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1583:) could knock an electron free. For example, photons of blue light had sufficient energy to free an electron from the metal he used, but photons of red light did not. One photon of light above the threshold frequency could release only one electron; the higher the frequency of a photon, the higher the kinetic energy of the emitted electron, but no amount of light below the threshold frequency could release an electron. Despite confirmation by various experimental observations, the
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Before proceeding further, it is critical to introduce some definitions of waves and particles both in a classical sense and in quantum mechanics. Waves and particles are two very different models for physical systems, each with an exceptionally large range of application. Classical waves obey the
1679:
The first beam-splitter mirror acts like double slits, but in the interferometer case we can remove the second beam splitter. Then the beam heading down ends up in output port 1: any photon particles on this path gets counted in that port. The beam going across the top ends up on output port 2. In
1632:
is considered to be a particle-like property, for instance a spinning top. However, light waves can have angular momentum when they form a vortex, as illustrated in the Figure. Electron waves with angular momentum have also been produced, with up to a thousand angular momentum quanta. These matter
1356:
Electrons from the source hit a wall with two thin slits. A mask behind the slits can expose either one or open to expose both slits. The results for high electron intensity are shown on the right, first for each slit individually, then with both slits open. With either slit open there is a smooth
1641:
In a "which way" experiment, particle detectors are placed at the slits to determine which slit the electron traveled through. When these detectors are inserted, quantum mechanics predicts that the interference pattern disappears because the detected part of the electron wave has changed (loss of
1360:
Having observed wave behavior, now change the experiment, lowering the intensity of the electron source until only one or two are detected per second, appearing as individual particles, dots in the video. As shown in the movie clip below, the dots on the detector seem at first to be random. After
920:
to fully describe the behavior of quantum objects. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, light was found to behave as a wave then later discovered to have a particulate behavior, whereas electrons behaved like particles in early experiments then later discovered to have wavelike behavior. The
1111:
and
Alexander Reid at Cambridge University scattered electrons through thin metal films and observed concentric diffraction rings. Alexander Reid, who was Thomson's graduate student, performed the first experiments, but he died soon after in a motorcycle accident and is rarely mentioned. These
1124:
approach as the positions were systematically different; the approach of Bethe, which includes the refraction due to the average potential, yielded more accurate results. Davisson and
Thomson were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1937 for experimental verification of wave property of electrons by
1615:
1323:. These particles arrive one at time, randomly, but build up a pattern. The probability that experiments will measure particles at a point in space is the square of a complex-number valued wave. Experiments can be designed to exhibit diffraction and interference of the
1675:
Each output port has a camera to record the results. The two beams show interference characteristic of wave propagation. If the laser intensity is turned sufficiently low, individual dots appear on the cameras, building up the pattern as in the electron example.
1386:
Experimental electron double slit diffraction pattern. Across the middle of the image at the top the intensity alternates from high to low showing interference in the signal from the two slits. Bottom: movie of the pattern build up dot by dot.
1380:
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suggested that the energy of the light must occur a finite number of energy quanta. He postulated that electrons can receive energy from an electromagnetic field only in discrete units (quanta or photons): an amount of
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The experiment shows wave interference revealed a single particle at a time -- quantum mechanical electrons display both wave and particle behavior. Similar results have been shown for atoms and even large molecules.
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in the 1930s using beams of helium atoms and hydrogen molecules. These experiments further verified that wave behavior is not limited to electrons and is a general property of matter on a microscopic scale.
1006:
from 1922 to 1924 demonstrating the momentum of light. The experimental evidence of particle-like momentum and energy seemingly contradicted the earlier work demonstrating wave-like interference of light.
1049:
and that electrons and all matter could be considered as waves. He merged the idea of thinking about them as particles, and of thinking of them as waves. He proposed that particles are bundles of waves
1619:
1650:
have been made and many have been converted into experiments and tried out. Every single one shows the same result: as soon as electron trajectories are detected, interference disappears.
1598:
Both discrete (quantized) energies and also momentum are, classically, particle attributes. There are many other examples where photons display particle-type properties, for instance in
5421:
1440:. This observation is at odds with classical electromagnetism, which predicts that the electron's energy should be proportional to the intensity of the incident radiation. In 1905,
1092:
gave a talk in an Oxford meeting about using the electron diffraction experiments to confirm the wave–particle duality of electrons. In his talk, Born cited experimental data from
5725:
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3043:
Tavabi, A. H.; Rosi, P.; Roncaglia, A.; Rotunno, E.; Beleggia, M.; Lu, P.-H.; Belsito, L.; Pozzi, G.; Frabboni, S.; Tiemeijer, P.; Dunin-Borkowski, R. E.; Grillo, V. (2022).
1672:, then reflects downward. The other part of the beam reflects from the first mirror then turns at another mirror. The two beams meet at a second half-silvered beam splitter.
1541:
1352:
Left half: schematic setup for electron double-slit experiment with masking; inset micrographs of slits and mask; Right half: results for slit 1, slit 2 and both slits open.
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in 1923. It happened that
Davisson also attended that talk. Davisson returned to his lab in the US to switch his experimental focus to test the wave property of electrons.
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1345:
The electron double slit experiment is a textbook demonstration of wave-particle duality. A modern version of the experiment is shown schematically in the figure below.
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waves will diffract and interfere, while simultaneously having particle-like angular momentum so they will interact with magnetic fields, similar to a current loop.
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1120:, which is very close to how electron diffraction is now described. Significantly, Davisson and Germer noticed that their results could not be interpreted using a
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1327:. Thus statistically large numbers of the random particle appearances can display wave-like properties. Similar equations govern collective excitations called
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either case the counts will track the photon trajectories. However, as soon as the second beam splitter is removed the interference pattern disappears.
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Quantum systems obey wave equations that predict particle probability distributions. These particles are associated with discrete values called
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also with discrete energies for photons. These both indicate particle behavior. Despite confirmation by various experimental observations, the
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1924:
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among others had shown that free electrons had particle properties, for instance, the measurement of their mass by
Thomson in 1897. In 1924,
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3045:"Generation of electron vortex beams with over 1000 orbital angular momentum quanta using a tunable electrostatic spiral phase plate"
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While electrons were thought to be particles until their wave properties were discovered; for photons it was the opposite. In 1887,
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Some experiments on quantum systems show wave-like interference and diffraction; some experiments show particle-like collisions.
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intensity variation due to diffraction. When both slits are open the intensity oscillates, characteristic of wave interference.
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A laser beam along the input port splits at a half-silvered mirror. Part of the beam continues straight, passes though a glass
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Line trace for a two-slit electron interference pattern. Compare to a slice through the image of the water wave pattern above.
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entities exhibit particle or wave properties according to the experimental circumstances. It expresses the inability of the
2505:
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1143:; they have continuous values at many points in space that vary with time; their spatial extent can vary with time due to
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2752:
A History of the
Theories of Aether and Electricity: From the Age of Descartes to the Close of the Nineteenth Century
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1882:
The collected papers of Albert
Einstein. 3: The Swiss years: writings, 1909 - 1911: [English translation]
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527:
488:
416:
339:
199:
2453:
Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character
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developed the wave equation of motion for electrons. This rapidly became part of what was called by Schrödinger
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970:
heuristically derived a formula for the observed spectrum by assuming that a hypothetical electrically charged
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611:
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where the momentum is used to slow down (cool) atoms. These are a different aspect of wave-particle duality.
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1980:
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120:
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331:
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1151:. Physical systems exhibiting wave behavior and described by the mathematics of wave equations include
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experiments were rapidly followed by the first non-relativistic diffraction model for electrons by
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1941:
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some time a pattern emerges, eventually forming an alternating sequence of light and dark bands.
1218:: particle models work across a huge scale. Unlike waves, particles do not exhibit interference.
