1638:
495:
358:
140:
1943:
1359:, where a spark would be seen upon detection of electromagnetic waves. He placed the apparatus in a darkened box to see the spark better. However, he noticed that the maximum spark length was reduced when inside the box. A glass panel placed between the source of electromagnetic waves and the receiver absorbed ultraviolet radiation that assisted the electrons in jumping across the gap. When removed, the spark length would increase. He observed no decrease in spark length when he replaced the glass with quartz, as
1432:. These particles later became known as the electrons. Thomson enclosed a metal plate (a cathode) in a vacuum tube, and exposed it to high-frequency radiation. It was thought that the oscillating electromagnetic fields caused the atoms' field to resonate and, after reaching a certain amplitude, caused subatomic corpuscles to be emitted, and current to be detected. The amount of this current varied with the intensity and color of the radiation. Larger radiation intensity or frequency would produce more current.
1781:
280:, it is likely to be ejected. If the photon energy is too low, the electron is unable to escape the material. Since an increase in the intensity of low-frequency light will only increase the number of low-energy photons, this change in intensity will not create any single photon with enough energy to dislodge an electron. Moreover, the energy of the emitted electrons will not depend on the intensity of the incoming light of a given frequency, but only on the energy of the individual photons.
1339:
1576:
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1382:. He allowed ultraviolet light to fall on a freshly cleaned zinc plate and observed that the zinc plate became uncharged if initially negatively charged, positively charged if initially uncharged, and more positively charged if initially positively charged. From these observations he concluded that some negatively charged particles were emitted by the zinc plate when exposed to ultraviolet light.
43:
6012:
5315:
1476:
experiments needed to be done on freshly cut metal so that the pure metal was observed, but it oxidized in a matter of minutes even in the partial vacuums he used. The current emitted by the surface was determined by the light's intensity, or brightness: doubling the intensity of the light doubled the number of electrons emitted from the surface.
324:
energy barrier to photoemission is usually increased by nonconductive oxide layers on metal surfaces, so most practical experiments and devices based on the photoelectric effect use clean metal surfaces in evacuated tubes. Vacuum also helps observing the electrons since it prevents gases from impeding their flow between the electrodes.
1346:
demonstrating the photoelectric effect. When the electroscope disk is negatively charged with excess electrons, the gold leaves mutually repel. If high-energy light (such as ultraviolet) is then shone on the disk, electrons are emitted by the photoelectric effect and the leaf repulsion ceases. But if
323:
Even though photoemission can occur from any material, it is most readily observed from metals and other conductors. This is because the process produces a charge imbalance which, if not neutralized by current flow, results in the increasing potential barrier until the emission completely ceases. The
1664:
light of a known energy and measuring the kinetic energies of the photoelectrons. The distribution of electron energies is valuable for studying quantum properties of these systems. It can also be used to determine the elemental composition of the samples. For solids, the kinetic energy and emission
1729:
model. Some materials such as gallium arsenide have an effective electron affinity that is below the level of the conduction band. In these materials, electrons that move to the conduction band all have sufficient energy to be emitted from the material, so the film that absorbs photons can be quite
1555:
The photoelectric effect helped to propel the then-emerging concept of waveâparticle duality in the nature of light. Light simultaneously possesses the characteristics of both waves and particles, each being manifested according to the circumstances. The effect was impossible to understand in terms
299:
as a free particle. Because electrons in a material occupy many different quantum states with different binding energies, and because they can sustain energy losses on their way out of the material, the emitted electrons will have a range of kinetic energies. The electrons from the highest occupied
1401:
with results reported in six publications. Stoletov invented a new experimental setup which was more suitable for a quantitative analysis of the photoeffect. He discovered a direct proportionality between the intensity of light and the induced photoelectric current (the first law of photoeffect or
1587:
inside the envelope. The photo cathode contains combinations of materials such as cesium, rubidium, and antimony specially selected to provide a low work function, so when illuminated even by very low levels of light, the photocathode readily releases electrons. By means of a series of electrodes
1812:
is also more likely. Compton scattering and pair production are examples of two other competing mechanisms. Even if the photoelectric effect is the favoured reaction for a particular interaction of a single photon with a bound electron, the result is also subject to quantum statistics and is not
1447:
when ultraviolet radiation falls on one of them. As soon as ultraviolet radiation is stopped, the current also stops. This initiated the concept of photoelectric emission. The discovery of the ionization of gases by ultraviolet light was made by
Philipp Lenard in 1900. As the effect was produced
1116:
Electron propagation to the surface in which some electrons may be scattered because of interactions with other constituents of the solid. Electrons that originate deeper in the solid are much more likely to suffer collisions and emerge with altered energy and momentum. Their mean-free path is a
1092:
The electronic properties of ordered, crystalline solids are determined by the distribution of the electronic states with respect to energy and momentumâthe electronic band structure of the solid. Theoretical models of photoemission from solids show that this distribution is, for the most part,
1475:
Lenard observed the variation in electron energy with light frequency using a powerful electric arc lamp which enabled him to investigate large changes in intensity. However, Lenard's results were qualitative rather than quantitative because of the difficulty in performing the experiments: the
1495:
of energy. In 1905, Albert
Einstein published a paper advancing the hypothesis that light energy is carried in discrete quantized packets to explain experimental data from the photoelectric effect. Einstein theorized that the energy in each quantum of light was equal to the frequency of light
392:
increases with an increase in the positive voltage, as more and more electrons are directed onto the electrode. When no additional photoelectrons can be collected, the photoelectric current attains a saturation value. This current can only increase with the increase of the intensity of light.
1512:
for "his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect", and
Millikan was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1923 for "his work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect". In quantum perturbation theory of atoms and solids acted upon by electromagnetic radiation, the
396:
An increasing negative voltage prevents all but the highest-energy electrons from reaching the collector. When no current is observed through the tube, the negative voltage has reached the value that is high enough to slow down and stop the most energetic photoelectrons of kinetic energy
1742:
exposed to sunlight to develop a positive charge. This can be a major problem, as other parts of the spacecraft are in shadow which will result in the spacecraft developing a negative charge from nearby plasmas. The imbalance can discharge through delicate electrical components. The
1676:
measurements are usually performed in a high-vacuum environment, because the electrons would be scattered by gas molecules if they were present. However, some companies are now selling products that allow photoemission in air. The light source can be a laser, a discharge tube, or a
236:(eV) light quanta, corresponding to short-wavelength visible or ultraviolet light. In extreme cases, emissions are induced with photons approaching zero energy, like in systems with negative electron affinity and the emission from excited states, or a few hundred keV photons for
1479:
Initial investigation of the photoelectric effect in gasses by Lenard were followed up by J. J. Thomson and then more decisively by
Frederic Palmer Jr. The gas photoemission was studied and showed very different characteristics than those at first attributed to it by Lenard.
