claudia Bank, Reinhard BĂĽrger, and
Joachim Hermisson (2012), "The Limits to Parapatric Speciation: Dobzhansky–Muller Incompatibilities in a Continent–Island Model",
1163:
species that exists within a specialized habitat next to its sister species that does not reside in the specialized habitat strongly suggests parapatric speciation.
827:
953:
In a ring species, individuals are able to successfully reproduce (exchange genes) with members of their own species in adjacent populations occupying a suitable
801:
633:
3404:
1298:
One study of
Caucasian rock lizards suggested that habitat differences may be more important in the development of reproductive isolation than isolation time.
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241:
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expressions of behavior, among other things. Parapatric speciation predicts that hybrid zones will often exist at the junction between the two populations.
678:
occurs unequally, and 3) populations exist in either continuous or discontinuous geographic ranges. This distribution pattern may be the result of unequal
993:
overpower gene flow between the populations. The smaller the discrete population, the species will likely undergo a higher rate of parapatric speciation.
935:
and result in patterns of geographical segregation between the emerging species." However, one study by
Polechová and Barton disputes these conclusions.
552:
748:
2235:
Janis
Antonovics (2006), "Evolution in closely adjacent plant populations X: long-term persistence of prereproductive isolation at a mine boundary",
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4127:
3285:
1374:
360:
1455:
Roger K. Butlin, Juan
Galindo, and John W. Grahame (2008), "Sympatric, parapatric or allopatric: the most important way to classify speciation?",
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923:
contact is an important factor in parapatric speciation and that, despite gene flow acting as a barrier to divergence in the local population,
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between cave-dwelling and surface-dwelling continuous populations. Concentrated gene flow and mean migration time results inferred a
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populations. One cannot make a similar argument for ring species because the most reproductively isolated populations occur in the
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88:
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in sympatry, and midway between the two in parapatry. Intrinsic to this, parapatry covers the entire continuum; represented as
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Very few laboratory studies have been conducted that explicitly test for parapatric speciation. However, research concerning
1049:
567:
350:
3760:
961:
The concept of a ring species is associated with allopatric speciation as a special case; however, Coyne and Orr argue that
2207:
Thomas McNeilly and Janis
Antonovics (1968), "Evolution in Closely Adjacent Plant Populations. IV. Barriers to Gene Flow",
4731:
4690:
4021:
932:
904:
619:
606:
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4132:
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William R. Rice and Ellen E. Hostert (1993), "Laboratory experiments on speciation: heat have we learned in 40 years?",
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around a geographic barrier. Individuals at the ends of the cline are unable to reproduce when they come into contact.
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2415:
M. Schilthuizen, A. S. Cabanban, and M. Haase (2004), "Possible speciation with gene flow in tropical cave snails",
4396:
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1226:
surveyed a range of literature documenting every phase of parapatric speciation in nature positing that it is both
928:
93:
2835:
Sergey Gavrilets, Li Hai, and Michael D. Vose (1998), "Rapid Parapatric Speciation on Holey Adaptive Landscapes",
1243:) found that cave-dwelling population descended from the above-ground population, likely speciating in parapatry.
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reproductive isolation without gene flow—the reduced gene flow of parapatric speciation will often produce a
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between populations. This environmental gradient ultimately results in genetically distinct sister species.
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3198:
3116:
3090:
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Joseph Felsenstein (1981), "Skepticism Towards Santa Rosalia, or Why are There so Few Kinds of Animals?",
1973:
1194:
1108:
complied 63 laboratory experiments conducted between the years 1950–2000 (many of which were discussed by
1057:
774:) can explain the data. This problem poses the unanswered question as to its overall frequency in nature.
663:
474:
429:
251:
146:
3380:
3312:
927:
drives assortative mating; eventually leading to a complete reduction in gene flow. This model resembles
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424:
196:
81:
38:
1876:
Jitka Polechová and Nicholas H. Barton (2005), "Speciation Through Competition: A Critical Review",
1259:
after a single or a few colonization events, with some species expressing patterns of ring species.
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4635:
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4310:
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1978:
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646:
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504:
439:
404:
288:
191:
116:
51:
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3387:
2355:
Thomas B. Smith; et al. (1997), "A Role for Ecotones in Generating Rainforest Biodiversity",
1101:
4608:
4560:
4553:
4150:
4062:
3923:
3884:
3708:
3652:
3642:
3602:
3516:
3511:
3506:
3424:
3240:
2970:
2943:
Sergey Gavrilets (2003), "Perspective: Models of Speciation: What Have We Learned in 40 Years?",
2844:
2816:
2713:
2538:
2486:
2312:
2260:
2138:
2063:
1999:
1947:
1903:
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1713:
1623:
1553:
1065:
998:
873:
757:
683:
557:
489:
273:
201:
166:
1848:
Michelle Caisse and Janis Antonovics (1978), "Evolution in closely adjacent plant populations",
903:
original conception of clinal speciation relied on (unlike most modern speciation research) the
4650:
4376:
4324:
3918:
3819:
3782:
3777:
3733:
3728:
3681:
3647:
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3019:
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2010:
1991:
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1779:
1724:
1705:
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1657:
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1545:
1493:
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1436:
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in North American, found evidence of parapatric niche divergence for the sister species pairs
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986:
864:
258:
136:
126:
121:
46:
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1688:
Michael E. Hochberg, Barry Sinervo, and Sam P. Brown (2003), "Socially Mediated Speciation",
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1983:
1929:
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1821:
1813:
1771:
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1537:
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1144:
1140:
No evidence exists for a period of geographic separation between two closely related species
1053:
1002:
890:
869:
293:
1964:
Sergey Gavrilets, Hai Li, and Michael D. Vose (2000), "Patterns of Parapatric Speciation",
1038:
developed the stasipatric speciation model when studying Australian morabine grasshoppers (
806:
4603:
4054:
4043:
3997:
3940:
3889:
3669:
3473:
3336:
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1329:
and two other species, which separated later but live in climatically different habitats.