939:
391:
316:
249:
161:
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5110:
2877:"Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt"
2555:
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1521:
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1961:
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observed that when light with sufficient frequency hits a metallic surface, the surface emits
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909:
901:
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1021:
The contradictory evidence from electrons arrived in the opposite order. Many experiments by
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1953:
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958:
in 1819, validated Huygen's wave models. However, the wave model was challenged in 1901 by
830:
820:
810:
710:
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675:
645:
513:
401:
2943:"Orbital angular momentum of light and the transformation of Laguerre-Gaussian laser modes"
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1917:
A history of the theories of aether & electricity. 2: The modern theories, 1900 - 1926
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2122:
2026:
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In 1927, the wave nature of electrons was empirically confirmed by two experiments. The
1073:
Following de
Broglie's proposal of wave–particle duality of electrons, in 1925 to 1926,
17:
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1800:
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comes in from the left, collides with a target at rest, and a new photon of wavelength
1436:
discovered that the maximum possible energy of an ejected electron is unrelated to its
1433:
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1055:
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229:
3164:"A simple experiment for discussion of quantum interference and which-way measurement"
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1125:
diffraction experiments. Similar crystal diffraction experiments were carried out by
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1022:
850:
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775:
745:
715:
586:
532:
259:
234:
3143:
2942:
2765:
Wheaton, Bruce R. (1978). "Philipp Lenard and the
Photoelectric Effect, 1889-1911".
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2010:
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214:
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2506:"Electron diffraction chez Thomson: early responses to quantum physics in Britain"
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1045:. He suggested that an electron around a nucleus could be thought of as being a
1016:
971:
805:
760:
695:
650:
1946:
The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin
Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science
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1965:
1864:
1847:
112:{\displaystyle i\hbar {\frac {d}{dt}}|\Psi \rangle ={\hat {H}}|\Psi \rangle }
4749:
4445:
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4172:
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4001:
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2941:
Allen, L.; Beijersbergen, M. W.; Spreeuw, R. J. C.; Woerdman, J. P. (1992).
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2034:
1453:
286:
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2473:
2448:
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2202:
2178:
2153:
1563:. The target recoils, and the photons have provided momentum to the target.
1246:
2966:
2620:
Bach, Roger; Pope, Damian; Liou, Sy-Hwang; Batelaan, Herman (2013-03-13).
2349:
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3412:
3339:
2981:
2913:"On a Heuristic Point of View about the Creation and Conversion of Light"
1575:(6.626×10 J⋅s). Only photons of a high enough frequency (above a certain
1287:
1089:
1038:
913:
665:
3005:
2786:
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2073:
1062:. Both of these depend upon the energy, which in turn connects to the
974:
in a cavity that contained black-body radiation could only change its
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995:
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theory (as it came to be called later) remained controversial until
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1405:
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1297:
Both interference and trajectories are observed in quantum systems
1195:
3959:
3891:
3851:
3427:
3422:
3100:
Ma, Xiao-song; Kofler, Johannes; Zeilinger, Anton (2016-03-03).
917:
5153:
4361:
3278:
3216:. Georgia State University, Department of Physics and Astronomy
2325:"Reflection and Refraction of Electrons by a Crystal of Nickel"
921:
concept of duality arose to name these seeming contradictions.
2011:"An Undulatory Theory of the Mechanics of Atoms and Molecules"
998:
theory (as it came to be called) remained controversial until
2815:(4). Impey, C.D. Bantam Spectra (published April 2002): 80~.
1240:
in water due to two sources marked as red points on the left.
3102:"Delayed-choice gedanken experiments and their realizations"
2104:"The scattering of electrons by a single crystal of nickel"
982:, that was proportional to the frequency of its associated
1848:"Ueber das Gesetz der Energieverteilung im Normalspectrum"
1836:(Leiden, Netherlands: Pieter van der Aa, 1690), Chapter 1.
1256:
for a mass thrown at an angle of 70°, at different speeds.
2687:"Testing the limits of quantum mechanical superpositions"
2449:"The diffraction of cathode rays by thin celluloid films"
1653:
A simple example of these "which way" experiments uses a
1224:
Classical waves interfere. Particles follow trajectories.
1990:(English translation by A.F. Kracklauer, 2004. ed.)
1719:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1694:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1657:, a device based on lasers and mirrors sketched below.
1595:
from 1922 to 1924 demonstrating the momentum of light.
5422:
Die Grundlagen der Einsteinschen Relativitäts-Theorie
3162:
Schneider, Mark B.; LaPuma, Indhira A. (2002-03-01).
2982:"Production and application of electron vortex beams"
1717: – Number of quantum physics thought experiments
1549:
1524:
1504:
1468:
50:
2980:
Verbeeck, J.; Tian, H.; Schattschneider, P. (2010).
5718:
5627:
5558:
5512:
5409:
5335:
5187:
5091:
5043:
4876:
4808:
4742:
4655:
4619:
4573:
4438:
4395:
4242:
4206:
4123:
4084:
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4028:
4015:
3947:
3915:
3842:
3777:
3768:
3759:
3655:
3610:
3582:
3573:
3564:
3546:
3524:
3496:
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3330:
3321:
3312:
3157:
3155:
3153:
2556:"Theorie der Beugung von Elektronen an Kristallen"
1602:, where sunlight could propel a space vehicle and
1555:
1535:
1510:
1483:
111:
5355:Investigations on the Theory of Brownian Movement
2203:"Diffraction of Electrons by a Crystal of Nickel"
2154:"Diffraction of Electrons by a Crystal of Nickel"
2255:"Reflection of Electrons by a Crystal of Nickel"
2329:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2259:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1103:at Bell Labs measured electrons scattered from
5362:Relativity: The Special and the General Theory
2510:The British Journal for the History of Science
1809:. Vol. 3. Reading/Mass.: Addison-Wesley.
5165:
4373:
3290:
2622:"Controlled double-slit electron diffraction"
878:
8:
2392:"Diffraction of Cathode Rays by a Thin Film"
1910:
1908:
1906:
1904:
1902:
1783:
1781:
1779:
1389:Click on the thumbnail to enlarge the movie.
938:had advocated that light was particles, but
106:
80:
3261:Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics
2767:Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences
5172:
5158:
5150:
4380:
4366:
4358:
4025:
4021:
3774:
3765:
3579:
3570:
3493:
3327:
3318:
3297:
3283:
3275:
1432:, what are now called electrons. In 1902,
885:
871:
29:
3257:"Quantum 101 – Quantum Science Explained"
3117:
3060:
2931:The term "photon" was introduced in 1926.
2902:
2892:
2840:
2820:
2702:
2685:Arndt, Markus; Hornberger, Klaus (2014).
2637:
2472:
2415:
2366:
2348:
2296:
2278:
2226:
2177:
1863:
1751:
1749:
1548:
1523:
1503:
1467:
1335:Electrons behaving as waves and particles
98:
87:
86:
72:
57:
49:
5796:Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists
2549:
2547:
1762:. North Holland, John Wiley & Sons.
2323:Davisson, C. J.; Germer, L. H. (1928).
2253:Davisson, C. J.; Germer, L. H. (1928).
2248:
2246:
2058:"Electron diffraction: fifty years ago"
1919:(Repr ed.). New York: Dover Publ.
1745:
1194:their trajectories are straight lines.
1190:that vary over time; in the absence of
54:
37:
5540:Albert Einstein World Award of Science
2318:
2316:
2056:Gehrenbeck, Richard K. (1978-01-01).
1885:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Pr.
1692: – Non-mathematical introduction
7:
2857:– via Random House Audiobooks.
2201:Davisson, C.; Germer, L. H. (1927).
2152:Davisson, C.; Germer, L. H. (1927).
1710:Interpretations of quantum mechanics
1066:and the relativistic formulation of
1043:Recherches sur la théorie des quanta
1715:Wheeler's delayed choice experiment
1690:Basic concepts of quantum mechanics
5569:Albert Einstein: Creator and Rebel
5282:Einstein–Infeld–Hoffmann equations
5252:Einstein relation (kinetic theory)
417:Sum-over-histories (path integral)
103:
77:
33:Part of a series of articles about
25:
5430:The Einstein Theory of Relativity
2594:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1937"
2390:Thomson, G. P.; Reid, A. (1927).
5809:
5808:
5545:Einstein Prize for Laser Science
5134:
5133:
4341:
4234:Timeline of particle discoveries
1664:Interferometer schematic diagram
1379:
1368:
1275:
1263:
1245:
1230:
942:took an opposing wave approach.