967:
rise linearly with the frequency, and have no dependence on the number of photons and the intensity of the impinging monochromatic light. Einstein's formula, however simple, explained all the phenomenology of the photoelectric effect, and had far-reaching consequences in the
481:
of crystalline solids. In materials without macroscopic order, the distribution of electrons tends to peak in the direction of polarization of linearly polarized light. The experimental technique that can measure these distributions to infer the material's properties is
464:
An increase in the intensity of the same monochromatic light (so long as the intensity is not too high), which is proportional to the number of photons impinging on the surface in a given time, increases the rate at which electrons are ejectedâthe photoelectric current
1543:
Einstein's work predicted that the energy of individual ejected electrons increases linearly with the frequency of the light. The precise relationship had not at that time been tested. By 1905 it was known that the energy of photoelectrons increases with increasing
1274:, investigated the effects produced by light on electrified bodies and developed the first practical photoelectric cells that could be used to measure the intensity of light. They arranged metals with respect to their power of discharging negative electricity:
209:âregardless of the light's intensity or duration of exposure. Because a low-frequency beam at a high intensity does not build up the energy required to produce photoelectrons, as would be the case if light's energy accumulated over time from a continuous wave,
1556:
of the classical wave description of light, as the energy of the emitted electrons did not depend on the intensity of the incident radiation. Classical theory predicted that the electrons would 'gather up' energy over a period of time, and then be emitted.
1007:
higher than the electron's binding energy. The distribution of kinetic energies thus reflects the distribution of the binding energies of the electrons in the atomic, molecular or crystalline system: an electron emitted from the state at binding energy
469:
but the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons and the stopping voltage remain the same. For a given metal and frequency of incident radiation, the rate at which photoelectrons are ejected is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
1912:
is a number which varies between 4 and 5. The photoelectric effect rapidly decreases in significance in the gamma-ray region of the spectrum, with increasing photon energy. It is also more likely from elements with high atomic number. Consequently,
1528:, and showed how they explained the blackbody radiation spectrum. His explanation in terms of absorption of discrete quanta of light agreed with experimental results. It explained why the energy of photoelectrons was not dependent on incident light
1513:
photoelectric effect is still commonly analyzed in terms of waves; the two approaches are equivalent because photon or wave absorption can only happen between quantized energy levels whose energy difference is that of the energy of photon.
1334:
the effects with ordinary light were too small to be measurable. The order of the metals for this effect was the same as in Volta's series for contact-electricity, the most electropositive metals giving the largest photo-electric effect.
1817:
of the interaction, Ï. This has been found to be a function of the atomic number of the target atom and photon energy. In a crude approximation, for photon energies above the highest atomic binding energy, the cross section is given by:
1508:'s highly accurate measurements of the Planck constant from the photoelectric effect supported Einstein's model, even though a corpuscular theory of light was for Millikan, at the time, "quite unthinkable". Einstein was awarded the 1921
1771:
rover observed dust deposition on lunar rocks as high as about 28 cm. It is thought that the smallest particles are repelled kilometers from the surface and that the particles move in "fountains" as they charge and discharge.
1716:
coated screen, converting the electrons back into photons. Intensification of the signal is achieved either through acceleration of the electrons or by increasing the number of electrons through secondary emissions, such as with a
361:
Schematic of the experiment to demonstrate the photoelectric effect. Filtered, monochromatic light of a certain wavelength strikes the emitting electrode (E) inside a vacuum tube. The collector electrode (C) is biased to a voltage
1652:
Because the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is exactly the energy of the incident photon minus the energy of the electron's binding within an atom, molecule or solid, the binding energy can be determined by shining a
1669:
in terms of the allowed binding energies and momenta of the electrons. Modern instruments for angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy are capable of measuring these quantities with a precision better than 1 meV and 0.1°.
1128:, and suffers from the momentum loss in the direction perpendicular to the surface. Because the binding energy of electrons in solids is conveniently expressed with respect to the highest occupied state at the Fermi energy
457:. Increasing the frequency of the incident beam increases the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons, and the stopping voltage has to increase. The number of emitted electrons may also change because the
1895:
1648:) experiment. Helium discharge lamp shines ultraviolet light onto the sample in ultra-high vacuum. Hemispherical electron analyzer measures the distribution of ejected electrons with respect to energy and momentum.
1393:
played an important part in the phenomenon, and the emission was influenced by oxidation, humidity, and the degree of polishing of the surface. It was at the time unclear whether fatigue is absent in a vacuum.
1218:
treats the effect as a coherent process of photoexcitation into the final state of a finite crystal for which the wave function is free-electron-like outside of the crystal, but has a decaying envelope inside.
1763:. This manifests itself almost like an "atmosphere of dust", visible as a thin haze and blurring of distant features, and visible as a dim glow after the sun has set. This was first photographed by the
1389:, the researchers from the start showed the complexity of the phenomenon of photoelectric fatigueâthe progressive diminution of the effect observed upon fresh metallic surfaces. According to Hallwachs,
965:
2851:
837:
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Inner photoelectric effect in the bulk of the material that is a direct optical transition between an occupied and an unoccupied electronic state. This effect is subject to quantum-mechanical
205:
of the emitted electrons, with sufficiently dim light resulting in a delayed emission. The experimental results instead show that electrons are dislodged only when the light exceeds a certain
388:
A positive external voltage is used to direct the photoemitted electrons onto the collector. If the frequency and the intensity of the incident radiation are fixed, the photoelectric current
276:, which is proportional to the frequency of the light. In the photoemission process, when an electron within some material absorbs the energy of a photon and acquires more energy than its
1688:
is a typical electron energy analyzer. It uses an electric field between two hemispheres to change (disperse) the trajectories of incident electrons depending on their kinetic energies.
473:
The time lag between the incidence of radiation and the emission of a photoelectron is very small, less than 10 second. Angular distribution of the photoelectrons is highly dependent on
6079:
1721:. Sometimes a combination of both methods is used. Additional kinetic energy is required to move an electron out of the conduction band and into the vacuum level. This is known as the
2024:
1406:). He measured the dependence of the intensity of the photo electric current on the gas pressure, where he found the existence of an optimal gas pressure corresponding to a maximum
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Light from the Sun hitting lunar dust causes it to become positively charged from the photoelectric effect. The charged dust then repels itself and lifts off the surface of the
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327:
As sunlight, due to atmosphere's absorption, does not provide much ultraviolet light, the light rich in ultraviolet rays used to be obtained by burning magnesium or from an
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is the threshold frequency for the given material. Above that frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons as well as the stopping voltage in the experiment
5994:
477:(the direction of the electric field) of the incident light, as well as the emitting material's quantum properties such as atomic and molecular orbital symmetries and the
1155:, and the difference to the free-space (vacuum) energy is the work function of the surface, the kinetic energy of the electrons emitted from solids is usually written as
1417:
Many substances besides metals discharge negative electricity under the action of ultraviolet light. G. C. Schmidt and O. Knoblauch compiled a list of these substances.