1279:
1239:
1214:
1200:
1182:
886:
777:
Parapatric speciation can be understood as a level of gene flow between populations where
733:
246:
236:
98:
1804:
Beverley J. Balkau and Marcus W. Feldman (1973), "Selection for migration modification",
1640:
Michael Turelli, Nicholas H. Barton, and Jerry A. Coyne (2001), "Theory and speciation",
1208:
in tropical rainforests. They cite patterns of morphologic and genetic divergence of the
780:
2858:
2777:
2743:
2701:
2516:
2474:
2290:
2095:
Douglas J. Futuyma and Gregory C. Mayer (1980), "Non-Allopatric Speciation in Animals",
2043:
1767:
916:(discussed below), except that the terminal geographic ends do not meet to form a ring.
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4315:
3617:
3612:
3550:
3528:
3344:
3168:
3003:
2957:
2927:
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Rebecca S. Taylor and Vicki L. Friesen (2017), "The role of allochrony in speciation",
2185:
1890:
1826:
1477:
1357:
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739:
328:
231:
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1583:
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4482:
4328:
4222:
4097:
4082:
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3745:
3348:
2751:
2525:
2429:
2342:
2003:
1618:
1541:
990:
900:
743:
479:
151:
2717:
2542:
2490:
2316:
2264:
1951:
1907:
1717:
1627:
1557:
1168:
4640:
4588:
4533:
4366:
4361:
4102:
3713:
3182:
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2067:
1791:
1428:
1339:
1223:
1205:
944:
725:
690:
499:
484:
268:
263:
181:
2368:
2381:
Chris D. Jiggins and James Mallet (2000), "Bimodal hybrid zones and speciation",
2030:
N. H. Barton and G. M. Hewitt (1989), "Adaptation, speciation and hybrid zones",
1034:
One variation of parapatric speciation involves species chromosomal differences.
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4538:
4319:
4267:
3802:
3632:
3538:
3496:
2994:
2582:
1817:
1570:
Sara Via (2001), "Sympatric speciation in animals: the ugly duckling grows up",
1424:
1314:
1284:
1023:
1015:
721:
509:
226:
176:
1748:
1044:). The chromosomal structure of sub-populations of a widespread species become
27:
Speciation within a population where subpopulations are reproductively isolated
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4351:
4338:
4227:
4087:
3772:
3659:
3637:
3590:
3585:
3533:
3501:
3267:
3206:
3121:
3064:
2709:
2108:
1252:
962:
742:
was the first to propose this mode of speciation. It was not until 1930, when
671:
283:
206:
161:
141:
55:
4662:
4513:
4257:
4077:
3740:
3488:
1360:
found numerous examples of parapatry in a large survey of marine organisms.
1300:
1267:
1209:
1061:
1052:. Subsequently, the sub-populations expand within the species larger range,
1040:
894:
714:
710:
675:
674:
has three distinguishing characteristics: 1) mating occurs non-randomly, 2)
542:
156:
76:
3012:
2966:
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2866:
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2590:
2534:
2482:
2402:
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2194:
2176:
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1995:
1943:
1934:
1899:
1835:
1783:
1709:
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1591:
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in which a variation in evolutionary pressures causes a change to occur in
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2059:
588:
17:
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3913:
3767:
2849:
1353:
1343:
1160:
919:
Doebeli and Dieckmann developed a mathematical model that suggested that
720:
Various "forms" of parapatry have been proposed and are discussed below.
706:
702:
532:
131:
2662:
John C. Briggs (1999), "Modes of Speciation: Marine Indo-West Pacific",
2221:
1862:
1775:
4207:
4107:
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3664:
3416:
3271:
3106:
2820:
2730:
L. A. Rocha and B. W. Bowen (2008), "Speciation in coral-reef fishes",
2142:
1274:
distribution and continuous parapatric speciation between populations.
1132:
954:
920:
2631:
2299:
1072:
contend that this form of parapatric speciation is untenable and that
2051:
2812:
2134:
1325:, which separated earlier but live in similar habitats than between
4163:
3972:
3871:
2905:
Sergey Gavrilets (2000), "Waiting Time to Parapatric Speciation",
2329:
N. H. Barton and G. M. Hewitt (1985), "Analysis of Hybrid Zones",
1167:
948:
667:
645:
1193:
in lead and zinc contaminated soils. Speciation may be caused by
4122:
3420:
3037:
3033:
1266:, timing of migration was used to infer the differences in
2417:
Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research
1457:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B
1528:
Richard G. Harrison (2012), "The Language of Speciation",
1342:
and colleagues found evidence of parapatric speciation in
1153:
including sister groups support different divergence times
1135:
can be interpreted as convincingly forming in parapatry if
907:. With this interpretation, his verbal, theoretical model
1988:
10.1554/0014-3820(2000)054[1126:pops]2.0.co;2
1702:
10.1554/0014-3820(2003)057[0154:sms]2.0.co;2
770:
actually occurred, or if an alternative mode (notably,
2764:
Nancy Knowlton (1993), "Sibling Species in the Sea",
835:
809:
783:
701:
are often used to describe the relationship between
4581:
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4337:
4293:
4148:
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3487:
3305:
3254:
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3099:
853:
821:
795:
1742:
1740:
1001:was the first to develop a working model. Later,
752:where he outlined a verbal theoretical model of
1604:J. Mallet (2001), "The Speciation Revolution",
1180:This has been exemplified by the grass species
666:from one another while continuing to exchange
3432:
3049:
1419:
1417:
1415:
1413:
1411:
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1317:; however, hybridization is stronger between
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8:
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1515:Fitness landscapes and the origin of species
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2457:J. Murray and B. Clarke (1980), "The genus
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3042:
3034:
1920:A. J. Helbig (2005), "A ring of species",
1749:"Speciation along environmental gradients"
1747:Michael Doebeli and Ulf Dieckmann (2003),
1131:Species populations that join, forming an
732:categorise these forms into three groups:
634:
620:
29:
3002:
2956:
2926:
2874:
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2657:
2655:
2630:
2619:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
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2220:
2184:
1977:
1933:
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1825:
1617:
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834:
808:
782:
749:The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection
662:, two subpopulations of a species evolve
4673:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
2766:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
2331:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
1517:, Princeton University Press, p. 13
1375:Evidence for speciation by reinforcement
1385:
1313:all hybridize with each other in their
717:(two similar cases of distinct areas).
682:, incomplete geographical barriers, or
37:
3017:
2889:
2637:
2595:
2547:
2435:
2008:
1722:
1666:
1491:
1435:, Sinauer Associates, pp. 1–545,
4436:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
2571:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
7:
3375:
2461:on Moorea: speciation in progress",
1234:(in the studied species discussed).