5590:Einstein: His Life and Universe
1807:The Feynman Lectures on Physics
1701: – Quantum physics concept
1410:Photoelectric effect in a solid
1011:Wave-particle duality of matter
5212:Mass–energy equivalence (E=mc)
5083:Relativistic quantum mechanics
1988:Foundation of Louis de Broglie
1705:Einstein's thought experiments
1624:Focused Laguerre-Gaussian beam
1402:Observing photons as particles
934:In the late 17th century, Sir
930:Wave-particle duality of light
567:Relativistic quantum mechanics
99:
92:
73:
1:
5061:Quantum statistical mechanics
4838:Quantum differential calculus
4760:Delayed-choice quantum eraser
4543:Symmetry in quantum mechanics
2656:10.1088/1367-2630/15/3/033018
2632:(3). IOP Publishing: 033018.
1915:Whittaker, Edmund T. (1989).
1610:Duality with other properties
1134:Classical waves and particles
607:Quantum statistical mechanics
5842:Foundational quantum physics
4250:History of subatomic physics
3128:10.1103/RevModPhys.88.015005
2805:"The Universe in a Nutshell"
1085:and also "wave mechanics".
27:Concept in quantum mechanics
5535:Albert Einstein Peace Prize
5312:Unsuccessful investigations
4863:Quantum stochastic calculus
4853:Quantum measurement problem
4775:Mach–Zehnder interferometer
3171:American Journal of Physics
2909:translated into English as
1734:Corpuscular theory of light
1655:Mach–Zehnder interferometer
577:Quantum information science
5868:
5462:Picasso at the Lapin Agile
5400:Russell–Einstein Manifesto
5272:Bose–Einstein correlations
1979:de Broglie, Louis Victor.
1413:
1338:
1101:Davisson–Germer experiment
1014:
5804:
5370:The Meaning of Relativity
5129:
4923:Quantum complexity theory
4901:Quantum cellular automata
4606:Path integral formulation
4339:
4024:
3238:American Physical Society
3106:Reviews of Modern Physics
2750:Whittaker, E. T. (1910).
2522:10.1017/S0007087410000026
1981:"On the Theory of Quanta"
1958:10.1080/14786449708621070
1879:Einstein, Albert (1993).
1699:Complementarity (physics)
1536:{\displaystyle \lambda '}
1170:Classical particles obey
1037:introduced his theory of
5761:Albert Einstein Archives
5691:Bernhard Caesar Einstein
5438:Relics: Einstein's Brain
5386:The Evolution of Physics
5267:Bose–Einstein statistics
5262:Bose–Einstein condensate
5242:Einstein field equations
4990:Quantum machine learning
4970:Quantum key distribution
4960:Quantum image processing
4950:Quantum error correction
4800:Wheeler's delayed choice
4267:mathematical formulation
3862:Eta and eta prime mesons
2959:10.1103/PhysRevA.45.8185
2904:10.1002/andp.19053220607
2754:. Longman, Green and Co.
2580:10.1002/andp.19283921704
2447:Reid, Alexander (1928).
2009:Schrödinger, E. (1926).
1865:10.1002/andp.19013090310
1756:Messiah, Albert (1966).
1511:{\displaystyle \lambda }
1452:that was related to the
1178:and extent; they follow
1041:waves in his PhD thesis
978:in a minimal increment,
948:interference experiments
612:Quantum machine learning
365:Wheeler's delayed-choice
18:Particle theory of light
5771:Einstein Papers Project
5287:Einstein–de Haas effect
4906:Quantum finite automata
3929:Double-charm tetraquark
3230:"Wave–particle duality"
3210:"Wave–Particle Duality"
3049:Applied Physics Letters
2504:Navarro, Jaume (2010).
2035:10.1103/PhysRev.28.1049
1940:Thomson, J. J. (1897).
1556:{\displaystyle \theta }
1498:A photon of wavelength
1311:for properties such as
1290:acting like a particle.
322:Leggett–Garg inequality
5703:Thomas Martin Einstein
5611:Introducing Relativity
5583:Einstein for Beginners
5486:Einstein and Eddington
5277:Einstein–Cartan theory
5010:Quantum neural network
2920:The Old Quantum Theory
2626:New Journal of Physics
2474:10.1098/rspa.1928.0121
2228:10.1103/PhysRev.30.705
2179:10.1103/physrev.30.705
1665:
1637:Which slit experiments
1625:
1564:
1557:
1537:
1512:
1485:
1411:
1353:
1341:Double-slit experiment
113:
5776:Einstein refrigerator
5766:Einstein's Blackboard
5645:(second wife; cousin)
5576:Einstein and Religion
5525:Albert Einstein Medal
5520:Albert Einstein Award
5378:The World as I See It
5317:Wave–particle duality
5297:Bohr–Einstein debates
5257:Cosmological constant
5237:Equivalence principle
5227:Einstein coefficients
5035:Quantum teleportation
4563:Wave–particle duality
4326:Wave–particle duality
4316:Relativistic particle
3453:Electron antineutrino
2849:on September 21, 2020
2803:(November 6, 2001) .
2350:10.1073/pnas.14.8.619
2280:10.1073/pnas.14.4.317
1724:Uncertainty principle
1663:
1623:
1593:series of experiments
1558:
1538:
1513:
1497:
1486:
1409:
1351:
1325:probability amplitude
1004:series of experiments
898:Wave-particle duality
307:Elitzur–Vaidman
297:Davisson–Germer
114:
5655:Hans Albert Einstein
5604:I Am Albert Einstein
5550:Einstein Prize (APS)
5222:Photoelectric effect
5195:Theory of relativity
5066:Quantum field theory
4995:Quantum metamaterial
4940:Quantum cryptography
4670:Consistent histories
3556:Faddeev–Popov ghosts
3306:Particles in physics
1846:Planck, Max (1901).
1832:Traité de la lumiere
1829:Christiaan Huygens,
1547:
1543:emerges at an angle
1522:
1502:
1484:{\displaystyle E=hf}
1466:
1416:Photoelectric effect
1118:Schrödinger equation
1109:George Paget Thomson
1083:Schrödinger equation
1079:undulatory mechanics
1070:a few years before.
992:photoelectric effect
984:electromagnetic wave
964:black-body radiation
954:'s detection of the
572:Quantum field theory
484:Consistent histories
121:Schrödinger equation
48:
5307:Thought experiments
5051:Quantum fluctuation
5020:Quantum programming
4980:Quantum logic gates
4965:Quantum information
4945:Quantum electronics
4420:Classical mechanics
4331:Particle chauvinism
4274:Subatomic particles
3006:10.1038/nature09366
2998:2010Natur.467..301V
2894:1905AnP...322..132E
2713:2014NatPh..10..271A
2648:2013NJPh...15c3018B
2572:1928AnP...392...55B
2465:1928RSPSA.119..663R
2408:1927Natur.119Q.890T
2341:1928PNAS...14..619D
2271:1928PNAS...14..317D
2219:1927PhRv...30..705D
2170:1927PhRv...30..705D
2123:1927Natur.119..558D
2027:1926PhRv...28.1049S
1793:Leighton, Robert B.
1789:Feynman, Richard P.
1579:value which is the
1282:Curved arc shows a
1172:classical mechanics
1147:, and they display
1054:) that move with a
360:Stern–Gerlach
157:Classical mechanics
5756:Things named after
5618:Subtle is the Lord
5441:(1994 documentary)
5433:(1923 documentary)
5425:(1922 documentary)
5322:Gravitational wave
5205:General relativity
5200:Special relativity
5104:in popular culture
4886:Quantum algorithms
4734:Von Neumann–Wigner
4714:Objective collapse
4425:Old quantum theory
2881:Annalen der Physik
2560:Annalen der Physik
2554:Bethe, H. (1928).