984:. When light quanta deliver more than this amount of energy to an individual electron, the electron may be emitted into free space with excess (kinetic) energy that is
625:
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across several centimeters of air and yielded a greater number of positive ions than negative, it was natural to interpret the phenomenon, as J. J. Thomson did, as a
248:. Study of the photoelectric effect led to important steps in understanding the quantum nature of light and electrons and influenced the formation of the concept of
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value for the process on the right becomes larger than the cross section for the process on the left. For calcium (Z=20), Compton scattering starts to dominate at
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1355:
observed the photoelectric effect and reported on the production and reception of electromagnetic waves. The receiver in his apparatus consisted of a coil with a
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1491:
suggested in his "On the Law of
Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum" paper that the energy carried by electromagnetic waves could only be released in
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571:
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3426:
Thomson, J. J. (1907). "On the
Ionisation of Gases by Ultra-Violet Light and on the evidence as to the Structure of Light afforded by its Electrical Effects".
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created by the photoelectric effect is self-limiting, because a higher charged object does not give up its electrons as easily as a lower charged object does.
1500:. A photon above a threshold frequency has the required energy to eject a single electron, creating the observed effect. This was a step in the development of
1552:
of the light. However, the manner of the increase was not experimentally determined until 1914 when
Millikan showed that Einstein's prediction was correct.
1532:. This was a theoretical leap, but the concept was strongly resisted at first because it contradicted the wave theory of light that followed naturally from
1084:. This distribution is one of the main characteristics of the quantum system, and can be used for further studies in quantum chemistry and quantum physics.
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Electron escape through the surface barrier into free-electron-like states of the vacuum. In this step the electron loses energy in the amount of the
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investigated the phenomenon of photoelectric emission in detail. Lenard observed that a current flows through an evacuated glass tube enclosing two
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295:âor none at all. Part of the acquired energy is used to liberate the electron from its atomic binding, and the rest contributes to the electron's
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577:. In the range of kinetic energies of the electrons that are removed from their varying atomic bindings by the absorption of a photon of energy
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Damascelli, Andrea; Shen, Zhi-Xun; Hussain, Zahid (2003-04-17). "Angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy of the cuprate superconductors".
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There are cases where the three-step model fails to explain peculiarities of the photoelectron intensity distributions. The more elaborate
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to provide a readily detectable output current. Photomultipliers are still commonly used wherever low levels of light must be detected.
446:
The current-voltage curve is sigmoidal, but its exact shape depends on the experimental geometry and the electrode material properties.
4203:
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1524:, named "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light". The paper proposed a simple description of
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that can be set to attract the emitted electrons, when positive, or prevent any of them from reaching the collector when negative.
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while testing the metal for its high resistance properties in conjunction with his work involving submarine telegraph cables.
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of individual emitted electrons was independent of the applied light intensity. This appeared to be at odds with
Maxwell's
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for dipole transitions. The hole left behind the electron can give rise to secondary electron emission, or the so-called
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3535:"Ueber das Gesetz der Energieverteilung im Normalspectrum (On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum)"
2161:
1347:
the light used has insufficient energy to stimulate electron emission, the leaves stay separated regardless of duration.
969:
5944:
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1378:
on the effect of light, and especially of ultraviolet light, on charged bodies. Hallwachs connected a zinc plate to an
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336:
93:
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2768:
Vesselinka
Petrova-Koch; Rudolf Hezel; Adolf Goetzberger (2009). "Milestones of Solar Conversion and Photovoltaics".
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proposed a theory of the photoelectric effect using a concept that light consists of tiny packets of energy known as
1615:" used a screen charged by the photoelectric effect to transform an optical image into a scanned electronic signal.
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transparent to ultraviolet light, an emitting electrode (E) exposed to the light, and a collector (C) whose voltage
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2423:
Zhang, Q. (1996). "Intensity dependence of the photoelectric effect induced by a circularly polarized laser beam".
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1624:
1588:(dynodes) at ever-higher potentials, these electrons are accelerated and substantially increased in number through
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was instrumental in showing a strong relationship between light and electronic properties of materials. In 1873,
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163:
75:
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Sobota, Jonathan A.; He, Yu; Shen, Zhi-Xun (2021). "Angle-resolved photoemission studies of quantum materials".
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Timothy J. Stubbs; Richard R. Vondrak; William M. Farrell (2006). "A dynamic fountain model for lunar dust".
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Weaver, J. H.; Margaritondo, G. (1979). "Solid-State
Photoelectron Spectroscopy with Synchrotron Radiation".
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we understand the photoeffect as being the result of a classical field falling on a quantized atomic electron
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of the photocathode and is another barrier to photoemission other than the forbidden band, explained by the
1505:
1109:, which may be visible even when the primary photoelectron does not leave the material. In molecular solids
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is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from the surface of the material. It is called the
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tube cause the ejection of photoelectrons due to the photoelectric effect. These are accelerated by an
1516:
Albert Einstein's mathematical description of how the photoelectric effect was caused by absorption of
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1428:. Thomson deduced that the ejected particles, which he called corpuscles, were of the same nature as
474:
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The classical setup to observe the photoelectric effect includes a light source, a set of filters to
4152:
3106:
Stoletov, A. (1888). "Sur une sorte de courants electriques provoques par les rayons ultraviolets".
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Stoletov. C. R. cvi. pp. 1149, 1593; cvii. p. 91; cviii. p. 1241; Physikalische Revue, Bd. i., 1892.
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980:
Electrons that are bound in atoms, molecules and solids each occupy distinct states of well-defined
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to draw inferences about the properties of atoms, molecules and solids. The effect has found use in
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Berglund, C. N.; Spicer, W. E. (1964-11-16). "Photoemission Studies of Copper and Silver: Theory".
1993:
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to electrons, which would then be emitted when they accumulate enough energy. An alteration in the
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states will have the highest kinetic energy. In metals, those electrons will be emitted from the
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291:, in quantum systems all of the energy from one photon is absorbedâif the process is allowed by
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Davisson, C. M. (1965). "Interaction of gamma-radiation with matter". In Kai Siegbahn (ed.).
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Criswell D.R. (1973). "Horizon-Glow and the Motion of Lunar Dust". In R. J. L. Grard (ed.).
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2877:. Science Museum, London, and National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution.
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In the period from 1888 until 1891, a detailed analysis of the photoeffect was performed by
1249:
1113:
are excited in this step and may be visible as satellite lines in the final electron energy.
351:
241:
222:
4232:
1665:
angle distribution of the photoelectrons is measured for the complete determination of the
1575:
1131:
1011:
987:
700:
580:
513:
170:. Electrons emitted in this manner are called photoelectrons. The phenomenon is studied in
6354:
6336:
6286:
6051:
5959:
5904:
5874:
5838:
5780:
5635:
5498:
5462:
5381:
4844:
4775:
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4207:
2462:
2287:
2242:
1986:
1809:
1612:
1570:
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1233:
574:
536:
503:
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3207:
4104:
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3969:
3824:
3550:
3511:
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3035:
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2917:
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2746:
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5229:
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1440:
1352:
1102:
981:
676:
556:
296:
202:
3412:
2380:
1784:
Plot of photon energies calculated for a given element (atomic number Z) at which the
6488:
6330:
6300:
6187:
5556:
4916:
4839:
4829:
4742:
4634:
4351:
4330:
4226:
Concerning an Heuristic Point of View Toward the Emission and Transformation of Light
4065:
2795:
2719:
2663:
2446:
2048:
1905:
1813:
guaranteed. The probability of the photoelectric effect occurring is measured by the
1697:
1654:
1425:
1421:
1371:
1263:
1245:
694:
498:
Diagram of the maximum kinetic energy as a function of the frequency of light on zinc
371:
273:
245:
237:
4032:
3954:"Weak Dust Activity Near a Geologically Young Surface Revealed by Chang'E-3 Mission"
3848:
3360:
Wheaton, Bruce R. (1978). "Philipp Lenard and the Photoelectric Effect, 1889-1911".