1147:are not in agreement along the cline
1091:Laboratory experiments of speciation
3399:
2778:10.1146/annurev.es.24.110193.001201
3841:Evolutionary developmental biology
2958:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2003.tb00233.x
2907:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
2837:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
2681:Bernd Kramer; et al. (2003),
2463:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
1891:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2005.tb01771.x
25:
2383:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
1642:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
1572:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
1237:A study of tropical cave snails (
4695:
4686:
4685:
3398:
3386:
3374:
3363:
3362:
2792:Quantitative speciation research
2752:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2007.01770.x
2526:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2008.03750.x
2430:10.1111/j.1439-0469.2004.00289.x
2343:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.16.1.113
1619:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2001.00342.x
1542:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2012.01785.x
601:
600:
587:
45:
4498:Extended evolutionary synthesis
3687:Gene-centered view of evolution
2690:Environmental Biology of Fishes
1606:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
594:Evolutionary biology portal
4626:Hologenome theory of evolution
4493:History of molecular evolution
3719:Evolutionarily stable strategy
3608:Last universal common ancestor
1255:have parapatrically speciated
1014:Further concepts developed by
803:in allopatry (and peripatry),
553:Creation–evolution controversy
307:History of evolutionary theory
1:
4420:Renaissance and Enlightenment
2395:10.1016/s0169-5347(00)01873-5
2369:10.1126/science.276.5320.1855
1654:10.1016/s0169-5347(01)02177-2
1584:10.1016/S0169-5347(01)02188-7
933:frequency-dependent selection
905:morphological species concept
854:{\displaystyle 0<m<0.5}
4631:Missing heritability problem
4258:Gamete differentiation/sexes
538:Evolution as fact and theory
3393:Evolutionary biology Portal
2995:10.1534/genetics.111.137513
2583:10.1016/j.ympev.2012.06.025
2084:, W. H. Freeman and Company
4753:
4263:Life cycles/nuclear phases
3815:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
2664:Bulletin of Marine Science
1088:
1074:chromosomal rearrangements
1064:) in narrow hybrid zones.
1010:Para-allopatric speciation
942:
872:: individuals interacting
573:Nature-nurture controversy
4681:
3761:Parent–offspring conflict
3566:Earliest known life forms
3454:
3358:
3071:
1818:10.1093/genetics/74.1.171
1513:Sergey Gavrilets (2004),
1264:Tennessee cave salamander
460:Evolutionary neuroscience
435:Evolutionary epistemology
415:Evolutionary anthropology
395:Applications of evolution
4614:Cultural group selection
4478:The eclipse of Darwinism
4450:On the Origin of Species
4425:Transmutation of species
3236:Nonecological speciation
1251:snails on the island of
450:Evolutionary linguistics
445:Evolutionary game theory
420:Evolutionary computation
4619:Dual inheritance theory
4458:History of paleontology
2732:Journal of Fish Biology
2710:10.1023/A:1024448918070
2109:10.1093/sysbio/29.3.254
2080:M. J. D. White (1978),
880:Environmental gradients
563:Objections to evolution
470:Evolutionary psychology
465:Evolutionary physiology
410:Evolutionary aesthetics
389:Fields and applications
371:History of paleontology
4307:Punctuated equilibrium
3628:Non-adaptive radiation
3576:Evolutionary arms race
3341:Punctuated equilibrium
3297:Character displacement
3117:Reproductive isolation
3086:Laboratory experiments
2919:10.1098/rspb.2000.1309
2867:10.1098/rspb.1998.0461
2483:10.1098/rspb.1980.0159
2249:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800835
2177:10.1098/rspb.2000.1044
1935:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800679
1469:10.1098/rstb.2008.0076
1177:
1121:Observational evidence
977:
958:
855:
823:
797:
664:reproductive isolation
655:
495:Speciation experiments
475:Experimental evolution
430:Evolutionary economics
252:Recent human evolution
110:Processes and outcomes
4599:Evolutionary medicine
4473:Mendelian inheritance
4181:Biological complexity
4169:Programmed cell death
3861:Phenotypic plasticity
3581:Evolutionary pressure
3571:Evidence of evolution
3469:Timeline of evolution
3222:Ecological speciation
3137:Evidence of evolution
2165:Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B
1370:History of speciation
1349:Pollimyrus castelnaui
1277:Researchers studying
1190:Anthoxanthum odoratum
1174:Anthoxanthum odoratum
1171:
968:
952:
856:
824:
822:{\displaystyle m=0.5}
798:
772:allopatric speciation
660:parapatric speciation
649:
455:Evolutionary medicine
400:Biosocial criminology
366:History of speciation
279:Evolutionary taxonomy
242:Timeline of evolution
4732:Evolutionary biology
4573:Teleology in biology
4468:Blending inheritance
3846:Genetic assimilation
3709:Artificial selection
3448:Evolutionary biology
1097:sympatric speciation
985:isolation as either
980:Discrete populations
925:disruptive selection
833:
807:
781:
425:Evolutionary ecology
39:Evolutionary biology
4636:Molecular evolution
4594:Ecological genetics
4463:Transitional fossil
4253:Sexual reproduction
4093:endomembrane system
4022:pollinator-mediated
3978:dolphins and whales
3756:Parental investment
3226:Parallel speciation
2913:(1461): 2483–2492,
2859:1998adap.org..7006G
2843:(1405): 1483–1489,
2744:2008JFBio..72.1101R
2702:2003EnvBF..67...47K
2517:2008MolEc..17.2258N
2475:1980RSPSB.211...83M
2363:(5320): 1855–1857,
2291:2017MolEc..26.3330T
2222:10.1038/hdy.1968.29
2082:Modes of Speciation
2044:1989Natur.341..497B
1863:10.1038/hdy.1978.44
1776:10.1038/nature01274
1768:2003Natur.421..259D
1463:(1506): 2997–3007,
1085:Laboratory evidence
1036:Michael J. D. White
796:{\displaystyle m=0}
652:divergent selection
527:Social implications
515:Universal Darwinism
505:Island biogeography
440:Evolutionary ethics
405:Ecological genetics
351:Molecular evolution
289:Transitional fossil
117:Population genetics
33:Part of a series on
4609:Cultural evolution
3724:Fisher's principle
3653:Handicap principle
3643:Parallel evolution
3507:Adaptive radiation
3306:Speciation in taxa
3241:Assortative mating
2097:Systematic Biology
1178:
1030:Stasipatric models
999:Joseph Felsenstein
959:
891:allele frequencies
851:
819:
793:
758:Joseph Felsenstein
656:
558:Theistic evolution
490:Selective breeding
202:Parallel evolution
167:Adaptive radiation
4709:
4708:
4325:Uniformitarianism
4278:Sex-determination
3783:Sexual dimorphism
3778:Natural selection
3682:Unit of selection
3648:Signalling theory
3414:
3413:
3292:Secondary contact
3264:Hybrid speciation
3212:Natural selection
3199:Isolating factors
2951:(10): 2197–2215,
2632:10.1111/bij.12092
2505:Molecular Ecology
2300:10.1111/mec.14126
2285:(13): 3330–3342,
2279:Molecular Ecology
2171:(1443): 601–606,
2038:(6242): 497–503,
1762:(6920): 259–264,
1536:(12): 3643–3657,
1442:978-0-87893-091-3
1215:Andropadus virens
865:Natural selection
754:clinal speciation
644:
643:
335:Origin of Species
137:Natural selection
16:(Redirected from
4744:
4699:
4689:
4688:
4488:Modern synthesis
4248:Multicellularity
4243:Mosaic evolution
4128:auditory ossicle
3810:Social selection
3793:Flowering plants
3788:Sexual selection
3441:
3434:
3427:
3418:
3402:
3401:
3390:
3378:
3377:
3366:
3365:
3217:Sexual selection
3146:Geographic modes
3058:
3051:
3044:
3035:
3029:
3023:
3015:
3006:
2977:
2960:
2939:
2930:
2901:
2895:
2887:
2878:
2852:
2850:adap-org/9807006
2831:
2781:
2780:
2761:
2755:
2754:
2738:(5): 1101–1121,
2727:
2721:
2720:
2687:
2678:
2672:
2671:
2659:
2650:
2649:
2643:
2635:
2634:
2614:
2608:
2607:
2601:
2593:
2566:
2560:
2559:
2553:
2545:
2528:
2511:(9): 2258–2275,
2500:
2494:
2493:
2469:(1182): 83–117,
2454:
2448:
2447:
2441:
2433:
2432:
2412:
2406:
2405:
2378:
2372:
2371:
2352:
2346:
2345:
2326:
2320:
2319:
2302:
2274:
2268:
2267:
2232:
2226:
2225:
2224:
2204:
2198:
2197:
2188:
2160:
2154:
2153:
2129:(6): 1637–1653,
2118:
2112:
2111:
2092:
2086:
2085:
2077:
2071:
2070:
2052:10.1038/341497a0
2027:
2021:
2020:
2014:
2006:
1981:
1972:(4): 1126–1134,
1961:
1955:
1954:
1937:
1917:
1911:
1910:
1893:
1884:(6): 1194–1210,
1873:
1867:
1866:
1865:
1845:
1839:
1838:
1829:
1801:
1795:
1794:
1753:
1744:
1735:
1734:
1728:
1720:
1685:
1679:
1678:
1672:
1664:
1637:
1631:
1630:
1621:
1601:
1595:
1594:
1567:
1561:
1560:
1525:
1519:
1518:
1510:
1504:
1503:
1497:
1489:
1480:
1452:
1446:
1445:
1421:
1333:Marine organisms
1319:D. portschinskii
1311:D. portschinskii
1022:in studying 170
1003:Sergey Gavrilets
870:social selection
860:
858:
857:
852:
828:
826:
825:
820:
802:
800:
799:
794:
709:(same area) and
636:
629:
622:
609:
604:
603:
596:
592:
591:
568:Level of support
361:Current research
346:Modern synthesis
341:Before synthesis
294:Extinction event
52:Darwin's finches
49:
30:
21:
4752:
4751:
4747:
4746:
4745:
4743:
4742:
4741:
4712:
4711:
4710:
4705:
4677:
4604:Group selection
4577:
4502:
4406:
4333:
4295:Tempo and modes
4289:
4144:
4048:
3865:
3824:
3700:
3693:
3670:Species complex
3483:
3474:History of life
3450:
3445:
3415:
3410:
3354:
3337:Paleopolyploidy
3301:
3256:Hybrid concepts
3250:
3193:
3141:
3111:Species complex
3095:
3067:
3062:
3032:
3016:
2980:
2942:
2904:
2888:
2834:
2813:10.2307/2407946
2798:
2789:
2787:Further reading
2784:
2763:
2762:
2758:
2729:
2728:
2724:
2685:
2680:
2679:
2675:
2661:
2660:
2653:
2636:
2616:
2615:
2611:
2594:
2568:
2567:
2563:
2546:
2502:
2501:
2497:
2456:
2455:
2451:
2434:
2414:
2413:
2409:
2380:
2379:
2375:
2354:
2353:
2349:
2328:
2327:
2323:
2276:
2275:
2271:
2234:
2233:
2229:
2206:
2205:
2201:
2162:
2161:
2157:
2135:10.2307/2410209
2120:
2119:
2115:
2094:
2093:
2089:
2079:
2078:
2074:
2029:
2028:
2024:
2007:
1963:
1962:
1958:
1919:
1918:
1914:
1875:
1874:
1870:
1847:
1846:
1842:
1803:
1802:
1798:
1751:
1746:
1745:
1738:
1721:
1687:
1686:
1682:
1665:
1639:
1638:
1634:
1603:
1602:
1598:
1569:
1568:
1564:
1527:
1526:
1522:
1512:
1511:
1507:
1490:
1454:
1453:
1449:
1443:
1423:
1422:
1387:
1383:
1366:
1335:
1240:Georissa saulae
1183:Agrostis tenuis
1123:
1093:
1087:
1082:
1032:
1012:
982:
947:
941:
882:
831:
830:
805:
804:
779:
778:
767:
670:. This mode of
640:
599:
586:
585:
578:
577:
528:
520:
519:
390:
382:
381:
380:
308:
300:
299:
298:
247:Human evolution
237:History of life
221:
220:Natural history
213:
212:
211:
111:
103:
58:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4750:
4748:
4740:
4739:
4734:
4729:
4724:
4714:
4713:
4707:
4706:
4704:
4703:
4693:
4682:
4679:
4678:
4676:
4675:
4670:
4665:
4660:
4655:
4654:
4653:
4643:
4638:
4633:
4628:
4623:
4622:
4621:
4616:
4611:
4601:
4596:
4591:
4585:
4583:
4579:
4578:
4576:
4575:
4570:
4569:
4568:
4563:
4558:
4557:
4556:
4546:
4541:
4536:
4531:
4526:
4516:
4510:
4508:
4504:
4503:
4501:
4500:
4495:
4490:
4485:
4480:
4475:
4470:
4465:
4460:
4455:
4454:
4453:
4444:Charles Darwin
4441:
4440:
4439:
4427:
4422:
4416:
4414:
4408:
4407:
4405:
4404:
4399:
4394:
4389:
4384:
4382:Non-ecological
4379:
4374:
4369:
4364:
4359:
4354:
4349:
4343:
4341:
4335:
4334:
4332:
4331:
4322:
4313:
4299:
4297:
4291:
4290:
4288:
4287:
4282:
4281:
4280:
4275:
4270:
4265:
4260:
4250:
4245:
4240:
4235:
4230:
4225:
4220:
4215:
4210:
4205:
4200:
4199:
4198:
4188:
4183:
4178:
4173:
4172:
4171:
4166:
4155:
4153:
4146:
4145:
4143:
4142:
4141:
4140:
4135:
4133:nervous system
4130:
4125:
4120:
4112:
4111:
4110:
4105:
4100:
4095:
4090:
4085:
4075:
4070:
4065:
4059:
4057:
4050:
4049:
4047:
4046:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4026:
4025:
4024:
4014:
4013:
4012:
4007:
4006:
4005:
4000:
3990:
3985:
3980:
3975:
3970:
3969:
3968:
3963:
3953:
3943:
3938:
3937:
3936:
3926:
3921:
3916:
3911:
3910:
3909:
3899:
3894:
3893:
3892:
3882:
3876:
3874:
3867:
3866:
3864:
3863:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3832:
3830:
3826:
3825:
3823:
3822:
3817:
3812:
3807:
3806:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3764:
3763:
3758:
3748:
3743:
3738:
3737:
3736:
3726:
3721:
3716:
3711:
3705:
3703:
3695:
3694:
3692:
3691:
3690:
3689:
3679:
3674:
3673:
3672:
3667:
3657:
3656:
3655:
3645:
3640:
3635:
3633:Origin of life
3630:
3625:
3620:
3618:Microevolution
3615:
3613:Macroevolution
3610:
3605:
3600:
3599:
3598:
3588:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3568:
3563:
3558:
3553:
3551:Common descent
3548:
3547:
3546:
3536:
3531:
3529:Baldwin effect
3526:
3525:
3524:
3519:
3509:
3504:
3499:
3493:
3491:
3485:
3484:
3482:
3481:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3461:
3455:
3452:
3451:
3446:
3444:
3443:
3436:
3429:
3421:
3412:
3411:
3409:
3408:
3396:
3384:
3372:
3359:
3356:
3355:
3353:
3352:
3345:Macroevolution
3330:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3309:
3307:
3303:
3302:
3300:
3299:
3294:
3289:
3279:
3260:
3258:
3252:
3251:
3249:
3248:
3246:Haldane's rule
3243:
3238:
3233:
3219:
3214:
3209:
3203:
3201:
3195:
3194:
3192:
3191:
3186:
3172:
3169:Founder effect
3149:
3147:
3143:
3142:
3140:
3139:
3134:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3114:
3103:
3101:
3100:Basic concepts
3097:
3096:
3094:
3093:
3088:
3083:
3078:
3072:
3069:
3068:
3063:
3061:
3060:
3053:
3046:
3038:
3031:
3030:
2989:(3): 845–863,
2978:
2940:
2902:
2832:
2807:(1): 124–138,
2795:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2782:
2756:
2722:
2673:
2651:
2625:(4): 876–892,
2609:
2577:(2): 437–450,
2561:
2495:
2449:
2423:(2): 133–138,
2407:
2389:(6): 250–255,
2373:
2347:
2321:
2269:
2227:
2215:(2): 205–218,
2199:
2155:
2113:
2103:(3): 254–271,
2087:
2072:
2022:
1979:10.1.1.42.6514
1956:
1928:(2): 113–114,
1912:
1868:
1856:(3): 371–384,
1840:
1812:(1): 171–174,
1796:
1736:
1696:(1): 154–158,
1680:
1648:(7): 330–343,
1632:
1612:(6): 887–888,
1596:
1578:(1): 381–390,
1562:
1520:
1505:
1447:
1441:
1425:Jerry A. Coyne
1384:
1382:
1379:
1378:
1377:
1372:
1365:
1362:
1358:Nancy Knowlton
1334:
1331:
1289:E. californica
1166:
1165:
1156:
1155:
1154:
1148:
1141:
1122:
1119:
1086:
1083:
1081:
1078:
1031:
1028:
1011:
1008:
981:
978:
943:Main article:
940:
937:
912:unrealistic".