1942:"XL. Cathode Rays"
1852:Annalen der Physik
1666:
1626:
1565:
1553:
1533:
1508:
1481:
1420:Compton scattering
1412:
1354:
940:Christiaan Huygens
900:is the concept in
548:Von Neumann–Wigner
528:Objective-collapse
327:Mach–Zehnder
317:Leggett inequality
312:Franck–Hertz
162:Old quantum theory
109:
5824:
5823:
5726:Awards and honors
5709:Siegbert Einstein
5597:Einstein's Cosmos
5147:
5146:
5121:Quantum mysticism
5099:Schrödinger's cat
5030:Quantum simulator
5000:Quantum metrology
4928:Quantum computing
4891:Quantum amplifier
4868:Quantum spacetime
4833:Quantum cosmology
4823:Quantum chemistry
4538:Scattering theory
4486:Zero-point energy
4481:Degenerate levels
4389:Quantum mechanics
4355:
4354:
4311:Massless particle
4119:
4118:
4115:
4114:
4080:
4079:
3943:
3942:
3755:
3754:
3751:
3750:
3703:Magnetic monopole
3651:
3650:
3542:
3541:
3483:
3482:
3463:Muon antineutrino
3448:Electron neutrino
3183:10.1119/1.1450558
3071:10.1063/5.0093411
2992:(7313): 301–304.
2953:(11): 8185–8189.
2947:Physical Review A
2822:10.1063/1.1480788
2721:10.1038/nphys2863
2117:(2998): 558–560.
2074:10.1063/1.3001830
1926:978-0-486-26126-3
1892:978-0-691-10250-4
1816:978-0-201-02118-9
1802:Quantum Mechanics
1797:Sands, Matthew L.
1759:Quantum Mechanics
1621:
1238:Wave interference
1182:characterized by
1174:; they have some
1149:wave interference
1081:, now called the
1075:Erwin Schrödinger
912:concepts such as
902:quantum mechanics
895:
894:
602:Scattering theory
582:Quantum computing
355:Schrödinger's cat
287:Bell's inequality
95:
70:
39:Quantum mechanics
16:(Redirected from
5859:
5812:
5811:
5711:(distant cousin)
5705:(great-grandson)
5667:Hermann Einstein
5649:Lieserl Einstein
5327:Tea leaf paradox
5174:
5167:
5160:
5151:
5137:
5136:
4848:Quantum geometry
4843:Quantum dynamics
4700:Superdeterminism
4596:Matrix mechanics
4451:Bra–ket notation
4382:
4375:
4368:
4359:
4345:
4321:Virtual particle
4092:Mesonic molecule
4026:
4022:
3867:Bottom eta meson
3775:
3766:
3738:W′ and Z′ bosons
3728:Sterile neutrino
3713:Majorana fermion
3580:
3571:
3494:
3473:Tau antineutrino
3328:
3319:
3299:
3292:
3285:
3276:
3271:
3269:
3267:
3248:
3246:
3244:
3225:
3223:
3221:
3195:
3194:
3168:
3159:
3148:
3147:
3121:
3097:
3091:
3090:
3064:
3040:
3034:
3033:
2977:
2971:
2970:
2938:
2932:
2930:
2929:on 11 June 2009.
2928:
2922:. Archived from
2917:
2908:
2906:
2896:
2873:Einstein, Albert
2869:
2863:
2858:
2856:
2854:
2845:. Archived from
2844:
2824:
2801:Hawking, Stephen
2797:
2791:
2790:
2779:10.2307/27757381
2762:
2756:
2755:
2747:
2741:
2740:
2706:
2682:
2676:
2675:
2641:
2617:
2608:
2607:
2605:
2604:
2590:
2584:
2583:
2551:
2542:
2541:
2501:
2495:
2494:
2476:
2459:(783): 663–667.
2444:
2438:
2437:
2419:
2417:10.1038/119890a0
2387:
2381:
2380:
2370:
2352:
2320:
2311:
2310:
2300:
2282:
2250:
2241:
2240:
2230:
2198:
2192:
2191:
2181:
2149:
2143:
2142:
2131:10.1038/119558a0
2108:
2092:
2086:
2085:
2053:
2047:
2046:
2021:(6): 1049–1070.
2006:
2000:
1999:
1997:
1995:
1985:
1976:
1970:
1969:
1952:(269): 293–316.
1937:
1931:
1930:
1912:
1897:
1896:
1876:
1870:
1869:
1867:
1843:
1837:
1827:
1821:
1820:
1785:
1774:
1773:
1753:
1720:
1695:
1646:). Many similar
1630:angular momentum
1622:
1562:
1560:
1559:
1554:
1542:
1540:
1539:
1534:
1532:
1517:
1515:
1514:
1509:
1490:
1488:
1487:
1482:
1459:of the light by
1383:
1372:
1286:trajectory of a
1279:
1267:
1249:
1234:
1094:Clinton Davisson
1035:Louis de Broglie
990:interpreted the
887:
880:
873:
514:Superdeterminism
167:Bra–ket notation
118:
116:
115:
110:
102:
97:
96:
88:
76:
71:
69:
58:
30:
21:
5867:
5866:
5862:
5861:
5860:
5858:
5857:
5856:
5827:
5826:
5825:
5820:
5800:
5751:Religious views
5746:Political views
5714:
5699:(granddaughter)
5697:Evelyn Einstein
5685:Robert Einstein
5679:Eduard Einstein
5623:
5560:
5554:
5508:
5478:Einstein's Gift
5412:
5405:
5346:Annus mirabilis
5331:
5302:Teleparallelism
5247:Einstein radius
5217:Brownian motion
5183:
5181:Albert Einstein
5178:
5148:
5143:
5125:
5111:Wigner's friend
5087:
5078:Quantum gravity
5039:
5025:Quantum sensing
5005:Quantum network
4985:Quantum machine
4955:Quantum imaging
4918:Quantum circuit
4913:Quantum channel
4872:
4818:Quantum biology
4804:
4780:Elitzur–Vaidman
4755:Davisson–Germer
4738:
4690:Hidden-variable
4680:de Broglie–Bohm
4657:Interpretations
4651:
4615:
4569:
4456:Complementarity
4434:
4391:
4386:
4356:
4351:
4335:
4289:Nuclear physics
4238:
4202:
4138:Davydov soliton
4111:
4076:
4050:
4011:
3939:
3911:
3838:
3747:
3647:
3606:
3560:
3538:
3520:
3479:
3399:
3308:
3303:
3265:
3263:
3251:
3242:
3240:
3228:
3219:
3217:
3207:
3204:
3199:
3198:
3166:
3161:
3160:
3151:
3099:
3098:
3094:
3042:
3041:
3037:
2979:
2978:
2974:
2940:
2939:
2935:
2926:
2915:
2910:
2871:
2870:
2866:
2852:
2850:
2833:
2799:
2798:
2794:
2764:
2763:
2759:
2749:
2748:
2744:
2684:
2683:
2679:
2619:
2618:
2611:
2602:
2600:
2592:
2591:
2587:
2553:
2552:
2545:
2503:
2502:
2498:
2446:
2445:
2441:
2389:
2388:
2384:
2322:
2321:
2314:
2252:
2251:
2244:
2207:Physical Review
2200:
2199:
2195:
2158:Physical Review
2151:
2150:
2146:
2106:
2094:
2093:
2089:
2055:
2054:
2050:
2015:Physical Review
2008:
2007:
2003:
1993:
1991:
1983:
1978:
1977:
1973:
1939:
1938:
1934:
1927:
1914:
1913:
1900:
1893:
1878:
1877:
1873:
1845:
1844:
1840:
1828:
1824:
1817:
1787:
1786:
1777:
1770:
1755:
1754:
1747:
1742:
1718:
1693:
1686:
1639:
1614:
1612:
1573:Planck constant
1545:
1544:
1525:
1520:
1519:
1500:
1499:
1464:
1463:
1442:Albert Einstein
1422:
1414:Main articles:
1404:
1395:
1394:
1393:
1392:
1391:
1384:
1375:
1374:
1373:
1343:
1337:
1321:magnetic moment
1317:electric charge
1302:
1301:
1300:
1299:
1293:
1292:
1291:
1280:
1272:
1271:
1268:
1259:
1258:
1257:
1250:
1242:
1241:
1235:
1226:
1225:
1136:
1116:based upon the
1068:Albert Einstein
1027:Robert Millikan
1019:
1013:
932:
927:
891:
862:
861:
860:
625:
617:
616:
562:
561:Advanced topics
554:
553:
552:
504:Hidden-variable
494:de Broglie–Bohm
473:
471:Interpretations
463:
462:
461:
431:
423:
422:
421:
379:
371:
370:
369:
336:
292:CHSH inequality
281:
273:
272:
271:
200:Complementarity
194:
186:
185:
184:
152:
123:
62:
46:
45:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5865:
5863:
5855:
5854:
5849:
5844:
5839:
5829:
5828:
5822:
5821:
5819:
5818:
5805:
5802:
5801:
5799:
5798:
5793:
5788:
5783:
5778:
5773:
5768:
5763:
5758:
5753:
5748:
5743:
5738:
5733:
5728:
5722:
5720:
5716:
5715:
5713:
5712:
5706:
5700:
5694:
5688:
5682:
5676:
5670:
5664:
5658:
5652:
5646:
5640:
5633:
5631:
5625:
5624:
5622:
5621:
5614:
5607:
5600:
5593:
5586:
5579:
5572:
5564:
5562:
5556:
5555:
5553:
5552:
5547:
5542:
5537:
5532:
5527:
5522:
5516:
5514:
5510:
5509:
5507:
5506:
5498:
5490:
5489:(2008 TV film)
5482:
5474:
5466:
5458:
5454:Young Einstein
5450:
5446:Insignificance
5442:
5434:
5426:
5417:
5415:
5407:
5406:
5404:
5403:
5397:
5394:Why Socialism?