419:. Since the work done by the retarding potential in stopping the electron of charge
6438:
6318:
5598:
5493:
5406:
5396:
5284:
5239:
4972:
4644:
4229:" to read an English translation of Einstein's 1905 paper. (Retrieved: 2014 Apr 11)
3480:
2000:
1584:
1429:
1407:
1379:
1343:
1106:
307:
When the photoelectron is emitted into a solid rather than into a vacuum, the term
252:. Other phenomena where light affects the movement of electric charges include the
233:
1768:
1097:
for ultraviolet and soft X-ray excitation decomposes the effect into these steps:
3938:
3832:
2711:
2460:
Bubb, F. (1924). "Direction of Ejection of Photo-Electrons by Polarized X-rays".
6443:
6127:
5949:
5447:
5279:
5249:
5224:
4982:
4619:
4594:
3952:
Yan Q.; Zhang X.; Xie L.; Guo D.; Li Y.; Xu Y.; Xiao Z.; Di K.; Xiao L. (2019).
3647:
3519:
2777:
2399:
1661:
461:
that each photon results in an emitted electron is a function of photon energy.
458:
449:
For a given metal surface, there exists a certain minimum frequency of incident
375:
348:
301:
183:
42:
4292:". Open Source Distributed Learning Content Management and Assessment System. (
3864:
Fundamentals of Spacecraft Charging: Spacecraft Interactions with Space Plasmas
2900:"Ueber einen Einfluss des ultravioletten Lichtes auf die electrische Entladung"
6448:
5571:
5437:
4765:
4737:
4515:
4014:
3709:
Physics for Scientists and Engineers With Modern Physics: A Strategic Approach
3591:
3146:
Stoletov, A. (1888). "Sur les courants actino-electriqies au travers deTair".
3137:
2647:
2576:
1739:
1604:
1488:
1411:
1271:
340:
284:
3559:
3534:
3264:
3051:
3043:
2972:
2964:
2925:
2772:. Springer Series in Optical Sciences. Vol. 140. Springer. pp. 1â.
2655:
2233:
2215:
17:
5056:
4962:
4834:
4182:". Department of Physics and Astronomy, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ.
4173:". Physics 2000. University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado. (page not found)
4099:. Vol. 1. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company. pp. 37â78.
4023:
3672:
On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Emission and Transformation of Light
3332:
2754:
1918:
1444:
1356:
1295:
1279:
777:
the formula for the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons becomes
450:
217:
propagating through space, but a swarm of discrete energy packets, known as
206:
3840:
2483:
2263:
4192:
2309:
2278:
1730:
thick. These materials are known as negative electron affinity materials.
5442:
5269:
5259:
5234:
3978:
3953:
3657:. Coral Gables, FL: Center for Theoretical Physics, University of Miami.
2997:
Annual Report Of The Board Of Regents Of The Smithsonian Institution 1913
2810:
2638:
1726:
1713:
1311:
1299:
1275:
1257:
328:
159:
144:
3933:. 6th Eslab Symposium. Noordwijk, the Netherlands: Springer, Dordrecht.
3575:
3381:
3317:. Buchwald, Jed Z., Warwick, Andrew. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. 2001.
2366:
1536:'s equations of electromagnetism, and more generally, the assumption of
1468:, which predicted that the electron energy would be proportional to the
553:
of the corresponding electromagnetic wave. The proportionality constant
453:
below which no photoelectrons are emitted. This frequency is called the
5566:
5274:
2811:"Effect of Light on Selenium during the passage of an Electric Current"
2733:
Mahan, G. D. (1970-12-01). "Theory of Photoemission in Simple Metals".
2324:
1890:{\displaystyle \sigma =\mathrm {constant} \cdot {\frac {Z^{n}}{E^{3}}}}
1517:
1323:
1291:
507:
186:
specialized for light detection and precisely timed electron emission.
5401:
4245:
4046:
3471:
3373:
2835:
1461:
1360:
1327:
1307:
1287:
1110:
287:
as long as this is followed by an immediate re-emission, like in the
218:
194:
148:
3496:"Volume Ionization Produced by Light of Extremely Short Wave-Length"
3495:
3446:
3240:
3121:
3020:"Ueber den Einfluss des Lichtes auf electrostatisch geladene Körper"
3019:
2940:
2899:
2189:
4238:
2694:
2094:
December 18, 1926: Gilbert Lewis coins "photon" in letter to Nature
147:
from a metal plate accompanied by the absorption of light quanta â
5807:
5376:
5362:
3866:(illustrated ed.). Princeton University Press. pp. 1â6.
1779:
1657:
1636:
1574:
1390:
1283:
493:
356:
344:
229:
214:
138:
4153:
http://www.astronomycast.com/2014/02/ep-335-photoelectric-effect/
3730:
The Road to Reality: A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe
1244:. Though not equivalent to the photoelectric effect, his work on
874:
is required for the photoelectric effect to occur. The frequency
272:
The photons of a light beam have a characteristic energy, called
5331:
4299:
3162:
Stoletov, A. (1888). "Suite des recherches actino-electriques".
1796:
When photon energies are as high as the electron rest energy of
1756:
1319:
1315:
1303:
5811:
5335:
4303:
4187:
3773:, ISSI Scientific Report 009, ESA Communications, pp. 365â408,
3576:"Centennial Focus: Millikan's Measurement of Planck's Constant"
1583:
These are extremely light-sensitive vacuum tubes with a coated
3178:
Stoletov, A. (1889). "Sur les phénomÚnes actino-électriques".
1366:
The discoveries by Hertz led to a series of investigations by
311:
is often used, and emission into a vacuum is distinguished as
36:
3122:"On a kind of electric current produced by ultra-violet rays"
2852:
Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology
1093:
preserved in the photoelectric effect. The phenomenological
3791:
Television: An International History of the Formative Years
960:{\textstyle V_{o}={\frac {h}{e}}\left(\nu -\nu _{o}\right)}
4267:". The Physics Education Technology (PhET) project. (Java)
3193:
Stoletov, A. (1889). "ĐĐșŃĐžĐœĐŸ-ŃлДĐșŃŃĐžŃĐ”ŃĐșОД ĐžŃŃĐ»Đ”ĐŽĐŸĐČaĐœĐžŃ".
2770:
High-Efficient Low-Cost Photovoltaics: Recent Developments
4233:
http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Ru-Sp/Solar-Cells.html
3208:"Sur les courants actino-électriques dans l'air raréfié"
3931:
Photon and Particle Interactions with Surfaces in Space
2597:
Photoelectron Spectroscopy: Principles and Applications
2108:
4211:". Physics 320 Laboratory, Davidson College, Davidson.