881:
878:
874:altruistically
850:
847:
844:
841:
838:
818:
815:
812:
792:
789:
786:
766:
763:
740:Charles Darwin
642:
641:
639:
638:
631:
624:
616:
613:
612:
611:
610:
597:
580:
579:
576:
575:
570:
565:
560:
555:
550:
548:Social effects
545:
540:
535:
529:
526:
525:
522:
521:
518:
517:
512:
507:
502:
497:
492:
487:
482:
477:
472:
467:
462:
457:
452:
447:
442:
437:
432:
427:
422:
417:
412:
407:
402:
397:
391:
388:
387:
384:
383:
379:
378:
368:
363:
358:
353:
348:
343:
338:
331:
326:
321:
316:
310:
309:
306:
305:
302:
301:
297:
296:
291:
286:
281:
276:
274:Classification
271:
266:
261:
256:
255:
254:
244:
239:
234:
232:Common descent
229:
227:Origin of life
223:
222:
219:
218:
215:
214:
210:
209:
204:
199:
194:
189:
184:
179:
174:
169:
164:
159:
154:
149:
144:
139:
134:
129:
124:
119:
113:
112:
109:
108:
105:
104:
102:
101:
96:
91:
85:
84:
79:
74:
69:
63:
60:
59:
50:
42:
41:
35:
34:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4749:
4738:
4735:
4733:
4730:
4728:
4725:
4723:
4720:
4719:
4717:
4702:
4698:
4694:
4692:
4684:
4683:
4680:
4674:
4671:
4669:
4666:
4664:
4661:
4659:
4656:
4652:
4649:
4648:
4647:
4646:Phylogenetics
4644:
4642:
4639:
4637:
4634:
4632:
4629:
4627:
4624:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4610:
4607:
4606:
4605:
4602:
4600:
4597:
4595:
4592:
4590:
4587:
4586:
4584:
4580:
4574:
4571:
4567:
4564:
4562:
4559:
4555:
4552:
4551:
4550:
4549:Structuralism
4547:
4545:
4542:
4540:
4537:
4535:
4532:
4530:
4527:
4525:
4524:Catastrophism
4522:
4521:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4512:
4511:
4509:
4505:
4499:
4496:
4494:
4491:
4489:
4486:
4484:
4483:Neo-Darwinism
4481:
4479:
4476:
4474:
4471:
4469:
4466:
4464:
4461:
4459:
4456:
4452:
4451:
4447:
4446:
4445:
4442:
4438:
4437:
4433:
4432:
4431:
4428:
4426:
4423:
4421:
4418:
4417:
4415:
4413:
4409:
4403:
4400:
4398:
4397:Reinforcement
4395:
4393:
4390:
4388:
4385:
4383:
4380:
4378:
4375:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4344:
4342:
4340:
4336:
4330:
4329:Catastrophism
4326:
4323:
4321:
4320:Macromutation
4317:
4316:Micromutation
4314:
4312:
4308:
4304:
4301:
4300:
4298:
4296:
4292:
4286:
4283:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4271:
4269:
4266:
4264:
4261:
4259:
4256:
4255:
4254:
4251:
4249:
4246:
4244:
4241:
4239:
4236:
4234:
4231:
4229:
4226:
4224:
4223:Immune system
4221:
4219:
4216:
4214:
4211:
4209:
4206:
4204:
4201:
4197:
4194:
4193:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4184:
4182:
4179:
4177:
4174:
4170:
4167:
4165:
4162:
4161:
4160:
4157:
4156:
4154:
4152:
4147:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4116:
4115:
4113:
4109:
4106:
4104:
4101:
4099:
4096:
4094:
4091:
4089:
4086:
4084:
4083:symbiogenesis
4081:
4080:
4079:
4076:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4061:
4060:
4058:
4056:
4051:
4045:
4042:
4040:
4037:
4035:
4032:
4030:
4027:
4023:
4020:
4019:
4018:
4015:
4011:
4008:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3995:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3971:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3958:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3949:
3948:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3935:
3932:
3931:
3930:
3927:
3925:
3922:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3912:
3908:
3905:
3904:
3903:
3900:
3898:
3895:
3891:
3888:
3887:
3886:
3883:
3881:
3878:
3877:
3875:
3873:
3868:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3833:
3831:
3827:
3821:
3818:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3804:
3801:
3799:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3790:
3789:
3786:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3753:
3752:
3751:Kin selection
3749:
3747:
3746:Genetic drift
3744:
3742:
3739:
3735:
3732:
3731:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3720:
3717:
3715:
3712:
3710:
3707:
3706:
3704:
3702:
3696:
3688:
3685:
3684:
3683:
3680:
3678:
3675:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3662:
3661:
3658:
3654:
3651:
3650:
3649:
3646:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3597:
3594:
3593:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3554:
3552:
3549:
3545:
3542:
3541:
3540:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3523:
3520:
3518:
3515:
3514:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3505:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3494:
3492:
3490:
3486:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3457:
3456:
3453:
3449:
3442:
3437:
3435:
3430:
3428:
3423:
3422:
3419:
3407:
3406:
3397:
3395:
3394:
3389:
3385:
3383:
3382:
3373:
3371:
3370:
3361:
3360:
3357:
3350:
3349:Chronospecies
3346:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3310:
3308:
3304:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3287:
3283:
3282:Reinforcement
3280:
3277:
3276:Recombination
3273:
3269:
3265:
3262:
3261:
3259:
3257:
3253:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3237:
3234:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3204:
3202:
3200:
3196:
3190:
3187:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3173:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3151:
3150:
3148:
3144:
3138:
3135:
3133:
3130:
3128:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3112:
3108:
3105:
3104:
3102:
3098:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3073:
3070:
3066:
3059:
3054:
3052:
3047:
3045:
3040:
3039:
3036:
3027:
3021:
3014:
3010:
3005:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2979:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2941:
2938:
2934:
2929:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2903:
2899:
2893:
2886:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2833:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2797:
2796:
2794:
2793:
2786:
2779:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2760:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2726:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2684:
2677:
2674:
2669:
2665:
2658:
2656:
2652:
2647:
2641:
2633:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2613:
2610:
2605:
2599:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2565:
2562:
2557:
2551:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2527:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2499:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2453:
2450:
2445:
2439:
2431:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2411:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2377:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2351:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2325:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2273:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2231:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2203:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2159:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2117:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2091:
2088:
2083:
2076:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2026:
2023:
2018:
2012:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1960:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1916:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1872:
1869:
1864:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1844:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1828:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1800:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1750:
1743:
1741:
1737:
1732:
1726:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1684:
1681:
1676:
1670:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1636:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1620:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1600:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1566:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1524:
1521:
1516:
1509:
1506:
1501:
1495:
1488:
1484:
1479:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1451:
1448:
1444:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1420:
1418:
1416:
1414:
1412:
1410:
1408:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1400:
1398:
1396:
1394:
1392:
1390:
1386:
1380:
1376:
1373:
1371:
1368:
1367:
1363:
1361:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1350:
1345:
1341:
1332:
1330:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1302:
1296:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1283:, a genus of
1282:
1281:
1275:
1273:
1272:heterogenetic
1269:
1265:
1260:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1249:
1244:
1242:
1241:
1235:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1216:
1211:
1207:
1202:
1198:
1196:
1192:
1191:
1185:
1184:
1176:
1175:
1170:
1164:
1162:
1157:
1152:
1149:
1146:
1142:
1139:
1138:
1136:
1134:
1129:
1128:
1127:
1120:
1118:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1098:
1092:
1084:
1079:
1077:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1048:; leading to
1047:
1046:underdominate
1043:
1042:
1041:Vandiemenella
1037:
1029:
1027:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1009:
1007:
1004:
1000:
994:
992:
988:
979:
976:
974:
967:
964:
956:
951:
946:
938:
936:
934:
930:
929:reinforcement
926:
922:
917:
913:
910:
906:
902:
898:
896:
892:
888:
879:
877:
875:
871:
866:
862:
848:
845:
842:
839:
836:
816:
813:
810:
790:
787:
784:
775:
773:
764:
762:
759:
755:
751:
750:
745:
744:Ronald Fisher
741:
737:
735:
731:
727:
723:
718:
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
696:
692:
687:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
653:
648:
637:
632:
630:
625:
623:
618:
617:
615:
614:
608:
598:
595:
590:
584:
583:
582:
581:
574:
571:
569:
566:
564:
561:
559:
556:
554:
551:
549:
546:
544:
541:
539:
536:
534:
531:
530:
524:
523:
516:
513:
511:
508:
506:
503:
501:
498:
496:
493:
491:
488:
486:
483:
481:
480:Phylogenetics
478:
476:
473:
471:
468:
466:
463:
461:
458:
456:
453:
451:
448:
446:
443:
441:
438:
436:
433:
431:
428:
426:
423:
421:
418:
416:
413:
411:
408:
406:
403:
401:
398:
396:
393:
392:
386:
385:
376:
372:
369:
367:
364:
362:
359:
357:
354:
352:
349:
347:
344:
342:
339:
337:
336:
332:
330:
327:
325:
324:Before Darwin
322:
320:
317:
315:
312:
311:
304:
303:
295:
292:
290:
287:
285:
282:
280:
277:
275:
272:
270:
267:
265:
262:
260:
257:
253:
250:
249:
248:
245:
243:
240:
238:
235:
233:
230:
228:
225:
224:
217:
216:
208:
205:
203:
200:
198:
195:
193:
190:
188:
185:
183:
180:
178:
175:
173:
170:
168:
165:
163:
160:
158:
155:
153:
152:Genetic drift
150:
148:
145:
143:
140:
138:
135:
133:
130:
128:
125:
123:
120:
118:
115:
114:
107:
106:
100:
97:
95:
92:
90:
87:
86:
83:
80:
78:
75:
73:
70:
68:
65:
64:
62:
61:
57:
53:
48:
44:
43:
40:
36:
32:
31:
19:
4722:Biogeography
4658:Polymorphism
4641:Astrobiology
4589:Biogeography
4544:Saltationism
4534:Orthogenesis
4519:Alternatives
4448:
4434:
4386:
4367:Cospeciation
4362:Cladogenesis
4311:Saltationism
4268:Mating types
4191:Color vision
4176:Avian flight
4098:mitochondria
3836:Canalisation
3714:Biodiversity
3459:Introduction
3403:
3391:
3379:
3367:
3183:Ring species
3174:
3132:Cospeciation
3127:Cladogenesis
3076:Introduction
2986:
2982:
2948:
2944:
2910:
2906:
2840:
2836:
2804:
2800:
2791:
2790:
2769:
2765:
2759:
2735:
2731:
2725:
2696:(1): 47–70,
2693:
2689:
2676:
2670:(3): 645–656
2667:
2663:
2622:
2618:
2612:
2574:
2570:
2564:
2508:
2504:
2498:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2452:
2420:
2416:
2410:
2386:
2382:
2376:
2360:
2356:
2350:
2334:
2330:
2324:
2282:
2278:
2272:
2243:(1): 33–37,
2240:
2236:
2230:
2212:
2208:
2202:
2168:
2164:
2158:
2126:
2122:
2116:
2100:
2096:
2090:
2081:
2075:
2035:
2031:
2025:
1969:
1965:
1959:
1925:
1921:
1915:
1881:
1877:
1871:
1853:
1849:
1843:
1809:
1805:
1799:
1759:
1755:
1693:
1689:
1683:
1645:
1641:
1635:
1609:
1605:
1599:
1575:
1571:
1565:
1533:
1529:
1523:
1514:
1508:
1460:
1456:
1450:
1432:
1429:H. Allen Orr
1347:
1340:Bernd Kramer
1336:
1327:D. valentini
1326:
1322:
1318:
1310:
1307:D. valentini
1306:
1299:
1297:
1292:
1288:
1278:
1276:
1261:
1256:
1246:
1245:
1238:
1236:
1231:
1227:
1213:
1206:biodiversity
1199:
1188:
1181:
1179:
1172:
1158:
1130:
1124:
1094:
1039:
1033:
1024:hybrid zones
1013:
995:
983:
972:
969:
960:
945:Ring species
939:Ring species
918:
914:
908:
899:
883:
863:
776:
768:
753:
747:
738:
729:
719:
698:
694:
693:, the terms
691:biogeography
688:
659:
657:
500:Sociobiology
485:Paleontology
333:
269:Biogeography
264:Biodiversity
182:Coextinction
172:Co-operation
147:Polymorphism
72:Introduction
4668:Systematics
4539:Mutationism
4357:Catagenesis
4285:Snake venom
4218:Eusociality
4196:in primates
4186:Cooperation
4114:In animals
3934:butterflies
3907:Cephalopods
3897:Brachiopods
3829:Development
3803:Mate choice
3556:Convergence
3539:Coevolution
3497:Abiogenesis
3405:WikiProject
3165:Centrifugal
2772:: 189–216,
2337:: 113–148,
1315:hybrid zone
1293:E. trifurca
1285:gymnosperms
1151:Phylogenies
1054:hybridizing
893:within the
756:. In 1981,
510:Systematics
319:Renaissance
197:Convergence
187:Contingency
177:Coevolution
4737:Speciation
4716:Categories
4529:Lamarckism
4507:Philosophy
4430:David Hume
4392:Peripatric
4387:Parapatric
4372:Ecological
4352:Anagenesis
4347:Allopatric
4339:Speciation
4303:Gradualism
4228:Metabolism
4088:chromosome
4078:Eukaryotes
3856:Modularity
3773:Population
3699:Population
3660:Speciation
3638:Panspermia
3591:Extinction
3586:Exaptation
3561:Divergence
3534:Cladistics
3522:Reciprocal
3502:Adaptation
3268:Polyploidy
3230:Allochrony
3207:Adaptation
3175:Parapatric
3157:Peripatric
3153:Allopatric
3122:Anagenesis
3065:Speciation
1433:Speciation
1381:References
1195:allochrony
1143:Different
1089:See also:
921:ecological
746:published
730:Speciation
695:parapatric
672:speciation
284:Cladistics
207:Extinction
192:Divergence
162:Speciation
142:Adaptation
56:John Gould
18:Parapatric
4663:Protocell
4514:Darwinism
4402:Sympatric
4151:processes
4039:Tetrapods
3988:Kangaroos
3914:Dinosaurs
3851:Inversion
3820:Variation
3741:Gene flow
3734:Inclusive
3544:Mutualism
3489:Evolution
3189:Sympatric
2945:Evolution
2801:Evolution
2123:Evolution
2004:198153997
1974:CiteSeerX
1966:Evolution
1878:Evolution
1690:Evolution
1530:Evolution
1301:Darevskia
1268:gene flow
1210:passerine
1062:offspring
1058:sterility
987:selection
895:gene pool
715:peripatry
711:allopatry
703:organisms
699:parapatry
684:divergent
680:dispersal
676:gene flow
543:Dysgenics
259:Phylogeny
157:Gene flow
127:Diversity
122:Variation
4691:Category
4566:Vitalism
4561:Theistic
4554:Spandrel
4238:Morality
4233:Monogamy
4108:plastids
4073:Flagella
4029:Reptiles
4010:sea cows
3993:primates
3902:Molluscs
3880:Bacteria
3768:Mutation
3701:genetics
3677:Taxonomy
3623:Mismatch
3603:Homology
3517:Cheating
3512:Altruism
3369:Category
3286:evidence
3091:Glossary
3020:citation
3013:22542972
2983:Genetics
2967:14628909
2937:11197123
2892:citation
2829:28563447
2718:25826083
2640:citation
2598:citation
2591:22776548
2550:citation
2543:20761880
2535:18410292
2491:85343279
2438:citation
2403:10802556
2317:46852358
2309:28370658
2265:12291411
2257:16639420
2237:Heredity
2209:Heredity
2195:10787165
2151:28568007
2011:citation
1996:11005282
1952:29782163
1944:15999143
1922:Heredity
1908:25756555
1900:16050097
1850:Heredity
1836:17248608
1806:Genetics
1784:12529641
1725:citation
1718:33006210
1710:12643576
1669:citation
1662:11403865
1628:36627140
1592:11403871
1558:31893065
1550:23206125
1494:citation
1487:18522915
1431:(2004),
1364:See also
1354:Salpidae
1344:Mormyrid
1323:D. rudis
1228:possible
1212:species
1080:Evidence
1066:Futuyama
1050:fixation
975:habitat.
901:Fisher's
707:sympatry
607:Category
533:Eugenics
375:timeline
356:Evo-devo
314:Overview
132:Mutation
94:Evidence
89:Glossary
4727:Ecology
4582:Related
4412:History
4273:Meiosis
4208:Empathy
4203:Emotion
4103:nucleus
4044:Viruses
4034:Spiders
3946:Mammals
3929:Insects
3729:Fitness
3665:Species
3464:Outline
3381:Commons
3333:Fossils
3323:Insects
3272:Klepton
3161:Quantum
3107:Species
3081:History
3004:3389979
2975:2936776
2928:1690850
2885:9744103
2876:1689320
2855:Bibcode
2821:2407946
2740:Bibcode
2698:Bibcode
2513:Bibcode
2471:Bibcode
2459:Partula
2357:Science
2287:Bibcode
2186:1690569
2143:2410209
2068:4360057
2060:2677747
2040:Bibcode
1827:1212934
1792:2541353
1764:Bibcode
1478:2607313
1280:Ephedra
1262:In the
1257:in situ
1253:Mo'orea
1248:Partula
1220:Jiggins
1161:endemic
1133:ecotone
1114:Hostert
1060:of the
955:habitat
99:History
82:Outline
4701:Portal
4377:Hybrid
4213:Ethics
4055:organs
4017:Plants
4003:lemurs
3998:humans
3983:horses
3973:hyenas
3961:wolves
3956:canids
3890:origin
3328:Plants
3179:Clines
3011:
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1346:fish (
1232:likely
1224:Mallet
1201:Clines
1106:Florin
1056:(with
1020:Hewitt
1016:Barton
963:Mayr's
765:Models
734:clinal
605:
329:Darwin
4164:Death
4159:Aging
4138:brain
3924:Fungi
3885:Birds
3798:Fungi
3596:Event
3479:Index
3313:Birds
2971:S2CID
2845:arXiv
2817:JSTOR
2714:S2CID
2686:(PDF)
2539:S2CID
2487:S2CID
2313:S2CID
2261:S2CID
2139:JSTOR
2064:S2CID
2000:S2CID
1948:S2CID
1904:S2CID
1788:S2CID
1752:(PDF)
1714:S2CID
1624:S2CID
1554:S2CID
1303:rudis
1102:Ă–deen
1070:Mayer
991:drift
887:cline
722:Coyne
668:genes
67:Index
4651:Tree
4123:hair
4063:Cell
3966:dogs
3951:cats
3941:Life
3919:Fish
3872:taxa
3318:Fish
3026:link
3009:PMID
2963:PMID
2933:PMID
2898:link
2881:PMID
2825:PMID
2646:link
2604:link
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2531:PMID
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2399:PMID
2305:PMID
2253:PMID
2191:PMID
2147:PMID
2056:PMID
2017:link
1992:PMID
1940:PMID
1896:PMID
1832:PMID
1780:PMID
1731:link
1706:PMID
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1658:PMID
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1546:PMID
1500:link
1483:PMID
1437:ISBN
1321:and
1309:and
1291:and
1230:and
1222:and
1145:loci
1112:and
1110:Rice
1104:and
1068:and
1018:and
973:same
846:<
840:<
724:and
697:and
77:Main
4149:Of
4118:eye
4068:DNA
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