5390:
5382:
5374:
5366:
5358:
5351:
5341:
5339:
5333:
5332:
5330:
5329:
5324:
5319:
5314:
5309:
5304:
5299:
5294:
5289:
5284:
5279:
5274:
5269:
5264:
5259:
5254:
5249:
5244:
5239:
5234:
5232:Einstein solid
5229:
5224:
5219:
5214:
5209:
5208:
5207:
5202:
5191:
5189:
5185:
5184:
5179:
5177:
5176:
5169:
5162:
5154:
5145:
5144:
5142:
5141:
5130:
5127:
5126:
5124:
5123:
5118:
5113:
5108:
5107:
5106:
5095:
5093:
5089:
5088:
5086:
5085:
5080:
5075:
5074:
5073:
5063:
5058:
5056:Casimir effect
5053:
5047:
5045:
5041:
5040:
5038:
5037:
5032:
5027:
5022:
5017:
5015:Quantum optics
5012:
5007:
5002:
4997:
4992:
4987:
4982:
4977:
4972:
4967:
4962:
4957:
4952:
4947:
4942:
4937:
4936:
4935:
4925:
4920:
4915:
4910:
4909:
4908:
4898:
4893:
4888:
4882:
4880:
4874:
4873:
4871:
4870:
4865:
4860:
4855:
4850:
4845:
4840:
4835:
4830:
4825:
4820:
4814:
4812:
4806:
4805:
4803:
4802:
4797:
4792:
4790:Quantum eraser
4787:
4782:
4777:
4772:
4767:
4762:
4757:
4752:
4746:
4744:
4740:
4739:
4737:
4736:
4731:
4726:
4721:
4716:
4711:
4706:
4705:
4704:
4703:
4702:
4687:
4682:
4677:
4672:
4667:
4661:
4659:
4653:
4652:
4650:
4649:
4644:
4639:
4634:
4629:
4623:
4621:
4617:
4616:
4614:
4613:
4608:
4603:
4598:
4593:
4588:
4583:
4577:
4575:
4571:
4570:
4568:
4567:
4566:
4565:
4560:
4550:
4545:
4540:
4535:
4530:
4525:
4520:
4515:
4510:
4505:
4500:
4495:
4490:
4489:
4488:
4483:
4478:
4473:
4463:
4461:Density matrix
4458:
4453:
4448:
4442:
4440:
4436:
4435:
4433:
4432:
4427:
4422:
4417:
4416:
4415:
4405:
4399:
4397:
4393:
4392:
4387:
4385:
4384:
4377:
4370:
4362:
4353:
4352:
4348:Physics portal
4340:
4337:
4336:
4334:
4333:
4328:
4323:
4318:
4313:
4308:
4303:
4302:
4301:
4291:
4286:
4281:
4276:
4271:
4270:
4269:
4262:Standard Model
4259:
4258:
4257:
4246:
4244:
4240:
4239:
4237:
4236:
4231:
4229:Quasiparticles
4226:
4221:
4216:
4210:
4208:
4204:
4203:
4201:
4200:
4195:
4190:
4185:
4180:
4175:
4170:
4165:
4160:
4155:
4150:
4145:
4140:
4135:
4129:
4127:
4125:Quasiparticles
4121:
4120:
4117:
4116:
4113:
4112:
4110:
4109:
4104:
4099:
4094:
4088:
4086:
4082:
4081:
4078:
4077:
4075:
4074:
4069:
4064:
4058:
4056:
4052:
4051:
4049:
4048:
4043:
4038:
4032:
4030:
4019:
4013:
4012:
4010:
4009:
4004:
3999:
3998:
3997:
3992:
3987:
3982:
3977:
3972:
3962:
3957:
3951:
3949:
3945:
3944:
3941:
3940:
3938:
3937:
3932:
3921:
3919:
3917:Exotic hadrons
3913:
3912:
3910:
3909:
3904:
3899:
3894:
3889:
3884:
3879:
3874:
3869:
3864:
3859:
3854:
3848:
3846:
3840:
3839:
3837:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3821:
3816:
3811:
3810:
3809:
3804:
3799:
3794:
3783:
3781:
3772:
3763:
3757:
3756:
3753:
3752:
3749:
3748:
3746:
3745:
3743:X and Y bosons
3740:
3735:
3730:
3725:
3720:
3715:
3710:
3705:
3700:
3695:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3659:
3657:
3653:
3652:
3649:
3648:
3646:
3645:
3635:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3614:
3612:
3608:
3607:
3605:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3588:
3586:
3577:
3568:
3562:
3561:
3559:
3558:
3552:
3550:
3544:
3543:
3540:
3539:
3537:
3536:
3530:
3528:
3522:
3521:
3519:
3518:
3516:W and Z bosons
3513:
3508:
3502:
3500:
3491:
3485:
3484:
3481:
3480:
3478:
3477:
3476:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3460:
3455:
3450:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3425:
3420:
3415:
3409:
3407:
3401:
3400:
3398:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3370:Strange (quark
3367:
3362:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3336:
3334:
3325:
3316:
3310:
3309:
3304:
3302:
3301:
3294:
3287:
3279:
3273:
3272:
3249:
3226:
3203:
3202:External links
3200:
3197:
3196:
3177:(3): 266–271.
3149:
3092:
3035:
2972:
2933:
2864:
2832:978-0553802023
2831:
2792:
2757:
2742:
2697:(4): 271–277.
2691:Nature Physics
2677:
2609:
2598:NobelPrize.org
2585:
2566:(17): 55–129.
2543:
2516:(2): 245–275.
2496:
2439:
2382:
2335:(8): 619–627.
2312:
2265:(4): 317–322.
2242:
2213:(6): 705–740.
2193:
2164:(6): 705–740.
2144:
2087:
2048:
2001:
1971:
1932:
1925:
1898:
1891:
1871:
1858:(3): 553–563.