3769:
Timothy, J. Gethyn (2010) in Huber, Martin C.E. (ed.)
2999:. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. p. 239
907:
832:{\displaystyle K_{\max }=h\left(\nu -\nu _{o}\right).}
193:, which predicts that continuous light waves transfer
6080:
Die Grundlagen der Einsteinschen RelativitÀts-Theorie
3750:
Basic Concepts in Relativity and Early Quantum Theory
3685:
Basic Concepts in Relativity and Early Quantum Theory
3397:"L'ionisation de l'air par la lumiĂšre ultra-violette"
3304:. (1900). New York: Dodd, Mead & Company. p. 659.
2986:
2984:
2982:
2528:
Quantum Mechanics for Applied Physics and Engineering
2497:
Mee, C.; Crundell, M.; Arnold, B.; Brown, W. (2011).
1827:
1161:
1134:
1041:
1014:
990:
880:
847:
783:
743:
723:
703:
679:
633:
606:
583:
559:
539:
516:
3315:
Histories of the electron: the birth of microphysics
1925: = 82) is preferred and most widely used.
404:. This value of the retarding voltage is called the
6376:
6285:
6216:
6170:
6067:
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5845:
5773:
5705:
5654:
5539:
5532:
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5369:
5217:
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4863:
4822:
4720:
4713:
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4587:
4514:
4503:
4478:
4432:
4344:
4337:
2279:"A Direct Photoelectric Determination of Planck's "
1776:
Competing processes and photoemission cross section
4188:Grains of Mystique: Quantum Physics for the Layman
4097:Alpha-, Beta- and Gamma-ray Spectroscopy: Volume 1
3142:; abstract in Beibl. Ann. d. Phys. 12, 605, 1888).
2875:Instruments of Science: An Historical Encyclopedia
1889:
1202:
1147:
1076:
1027:
999:
959:
893:
866:
831:
769:
729:
709:
685:
665:
619:
592:
565:
545:
525:
319:Experimental observation of photoelectric emission
6013:Investigations on the Theory of Brownian Movement
3174:(Abstract in Beibl. Ann. d. Phys. 12, 723, 1888).
3158:(Abstract in Beibl. Ann. d. Phys. 12, 723, 1888).
1921:shields, which is the principal reason why lead (
2325:"MBScientific electron analysers and UV sources"
789:
639:
612:
283:While free electrons can absorb any energy when
27:Emission of electrons when light hits a material
3195:Journal of the Russian Physico-chemical Society
3073:Hoor, Repertorium des Physik, xxv. p. 91, 1889.
1696:Photons hitting a thin film of alkali metal or
6020:Relativity: The Special and the General Theory
2941:"Ueber sehr schnelle electrische Schwingungen"
2227:
2225:
976:Photoemission from atoms, molecules and solids
228:Emission of conduction electrons from typical
5823:
5347:
5209:List of countries by photovoltaics production
4886:Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments Solar One
4315:
3277:Schmidt, G. C. (1898) Wied. Ann. Uiv. p. 708.
3082:Bighi, C. R. cvi. p. 1349; cvii. p. 559, 1888
2590:
2588:
2586:
2018:
1410:; this property was used for the creation of
8:
2183:
2181:
1607:used the photoelectric effect. For example,
1548:of incident light and is independent of the
510:or light quanta. Each packet carries energy
4691:Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector
3362:Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences
3099:
3097:
3064:Hallwachs, Wied. Ann. xxxiii. p. 301, 1888.
1767:probes in the 1960s, and most recently the
1496:multiplied by a constant, later called the
5830:
5816:
5808:
5536:
5354:
5340:
5332:
5198:
5013:
4717:
4564:Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells
4511:
4341:
4322:
4308:
4300:
3652:"The photoelectric effect without photons"
2353:"SPECS ARPES system with PHOIBOS analyzer"
2025:
2011:
1932:
4193:Einstein Demystifies Photoelectric Effect
4022:
3977:
3558:
3470:
3447:"Ionisation of Air by Ultra-violet Light"
2993:"Recent developments in electromagnetism"
2834:
2693:
2637:
2308:
1879:
1869:
1863:
1834:
1826:
1804:, may occur. Above twice this energy, at
1642:Angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy
1629:Angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy
1194:
1166:
1160:
1139:
1133:
1068:
1046:
1040:
1019:
1013:
989:
946:
921:
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906:
885:
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858:
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788:
782:
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742:
722:
702:
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558:
538:
515:
484:angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy
127:Learn how and when to remove this message
6454:Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists
5026:Grid-connected photovoltaic power system
2873:Robert Bud; Deborah Jean Warner (1998).
2074:Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics
1337:
697:of the surface and is sometimes denoted
201:of light would theoretically change the
4993:Victorian Model Solar Vehicle Challenge
4988:Hunt-Winston School Solar Car Challenge
4220:". Physics 252, University of Virginia.
2084:
1980:
1961:
1949:
1935:
1452:upon the particles present in the gas.
189:The experimental results disagree with
6198:Albert Einstein World Award of Science
4047:"XCOM: Photon Cross Sections Database"
3703:
3701:
3338:
2134:Physics for Scientists & Engineers
1240:while studying the effect of light on
533:that is proportional to the frequency
63:Please improve this article by adding
2675:
2673:
737:. If the work function is written as
213:proposed that a beam of light is not
7:
5314:
3289:Zeitschrift fĂŒr Physikalische Chemie
3241:"Ăber die lichtelektrische ErmĂŒdung"
2190:"Ueber die lichtelektrische Wirkung"
2162:"The Photoelectric Effect | Physics"
1738:The photoelectric effect will cause
666:{\displaystyle K_{\max }=h\,\nu -W.}
5031:List of photovoltaic power stations
4121:Radiation Detection and Measurement
3711:, Pearson-Addison-Wesley, p. 1224,
1203:{\displaystyle E_{k}=h\nu -W-E_{B}}
1088:Models of photoemission from solids
6227:Albert Einstein: Creator and Rebel
5940:EinsteinâInfeldâHoffmann equations
5910:Einstein relation (kinetic theory)
5047:Rooftop photovoltaic power station
4450:Polycrystalline silicon (multi-Si)
4399:Third-generation photovoltaic cell
4070:. Malabar, Fla.: Krieger. p.
2396:Schaum's Outline of Modern Physics
2367:"Lumeras UV and VUV laser systems"
1856:
1853:
1850:
1847:
1844:
1841:
1838:
1835:
1460:In 1902, Lenard observed that the
1424:investigated ultraviolet light in
704:
25:
6088:The Einstein Theory of Relativity
5052:Building-integrated photovoltaics
4549:Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics
4455:Monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si)
4185:Haberkern, Thomas, and N Deepak "
3627:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1923"
3606:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921"
1686:concentric hemispherical analyzer
1077:{\displaystyle E_{k}=h\nu -E_{B}}
6467:
6466:
6203:Einstein Prize for Laser Science
5313:
5302:
5301:
4424:Polarizing organic photovoltaics
4239:http://sensorse.com/page4en.html
3919:. spacedaily.com, July 14, 2000.