1838:
1822:
1815:
1775:
1768:
1744:
1743:
1741:
1738:
1737:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1721:
1712:
1707:
1702:
1696:
1685:
1682:
1638:
1635:
1611:
1608:
1589:Arthur Compton
1552:
1531:
1528:
1507:
1492:
1491:
1480:
1477:
1474:
1471:
1434:Philipp Lenard
1426:Heinrich Hertz
1403:
1400:
1385:
1378:
1377:
1376:
1367:
1366:
1365:
1364:
1363:
1336:
1333:
1329:quasiparticles
1295:
1294:
1281:
1274:
1273:
1269:
1262:
1261:
1260:
1251:
1244:
1243:
1236:
1229:
1228:
1227:
1223:
1222:
1221:
1220:
1176:center of mass
1135:
1132:
1060:effective mass
1056:group velocity
1031:Charles Wilson
1015:Main article:
1012:
1009:
1000:Arthur Compton
952:François Arago
931:
928:
926:
923:
893:
892:
890:
889:
882:
875:
867:
864:
863:
859:
858:
853:
848:
843:
838:
833:
828:
823:
818:
813:
808:
803:
798:
793:
788:
783:
778:
773:
768:
763:
758:
753:
748:
743:
738:
733:
728:
723:
718:
713:
708:
703:
698:
693:
688:
683:
678:
673:
668:
663:
658:
653:
648:
643:
638:
633:
627:
626:
623:
622:
619:
618:
615:
614:
609:
604:
599:
597:Density matrix
594:
589:
584:
579:
574:
569:
563:
560:
559:
556:
555:
551:
550:
545:
540:
535:
530:
525:
520:
519:
518:
517:
516:
501:
496:
491:
486:
481:
475:
474:
469:
468:
465:
464:
460:
459:
454:
449:
444:
439:
433:
432:
429:
428:
425:
424:
420:
419:
414:
409:
404:
399:
394:
388:
387:
386:
380:
377:
376:
373:
372:
368:
367:
362:
357:
351:
350:
349:
348:
347:
345:Delayed-choice
340:Quantum eraser
335:
334:
329:
324:
319:
314:
309:
304:
299:
294:
289:
283:
282:
279:
278:
275:
274:
270:
269:
268:
267:
257:
252:
247:
242:
237:
232:
230:Quantum number
227:
222:
217:
212:
207:
202:
196:
195:
192:
191:
188:
187:
183:
182:
177:
171:
170:
169:
164:
159:
153:
150:
149:
146:
145:
144:
143:
138:
133:
125:
124:
119:
108:
105:
101:
94:
91:
85:
82:
79:
75:
68:
65:
61:
56:
53:
42:
41:
35:
34:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5864:
5853:
5850:
5848:
5845:
5843:
5840:
5838:
5835:
5834:
5832:
5817:
5816:
5807:
5806:
5803:
5797:
5794:
5792:
5789:
5787:
5784:
5782:
5779:
5777:
5774:
5772:
5769:
5767:
5764:
5762:
5759:
5757:
5754:
5752:
5749:
5747:
5744:
5742:
5739:
5737:
5734:
5732:
5729:
5727:
5724:
5723:
5721:
5717:
5710:
5707:
5704:
5701:
5698:
5695:
5692:
5689:
5686:
5683:
5680:
5677:
5674:
5673:Maja Einstein
5671:
5668:
5665:
5662:
5659:
5656:
5653:
5650:
5647:
5644:
5643:Elsa Einstein
5641:
5638:
5635:
5634:
5632:
5630:
5626:
5620:
5619:
5615:
5613:
5612:
5608:
5606:
5605:
5601:
5599:
5598:
5594:
5592:
5591:
5587:
5585:
5584:
5580:
5578:
5577:
5573:
5571:
5570:
5566:
5565:
5563:
5557:
5551:
5548:
5546:
5543:
5541:
5538:
5536:
5533:
5531:
5530:Kalinga Prize
5528:
5526:
5523:
5521:
5518:
5517:
5515:
5511:
5504:
5503:
5499:
5497:(2017 series)
5496:
5495:
5491:
5488:
5487:
5483:
5480:
5479:
5475:
5472:
5471:
5467:
5464:
5463:
5459:
5456:
5455:
5451:
5448:
5447:
5443:
5440:
5439:
5435:
5432:
5431:
5427:
5424:
5423:
5419:
5418:
5416:
5414:
5408:
5401:
5398:
5395:
5391:
5388:
5387:
5383:
5380:
5379:
5375:
5372:
5371:
5367:
5364:
5363:
5359:
5356:
5352:
5349:
5347:
5343:
5342:
5340:
5338:
5334:
5328:
5325:
5323:
5320:
5318:
5315:
5313:
5310:
5308:
5305:
5303:
5300:
5298:
5295:
5293:
5290:
5288:
5285:
5283:
5280:
5278:
5275:
5273:
5270:
5268:
5265:
5263:
5260:
5258:
5255:
5253:
5250:
5248:
5245:
5243:
5240:
5238:
5235:
5233:
5230:
5228:
5225:
5223:
5220:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5210:
5206:
5203:
5201:
5198:
5197:
5196:
5193:
5192:
5190:
5186:
5182:
5175:
5170:
5168:
5163:
5161:
5156:
5155:
5152:
5140:
5132:
5131:
5128:
5122:
5119:
5117:
5114:
5112:
5109:
5105:
5102:
5101:
5100:
5097:
5096:
5094:
5090:
5084:
5081:
5079:
5076:
5072:
5069:
5068:
5067:
5064:
5062:
5059:
5057:
5054:
5052:
5049:
5048:
5046:
5042:
5036:
5033:
5031:
5028:
5026:
5023:
5021:
5018:
5016:
5013:
5011:
5008:
5006:
5003:
5001:
4998:
4996:
4993:
4991:
4988:
4986:
4983:
4981:
4978:
4976:
4975:Quantum logic
4973:
4971:
4968:
4966:
4963:
4961:
4958:
4956:
4953:
4951:
4948:
4946:
4943:
4941:
4938:
4934:
4931:
4930:
4929:
4926:
4924:
4921:
4919:
4916:
4914:
4911:
4907:
4904:
4903:
4902:
4899:
4897:
4894:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4884:
4883:
4881:
4879:
4875:
4869:
4866:
4864:
4861:
4859:
4856:
4854:
4851:
4849:
4846:
4844:
4841:
4839:
4836:
4834:
4831:
4829:
4828:Quantum chaos
4826:
4824:
4821:
4819:
4816:
4815:
4813:
4811:
4807:
4801:
4798:
4796:
4795:Stern–Gerlach
4793:
4791:
4788:
4786:
4783:
4781:
4778:
4776:
4773:
4771:
4768:
4766:
4763:
4761:
4758:
4756:
4753:
4751:
4748:
4747:
4745:
4741:
4735:
4732:
4730:
4729:Transactional
4727:
4725:
4722:
4720:
4719:Quantum logic
4717:
4715:
4712:
4710:
4707:
4701:
4698:
4697:
4696:
4693:
4692:
4691:
4688:
4686:
4683:
4681:
4678:
4676:
4673:
4671:
4668:
4666:
4663:
4662:
4660:
4658:
4654:
4648:
4645:
4643:
4640:
4638:
4635:
4633:
4630:
4628:
4625:
4624:
4622:
4618:
4612:
4609:
4607:
4604:
4602:
4599:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4578:
4576:
4572:
4564:
4561:
4559:
4556:
4555:
4554:
4553:Wave function
4551:
4549:
4546:
4544:
4541:
4539:
4536:
4534:
4531:
4529:
4528:Superposition
4526:
4524:
4523:Quantum state
4521:
4519:
4516:
4514:
4511:
4509:
4506:
4504:
4501:
4499:
4496:
4494:
4491:
4487:
4484:
4482:
4479:
4477:
4476:Excited state
4474:
4472:
4469:
4468:
4467:
4464:
4462:
4459:
4457:
4454:
4452:
4449:
4447:
4444:
4443:
4441:
4437:
4431:
4428:
4426:
4423:
4421:
4418:
4414:
4411:
4410:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4400:
4398:
4394:
4390:
4383:
4378:
4376:
4371:
4369:
4364:
4363:
4360:
4350:
4349:
4344:
4338:
4332:
4329:
4327:
4324:
4322:
4319:
4317:
4314:
4312:
4309:
4307:
4306:Exotic matter
4304:
4300:
4297:
4296:
4295:
4294:Eightfold way
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4284:Antiparticles
4282:
4280:
4277:
4275:
4272:
4268:
4265:
4264:
4263:
4260:
4256:
4253:
4252:
4251:
4248:
4247:
4245:
4241:
4235:
4232:
4230:
4227:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4211:
4209:
4205:
4199:
4196:
4194:
4191:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4179:
4176:
4174:
4171:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4161:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4146:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4130:
4128:
4126:
4122:
4108:
4105:
4103:
4100:
4098:
4095:
4093:
4090:
4089:
4087:
4083:
4073:
4070:
4068:
4065:
4063:
4060:
4059:
4057:
4053:
4047:
4044:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4033:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4020:
4018:
4014:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3996:
3993:
3991:
3988:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3968:
3967:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3958:
3956:
3955:Atomic nuclei
3953:
3952:
3950:
3946:
3936:
3933:
3930:
3926:
3923:
3922:
3920:
3918:
3914:
3908:
3905:
3903:
3900:
3898:
3895:
3893:
3890:
3888:
3887:Upsilon meson
3885:
3883:
3880:
3878:
3875:
3873:
3870:
3868:
3865:
3863:
3860:
3858:
3855:
3853:
3850:
3849:
3847:
3845:
3841:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3819:Lambda baryon
3817:
3815:
3812:
3808:
3805:
3803:
3800:
3798:
3795:
3793:
3790:
3789:
3788:
3785:
3784:
3782:
3780:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3758:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3678:Dual graviton
3676:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3660:
3658:
3654:
3643:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3615:
3613:
3609:
3603:
3600:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3589:
3587:
3585:
3581:
3578:
3576:
3575:Superpartners
3572:
3569:
3567:
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3517:
3514:
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3509:
3507:
3504:
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3499:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3486:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3461:
3459:
3458:Muon neutrino
3456:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3445:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
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3419:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3410:
3408:
3406:
3402:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3390:Bottom (quark
3388:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3378:
3376:
3373:
3371:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3358:
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3353:
3351:
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3333:
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3311:
3307:
3300:
3295:
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3288:
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3277:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3250:
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3211:
3206:
3205:
3201:
3192:
3188:
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3180:
3176:
3172:
3165:
3158:
3156:
3154:
3150:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3112:(1): 015005.