3905:Bell, Trudy E., "Moon fountains"
3224:10.1051/jphystap:018900090046800
2499:International A/AS Level Physics
2394:Gautreau, R.; Savin, W. (1999).
1941:
1633:X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
970:development of quantum mechanics
867:{\displaystyle \nu >\nu _{o}}
841:Kinetic energy is positive, and
41:
6248:Einstein: His Life and Universe
4559:Cadmium telluride photovoltaics
4440:List of semiconductor materials
3674:." Annalen der Physik 17 (1905)
3413:10.1051/radium:0190800508024001
1792:=0.08 MeV and ceases at 12 MeV.
1540:of energy in physical systems.
1121:dependent on electron's energy.
5870:Massâenergy equivalence (E=mc)
4671:Incremental conductance method
4465:Copper indium gallium selenide
4414:Thermodynamic efficiency limit
3917:Dust gets a charge in a vacuum
3291:. Vol. xxix. p. 527.
1363:does not absorb UV radiation.
770:{\displaystyle W=h\,\nu _{o},}
385:can be externally controlled.
1:
4978:South African Solar Challenge
4258:" Open Source Physics project
3574:Holton, Gerald (1999-04-22).
2945:Annalen der Physik und Chemie
2039:Anomalous photovoltaic effect
600:, the highest kinetic energy
65:secondary or tertiary sources
4625:Photovoltaic mounting system
4237:Photo-electric transducers:
3958:Geophysical Research Letters
3939:10.1007/978-94-010-2647-5_36
3833:10.1126/science.206.4415.151
3650:; Scully, Marlan O. (1968).
2712:10.1103/RevModPhys.93.025006
2447:10.1016/0375-9601(96)00259-9
2381:"Light sources of the world"
2234:"A Direct Determination of "
1435:During the years 1886â1902,
1126:work function of the surface
6193:Albert Einstein Peace Prize
5970:Unsuccessful investigations
4630:Maximum power point tracker
4255:HTML 5 JavaScript simulator
4124:. New York: Wiley. p.
3520:10.1103/PhysRevSeriesI.32.1
3302:The International Year Book
3018:Hallwachs, Wilhelm (1888).
2778:10.1007/978-3-540-79359-5_1
2339:"Scienta Omicron ARPES Lab"
1520:of light was in one of his
1035:is found at kinetic energy
262:photoelectrochemical effect
6546:
6120:Picasso at the Lapin Agile
6058:RussellâEinstein Manifesto
5930:BoseâEinstein correlations
5626:X-Ray Fluorescence Imaging
5514:Anomalous X-ray scattering
4881:Solar panels on spacecraft
4728:Solar-powered refrigerator
4686:Concentrated photovoltaics
4666:Perturb and observe method
4445:Crystalline silicon (c-Si)
3995:Advances in Space Research
3771:Observing Photons in Space
3707:Knight, Randall D. (2004)
2532:Courier Dover Publications
1674:Photoelectron spectroscopy
1625:Photoemission spectroscopy
1622:
1619:Photoelectron spectroscopy
1568:
1234:Alexandre Edmond Becquerel
430:, the following must hold
191:classical electromagnetism
162:from a material caused by
29:
6462:
6028:The Meaning of Relativity
5297:
4579:Heterojunction solar cell
4554:Dye-sensitized solar cell
4394:Multi-junction solar cell
4384:Nominal power (Watt-peak)
4015:10.1016/j.asr.2005.04.048
3592:10.1103/physrevfocus.3.23
3494:Palmer, Frederic (1911).
3445:Palmer, Frederic (1908).
3138:10.1080/14786448808628270
2682:Reviews of Modern Physics
2648:10.1103/RevModPhys.75.473
2626:Reviews of Modern Physics
2577:10.1103/PhysRev.136.A1030
2166:courses.lumenlearning.com
1667:electronic band structure
1286:of potassium and sodium,
1270:(1855â1923), students in
620:{\displaystyle K_{\max }}
479:electronic band structure
164:electromagnetic radiation
6419:Albert Einstein Archives
6349:Bernhard Caesar Einstein
6096:Relics: Einstein's Brain
6044:The Evolution of Physics
5925:BoseâEinstein statistics
5920:BoseâEinstein condensate
5900:Einstein field equations
5453:Synchrotron light source
5062:Strasskirchen Solar Park
4953:American Solar Challenge
4799:Solar-powered flashlight
4786:Solar-powered calculator
4781:Solar cell phone charger
4470:Amorphous silicon (a-Si)
4273:The Photoelectric Effect
4217:The Photoelectric Effect
4201:The Photoelectric effect
4198:Department of Physics, "
4179:The Photoelectric Effect
4118:Knoll, Glenn F. (1999).
3892:Arizona State University
3560:10.1002/andp.19013090310
3265:10.1002/andp.19073280807
3044:10.1002/andp.18882690206
2965:10.1002/andp.18872670707
2926:10.1002/andp.18872670827
2898:Hertz, Heinrich (1887).
2526:Fromhold, A. T. (1991).
2216:10.1002/andp.19023130510
1936:Lightâmatter interaction
1761:electrostatic levitation
1483:In 1900, while studying
894:{\displaystyle \nu _{o}}
730:{\displaystyle \varphi }
573:has become known as the
172:condensed matter physics
30:Not to be confused with
6429:Einstein Papers Project
5945:Einsteinâde Haas effect
5472:Interaction with matter
5431:Sources and instruments
4968:Frisian Solar Challenge
4938:List of solar car teams
4696:Space-based solar power
4676:Constant voltage method
4605:Solar charge controller
4491:Timeline of solar cells
4486:Growth of photovoltaics
3907:, NASA.gov, 2005-03-30.
3748:Resnick, Robert (1972)
3683:Resnick, Robert (1972)
3120:Stoletov, M.A. (1888).
2755:10.1103/PhysRevB.2.4334
1800:, yet another process,
1487:, the German physicist
1236:discovered the related
490:Theoretical explanation
354:light sources prevail.
331:. At the present time,
6361:Thomas Martin Einstein
6269:Introducing Relativity
6241:Einstein for Beginners
6144:Einstein and Eddington
5935:EinsteinâCartan theory
5604:Diffraction tomography
4958:Formula Sun Grand Prix
4790:Solar-powered fountain
4733:Solar air conditioning
4534:Quantum dot solar cell
4524:Nanocrystal solar cell
4419:Sun-free photovoltaics
3728:Penrose, Roger (2005)
3345:: CS1 maint: others (
3287:Knoblauch, O. (1899).
3239:Hallwachs, W. (1907).
3126:Philosophical Magazine
2991:Bloch, Eugene (1914).
2484:10.1103/PhysRev.23.137
2264:10.1103/PhysRev.4.73.2
2132:Serway, R. A. (1990).