3111:
3107:
3103:
3096:
3093:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3063:
3058:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3039:
3036:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2976:
2973:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2937:
2934:
2925:
2921:
2914:
2911:Einstein, A.
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2887:(6): 132–48.
2886:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2868:
2865:
2861:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2834:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2809:Physics Today
2806:
2802:
2796:
2793:
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2758:
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2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2640:
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2631:
2627:
2623:
2616:
2614:
2610:
2599:
2595:
2589:
2586:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2562:(in German).
2561:
2557:
2550:
2548:
2544:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2500:
2497:
2492:
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2484:
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2475:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2443:
2440:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2402:(3007): 890.
2401:
2397:
2393:
2386:
2383:
2378:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2351:
2346:
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2326:
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2308:
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2268:
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2256:
2249:
2247:
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2238:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2197:
2194:
2189:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2148:
2145:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2091:
2088:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2062:Physics Today
2059:
2052:
2049:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2005:
2002:
1989:
1982:
1975:
1972:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1936:
1933:
1928:
1922:
1918:
1911:
1909:
1907:
1905:
1903:
1899:
1894:
1888:
1884:
1883:
1875:
1872:
1866:
1861:
1857:
1854:(in German).
1853:
1849:
1842:
1839:
1835:
1833:
1826:
1823:
1818:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1803:
1798:
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1790:
1784:
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1765:
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1708:
1706:
1703:
1700:
1697:
1691:
1688:
1687:
1683:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1671:
1670:phase shifter
1662:
1658:
1656:
1651:
1649:
1645:
1636:
1634:
1631:
1609:
1607:
1605:
1604:laser cooling
1601:
1596:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1581:work function
1578:
1574:
1570:
1550:
1529:
1526:
1505:
1496:
1478:
1475:
1472:
1469:
1462:
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1371:
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1358:
1350:
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1334:
1332:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1305:
1298:
1289:
1285:
1284:cloud chamber
1278:
1266:
1255:
1248:
1239:
1233:
1219:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1168:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1157:seismic waves
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1141:wave equation
1133:
1131:
1128:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1097:
1095:
1091:
1086:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1071:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1048:
1047:standing wave
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1023:J. J. Thomson
1018:
1010:
1008:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
977:
973:
969:
965:
961:
957:
953:
950:in 1801, and
949:
945:
941:
937:
929:
924:
922:
919:
915:
911:
907:
903:
899:
888:
883:
881:
876:
874:
869:
868:
866:
865:
857:
854:
852:
849:
847:
844:
842:
839:
837:
834:
832:
829:
827:
824:
822:
819:
817:
814:
812:
809:
807:
804:
802:
799:
797:
794:
792:
789:
787:
784:
782:
779:
777:
774:
772:
769:
767:
764:
762:
759:
757:
754:
752:
749:
747:
744:
742:
739:
737:
734:
732:
729:
727:
724:
722:
719:
717:
714:
712:
709:
707:
704:
702:
699:
697:
694:
692:
689:
687:
684:
682:
679:
677:
674:
672:
669:
667:
664:
662:
659:
657:
654:
652:
649:
647:
644:
642:
639:
637:
634:
632:
629:
628:
621:
620:
613:
610:
608:
605:
603:
600:
598:
595:
593:
590:
588:
587:Quantum chaos
585:
583:
580:
578:
575:
573:
570:
568:
565:
564:
558:
557:
549:
546:
544:
543:Transactional
541:
539:
536:
534:
533:Quantum logic
531:
529:
526:
524:
521:
515:
512:
511:
510:
507:
506:
505:
502:
500:
497:
495:
492:
490:
487:
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477:
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467:
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458:
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440:
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435:
434:
427:
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410:
408:
405:
403:
400:
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389:
385:
382:
381:
375:
374:
366:
363:
361:
358:
356:
353:
352:
346:
343:
342:
341:
338:
337:
333:
330:
328:
325:
323:
320:
318:
315:
313:
310:
308:
305:
303:
300:
298:
295:
293:
290:
288:
285:
284:
277:
276:
266:
263:
262:
261:
260:Wave function
258:
256:
253:
251:
248:
246:
243:
241:
240:Superposition
238:
236:
233:
231:
228:
226:
223:
221:
218:
216:
213:
211:
208:
206:
203:
201:
198:
197:
190:
189:
181:
178:
176:
173:
172:
168:
165:
163:
160:
158:
155:
154:
148:
147:
142:
139:
137:
134:
132:
129:
128:
127:
126:
122:
89:
83:
66:
63:
59:
51:
44:
43:
40:
36:
32:
31:
19:
5813:
5781:Einsteinhaus
5661:Pauline Koch
5639:(first wife)
5637:Mileva Marić
5616:
5609:
5602:
5595:
5588:
5581:
5574:
5567:
5500:
5492:
5484:
5476:
5468:
5460:
5452:
5444:
5436:
5428:
5420:
5384:
5376:
5368:
5360:
5345:
5316:
4858:Quantum mind
4770:Franck–Hertz
4632:Klein–Gordon
4581:Formulations
4574:Formulations
4562:
4503:Interference
4493:Entanglement
4471:Ground state
4466:Energy level
4439:Fundamentals
4403:Introduction
4346:
4325:
4017:Hypothetical
3965:Exotic atoms
3834:Omega baryon
3824:Sigma baryon
3814:Delta baryon
3566:Hypothetical
3548:Ghost fields
3534:Higgs boson
3468:Tau neutrino
3360:Charm (quark
3264:. Retrieved
3241:. Retrieved
3234:PhysicsQuest
3233:
3220:December 12,
3218:. Retrieved
3214:HyperPhysics
3213:
3174:
3170:
3109:
3105:
3095:
3052:
3048:
3038:
2989:
2985:
2975:
2950:
2946:
2936:
2924:the original
2919:
2884:
2880:
2867:
2853:December 14,
2851:. Retrieved
2847:the original
2812:
2808:
2795:
2770:
2766:
2760:
2751:
2745:
2694:
2690:
2680:
2629:
2625:
2601:. Retrieved
2597:
2588:
2563:
2559:
2513:
2509:
2499:
2456:
2452:
2442:
2399:
2395:
2385:
2332:
2328:
2262:
2258:
2210:
2206:
2196:
2161:
2157:
2147:
2114:
2110:
2100:L. H. Germer
2090:
2068:(1): 34–41.