1981:High-energy phenomena:
1891:
1793:
1649:
1580:
1522:Annus Mirabilis papers
1510:Nobel Prize in Physics
1348:
1204:
1149:
1078:
1029:
1001:
961:
895:
868:
833:
771:
731:
711:
687:
667:
621:
594:
567:
547:
527:
499:
367:
341:radio-frequency plasma
313:external photoemission
309:internal photoemission
151:
76:"Photoelectric effect"
52:relies excessively on
6434:Einstein refrigerator
6424:Einstein's Blackboard
6303:(second wife; cousin)
6234:Einstein and Religion
6183:Albert Einstein Medal
6178:Albert Einstein Award
6036:The World as I See It
5975:Waveâparticle duality
5955:BohrâEinstein debates
5915:Cosmological constant
5895:Equivalence principle
5885:Einstein coefficients
5715:X-ray crystallography
5584:Soft x-ray microscopy
5552:Panoramic radiography
5392:Synchrotron radiation
4948:World Solar Challenge
4771:Photovoltaic keyboard
4701:PV system performance
4574:Perovskite solar cell
4372:Solar cell efficiency
4161:Wave-Particle Duality
4064:Evans, R. D. (1955).
3888:"Spacecraft charging"
3428:Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc
3206:Stoletov, A. (1890).
2310:10.1103/PhysRev.7.355
2277:Millikan, R. (1916).
2232:Millikan, R. (1914).
2059:Waveâparticle duality
1962:Mid-energy phenomena:
1950:Low-energy phenomena:
1892:
1783:
1679:synchrotron radiation
1640:
1603:in the early days of
1578:
1538:infinite divisibility
1341:
1205:
1150:
1148:{\displaystyle E_{F}}
1079:
1030:
1028:{\displaystyle E_{B}}
1002:
1000:{\displaystyle h\nu }
962:
896:
869:
834:
772:
732:
712:
710:{\displaystyle \Phi }
688:
668:
622:
595:
593:{\displaystyle h\nu }
568:
548:
528:
526:{\displaystyle h\nu }
497:
360:
250:waveâparticle duality
142:
6500:Electrical phenomena
6313:Hans Albert Einstein
6262:I Am Albert Einstein
6208:Einstein Prize (APS)
5880:Photoelectric effect
5853:Theory of relativity
5484:Photoelectric effect
5417:Characteristic X-ray
5218:Individual producers
4926:Solar vehicle racing
4615:Solar micro-inverter
4544:Plasmonic solar cell
4389:Thin-film solar cell
4357:Photoelectric effect
4282:Applet: Photo Effect
4264:Photoelectric Effect
4170:Photoelectric effect
3979:10.1029/2019GL083611
3862:Lai, Shu T. (2011).
3789:Burns, R. W. (1998)
3533:Planck, Max (1901).
2109:"X-Ray Data Booklet"
2064:Photomagnetic effect
1956:Photoelectric effect
1917:materials make good
1825:
1712:where they strike a
1692:Night vision devices
1485:black-body radiation
1466:wave theory of light
1159:
1132:
1039:
1012:
988:
905:
878:
845:
781:
741:
721:
701:
677:
631:
604:
581:
557:
546:{\displaystyle \nu }
537:
514:
156:photoelectric effect
5965:Thought experiments
5504:Photodisintegration
5479:Rayleigh scattering
5458:Free-electron laser
4814:Solar traffic light
4794:Solar-powered radio
4761:Solar-powered watch
4569:Printed solar panel
4404:Solar cell research
4105:1965abgs.conf...37D
4007:2006AdSpR..37...59S
3970:2019GeoRL..46.9405Y
3825:1979Sci...206..151W
3648:Lamb, Willis E. Jr.
3551:1901AnP...309..553P
3512:1911PhRvI..32....1P
3463:1908Natur..77..582P
3257:1907AnP...328..459H
3212:Journal de Physique
3036:1888AnP...269..301H
2957:1887AnP...267..421H
2918:1887AnP...267..983H
2827:1873Natur...7R.303.
2747:1970PhRvB...2.4334M
2704:2021RvMP...93b5006S
2595:HĂŒfner, S. (2003).
2569:1964PhRv..136.1030B
2563:(4A): A1030âA1044.
2476:1924PhRv...23..137B
2439:1996PhLA..216..125Z
2301:1916PhRv....7..355M
2256:1914PhRv....4R..73M
2208:1902AnP...313..149L
2188:Lenard, P. (1902).
2054:PhotoâDember effect
1994:Photodisintegration
1719:micro-channel plate
1710:electrostatic field
1534:James Clerk Maxwell
1385:With regard to the
1376:Aleksander Stoletov
1238:photovoltaic effect
455:threshold frequency
337:noble-gas discharge
333:mercury-vapor lamps
258:photovoltaic effect
158:is the emission of
32:Photovoltaic effect
6414:Things named after
6276:Subtle is the Lord
6099:(1994 documentary)
6091:(1923 documentary)
6083:(1922 documentary)
5980:Gravitational wave
5863:General relativity
5858:Special relativity
5745:X-ray reflectivity
5524:X-ray fluorescence
5489:Compton scattering
5422:High-energy X-rays
4850:The Quiet Achiever
4809:Solar street light
4756:Solar-powered pump
4529:Organic solar cell
4409:Thermophotovoltaic
4377:Quantum efficiency
4287:2010-03-14 at the
4214:Fowler, Michael, "
4206:2009-08-01 at the
4067:The Atomic Nucleus
3629:. Nobel Foundation
3608:. Nobel Foundation
3539:Annalen der Physik
3395:Bloch, E. (1908).
3245:Annalen der Physik
3024:Annalen der Physik
2939:Hertz, H. (1887).
2905:Annalen der Physik
2849:Asimov, A. (1964)
2809:Smith, W. (1873).
2402:. pp. 60â61.
2195:Annalen der Physik
2044:Compton scattering
1975:Compton scattering
1968:Thomson scattering
1887:
1802:Compton scattering
1794:
1650:
1601:Video camera tubes
1590:secondary emission
1581:
1506:Robert A. Millikan
1472:of the radiation.
1399:Aleksandr Stoletov
1349:
1242:electrolytic cells
1200:
1145:
1074:
1025:
997:
957:
891:
864:
829:
767:
727:
707:
683:
663:
617:
590:
563:
543:
523:
500:
406:stopping potential
368:
345:ultraviolet lasers
268:Emission mechanism
184:electronic devices
152:
6515:Energy conversion
6495:Quantum mechanics
6482:
6481:
6384:Awards and honors
6367:Siegbert Einstein
6255:Einstein's Cosmos
5805:
5804:
5801:
5800:
5793:X-ray lithography
5725:Backscatter X-ray
5720:X-ray diffraction
5547:X-ray radiography
5519:X-ray diffraction
5412:Siegbahn notation
5329:
5328:
5293:
5292:
5188:
5187:
5001:
5000:
4876:Mauro Solar Riser
4871:Electric aircraft
4804:Solar-powered fan
4709:
4708:
4600:Balance of system
4588:System components
4539:Hybrid solar cell
4499:
4498:
4460:Cadmium telluride
4176:ACEPT W3 Group, "
4155:". AstronomyCast.
3964:(16): 9405â9413.
3873:978-0-691-12947-1
3819:(4415): 151â156.
3779:978-92-9221-938-3
3752:, Wiley, p. 138,
3732:, Knopf, p. 502,
3687:, Wiley, p. 137,
3324:978-0-262-26948-3
2884:978-0-8153-1561-2
2787:978-3-540-79358-8
2741:(11): 4334â4350.