2065:
2061:
2051:
2018:
2014:
2004:
1992:. Retrieved
1987:
1974:
1949:
1945:
1935:
1916:
1881:
1874:
1855:
1851:
1841:
1831:
1825:
1801:
1758:
1678:
1674:
1667:
1652:
1640:
1627:
1597:
1591:performed a
1576:
1568:
1566:
1456:
1449:
1430:cathode rays
1423:
1396:
1388:
1359:
1355:
1344:
1306:
1303:
1296:
1254:trajectories
1208:tennis balls
1180:trajectories
1169:
1167:, and more.
1137:
1098:
1087:
1078:
1072:
1058:and have an
1052:wave packets
1042:
1020:
1002:performed a
979:
960:Planck's law
956:Poisson spot
944:Thomas Young
936:Isaac Newton
933:
897:
896:
442:Klein–Gordon
378:Formulations
215:Energy level
210:Entanglement
193:Fundamentals
180:Interference
131:Introduction
5837:Dichotomies
5786:Einsteinium
5559:Books about
5505:(2023 film)
5502:Oppenheimer
5481:(2003 play)
5473:(1994 film)
5465:(1993 play)
5457:(1988 film)
5449:(1985 film)
5292:EPR paradox
5116:EPR paradox
4896:Quantum bus
4765:Double-slit
4743:Experiments
4709:Many-worlds
4647:Schrödinger
4611:Phase space
4601:Schrödinger
4591:Interaction
4548:Uncertainty
4518:Nonlocality
4513:Measurement
4508:Decoherence
4498:Hamiltonian
4299:Quark model
4067:Theta meson
3970:Positronium
3882:Omega meson
3877:J/psi meson
3807:Antineutron
3718:Dark photon
3683:Graviphoton
3642:Stop squark
3350:Down (quark
3253:Mack, Katie
2773:: 299–322.
2704:1410.0270v1
2096:C. Davisson
1994:25 February
1729:Matter wave
1600:solar sails
1216:sand grains
1165:radio waves
1161:sound waves
1153:water waves
1145:diffraction
1122:Bragg's law
1017:Matter wave
831:von Neumann
816:Schrödinger
592:EPR paradox
523:Many-worlds
457:Schrödinger
412:Schrödinger
407:Phase-space
397:Interaction
302:Double-slit
280:Experiments
255:Uncertainty
225:Nonlocality
220:Measurement
205:Decoherence
175:Hamiltonian
5831:Categories
5791:Max Talmey
5693:(grandson)
5651:(daughter)
5411:In popular
5044:Extensions
4878:Technology
4724:Relational
4675:Copenhagen
4586:Heisenberg
4533:Tunnelling
4396:Background
4041:Heptaquark
4002:Superatoms
3935:Pentaquark
3925:Tetraquark
3907:Quarkonium
3797:Antiproton
3698:Leptoquark
3633:Neutralino
3395:antiquark)
3385:antiquark)
3380:Top (quark
3375:antiquark)
3365:antiquark)
3355:antiquark)
3345:antiquark)
3314:Elementary
3266:August 31,
3243:August 31,
3062:2203.00477
2603:2024-03-18
1769:0486409244
1740:References
1339:See also:
1252:Classical
1204:spacecraft
1188:velocities
1127:Otto Stern
1114:Hans Bethe
1107:surfaces.
1064:wavevector
986:. In 1905
972:oscillator
968:Max Planck
826:Sommerfeld
741:Heisenberg
736:Gutzwiller
676:de Broglie
624:Scientists
538:Relational
489:Copenhagen
392:Heisenberg
250:Tunnelling
151:Background
5852:Particles
4750:Bell test
4620:Equations
4446:Born rule
4279:Particles
4224:Particles
4183:Polariton
4173:Plasmaron
4143:Dropleton
4036:Hexaquark
4007:Molecules
3995:Protonium
3872:Phi meson
3857:Rho meson
3829:Xi baryon
3761:Composite
3597:Gravitino
3340:Up (quark
3208:R. Nave.
3191:0002-9505
3136:0034-6861
3119:1407.2930
3087:247187983
3079:0003-6951
3014:0028-0836
2842:120382028
2729:1745-2473
2664:1367-2630
2639:1210.6243
2538:171025814
2530:0007-0874
2483:0950-1207
2426:0028-0836
2359:0027-8424
2289:0027-8424
2237:0031-899X
2188:0031-899X
2082:0031-9228
2043:0031-899X
1966:1941-5982
1648:proposals
1644:coherence
1628:Normally
1577:threshold
1551:θ
1527:λ
1506:λ
1454:frequency
1438:intensity
1184:positions
1088:In 1926,
910:classical
856:Zeilinger
701:Ehrenfest
430:Equations
107:⟩
104:Ψ
93:^
81:⟩
78:Ψ
55:ℏ
5815:Category
5741:Memorial
5687:(cousin)
5675:(sister)
5669:(father)
5663:(mother)
5561:Einstein
5396:" (1949)
5357:" (1905)
5139:Category
4933:Timeline
4685:Ensemble
4665:Bayesian
4558:Collapse
4430:Glossary
4413:Timeline
4255:timeline
4107:R-hadron
4062:Glueball
4046:Skyrmion
3980:Tauonium
3693:Inflaton
3688:Graviton
3668:Curvaton
3638:Sfermion
3628:Higgsino
3623:Chargino
3584:Gauginos
3443:Neutrino
3428:Antimuon
3418:Positron
3413:Electron
3323:Fermions
3144:34901303
3022:20844532
2875:(1905).
2787:27757381
2737:56438353
2491:98311959
2377:16587378
2307:16587341
2102:(1927).
1799:(2007).
1684:See also
1530:′
1288:positron
1105:Ni metal
1090:Max Born
1039:electron
988:Einstein
914:particle
781:Millikan
706:Einstein
691:Davisson
646:Blackett
631:Aharonov
499:Ensemble
479:Bayesian
384:Overview
265:Collapse
245:Symmetry
136:Glossary
5719:Related
5413:culture
5188:Physics
5092:Related
5071:History
4810:Science
4642:Rydberg
4408:History
4243:Related
4214:Baryons
4188:Polaron
4178:Plasmon
4153:Fracton
4148:Exciton
4102:Diquark
4097:Pomeron
4072:T meson
4029:Baryons
3990:Pionium
3975:Muonium
3902:D meson
3897:B meson
3802:Neutron
3787:Nucleon
3779:Baryons
3770:Hadrons
3733:Tachyon
3708:Majoron
3673:Dilaton
3602:Photino
3438:Antitau
3405:Leptons
3030:2970408
2994:Bibcode
2967:9906912
2889:Bibcode
2860:Alt URL
2709:Bibcode
2644:Bibcode
2568:Bibcode
2461:Bibcode
2434:4122313
2404:Bibcode
2368:1085652
2337:Bibcode
2298:1085484
2267:Bibcode
2215:Bibcode
2166:Bibcode
2139:4104602
2119:Bibcode
2023:Bibcode
1571:is the
1212:bullets
1200:planets
925:History
906:quantum
821:Simmons
811:Rydberg
776:Moseley
756:Kramers
746:Hilbert
731:Glauber
726:Feynman
711:Everett
681:Compton
452:Rydberg
141:History
5629:Family
5513:Prizes
5494:Genius
5402:(1955)
5389:(1938)
5381:(1934)
5373:(1922)
5365:(1916)
5350:(1905)
5348:papers
4785:Popper
4219:Mesons
4168:Phonon
4163:Magnon
4085:Others
4055:Mesons
3948:Others
3844:Mesons
3792:Proton
3656:Others
3611:Others
3592:Gluino
3526:Scalar
3506:Photon
3489:Bosons
3332:Quarks
3189:
3142:
3134:
3085:
3077:
3028:
3020:
3012:
2986:Nature
2965:
2839:
2829:
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