2735:Physical Review B
2541:978-0-486-66741-6
2512:978-0-340-94564-3
2426:Physics Letters A
2383:. 24 August 2017.
2035:
2034:
1885:
1723:electron affinity
1706:image intensifier
1700:material such as
1502:quantum mechanics
1437:Wilhelm Hallwachs
1368:Wilhelm Hallwachs
1254:photoconductivity
929:
686:{\displaystyle W}
566:{\displaystyle h}
293:quantum mechanics
180:quantum chemistry
168:ultraviolet light
143:Photoemission of
137:
136:
129:
111:
16:(Redirected from
6537:
6530:Electrochemistry
6470:
6469:
6369:(distant cousin)
6363:(great-grandson)
6325:Hermann Einstein
6307:Lieserl Einstein
5985:Tea leaf paradox
5832:
5825:
5818:
5809:
5631:X-ray holography
5537:
5509:Radiation damage
5356:
5349:
5342:
5333:
5317:
5316:
5305:
5304:
5199:
5040:Building-mounted
5018:PV power station
5014:
4943:Solar challenges
4933:Solar car racing
4901:Solar Challenger
4891:Gossamer Penguin
4718:
4512:
4362:Solar irradiance
4342:
4324:
4317:
4310:
4301:
4270:Fendt, Walter, "
4164:". HyperPhysics.
4151:Astronomy Cast "
4140:
4139:
4115:
4109:
4108:
4092:
4086:
4085:
4061:
4055:
4054:
4043:
4037:
4036:
4026:
4024:2060/20050175993
3990:
3984:
3983:
3981:
3949:
3943:
3942:
3926:
3920:
3914:
3908:
3902:
3896:
3895:
3884:
3878:
3877:
3859:
3853:
3852:
3808:
3802:
3787:
3781:
3767:
3761:
3746:
3740:
3726:
3720:
3705:
3696:
3681:
3675:
3668:
3662:
3661:
3656:
3644:
3638:
3637:
3635:
3634:
3623:
3617:
3616:
3614:
3613:
3602:
3596:
3595:
3571:
3565:
3564:
3562:
3530:
3524:
3523:
3491:
3485:
3484:
3474:
3472:10.1038/077582b0
3442:
3436:
3435:
3423:
3417:
3416:
3392:
3386:
3385:
3374:10.2307/27757381
3357:
3351:
3350:
3344:
3336:
3311:
3305:
3299:
3293:
3292:
3284:
3278:
3275:
3269:
3268:
3236:
3230:
3227:
3202:
3189:
3173:
3157:
3141:
3117:
3101:
3092:
3089:
3083:
3080:
3074:
3071:
3065:
3062:
3056:
3055:
3015:
3009:
3008:
3006:
3004:
2988:
2977:
2976:
2936:
2930:
2929:
2895:
2889:
2888:
2870:
2864:
2847:
2841:
2840:
2838:
2836:10.1038/007303e0
2806:
2800:
2799:
2765:
2759:
2758:
2730:
2724:
2723:
2697:
2677:
2668:
2667:
2641:
2639:cond-mat/0208504
2621:
2615:
2614:
2592:
2581:
2580:
2552:
2546:
2545:
2534:. pp. 5â6.
2523:
2517:
2516:
2503:Hodder Education
2494:
2488:
2487:
2457:
2451:
2450:
2420:
2414:
2413:
2398:(2nd ed.).
2391:
2385:
2384:
2377:
2371:
2370:
2363:
2357:
2356:
2349:
2343:
2342:
2335:
2329:
2328:
2321:
2315:
2314:
2312:
2274:
2268:
2267:
2229:
2220:
2219:
2185:
2176:
2175:
2173:
2172:
2158:
2152:
2151:
2140:. p. 1150.
2136:(3rd ed.).
2129:
2123:
2122:
2120:
2119:
2105:
2099:
2098:
2089:
2027:
2020:
2013:
1945:
1933:
1896:
1894:
1893:
1888:
1886:
1884:
1883:
1874:
1873:
1864:
1859:
1807:
1799:
1765:Surveyor program
1702:gallium arsenide
1609:Philo Farnsworth
1565:Photomultipliers
1560:Uses and effects
1266:(1854â1920) and
1250:Willoughby Smith
1209:
1207:
1206:
1201:
1199:
1198:
1171:
1170:
1154:
1152:
1151:
1146:
1144:
1143:
1095:three-step model
1083:
1081:
1080:
1075:
1073:
1072:
1051:
1050:
1034:
1032:
1031:
1026:
1024:
1023:
1006:
1004:
1003:
998:
982:binding energies
966:
964:
963:
958:
956:
952:
951:
950:
930:
922:
917:
916:
900:
898:
897:
892:
890:
889:
873:
871:
870:
865:
863:
862:
838:
836:
835:
830:
825:
821:
820:
819:
793:
792:
776:
774:
773:
768:
763:
762:
736:
734:
733:
728:
716:
714:
713:
708:
692:
690:
689:
684:
672:
670:
669:
664:
643:
642:
626:
624:
623:
618:
616:
615:
599:
597:
596:
591:
572:
570:
569:
564:
552:
550:
549:
544:
532:
530:
529:
524:
352:insertion device
223:Gilbert N. Lewis
221:âterm coined by
132:
125:
121:
118:
112:
110:
69:
45:
37:
21:
6545:
6544:
6540:
6539:
6538:
6536:
6535:
6534:
6505:Albert Einstein
6485:
6484:
6483:
6478:
6458:
6409:Religious views
6404:Political views
6372:
6357:(granddaughter)
6355:Evelyn Einstein
6343:Robert Einstein
6337:Eduard Einstein
6281:
6218:
6212:
6166:
6136:Einstein's Gift
6070:
6063:
6004:Annus mirabilis
5989:
5960:Teleparallelism
5905:Einstein radius
5875:Brownian motion
5841:
5839:Albert Einstein
5836:
5806:
5797:
5781:X-ray astronomy
5769:
5701:
5650:
5636:X-ray telescope
5528:
5499:Photoionization
5467:
5463:X-ray nanoprobe
5426:
5382:Absorption edge
5370:Characteristics
5365:
5360:
5330:
5325:
5289:
5213:
5184:
5066:
5035:
5008:
4997:
4921:
4910:Water transport
4905:
4859:
4845:Solar golf cart
4818:
4776:Solar road stud
4705:
4659:System concepts
4654:
4583:
4506:
4495:
4474:
4428:
4333:
4328:
4289:Wayback Machine
4208:Wayback Machine
4148:
4143:
4136:
4117:
4116:
4112:
4094:
4093:
4089:
4082:
4063:
4062:
4058:
4045:
4044:
4040:
3992:
3991:
3987:
3951:
3950:
3946:
3928:
3927:
3923:
3915:
3911:
3903:
3899:
3886:
3885:
3881:
3874:
3861:
3860:
3856:
3810:
3809:
3805:
3793:, IET, p. 358,
3788:
3784:
3768:
3764:
3747:
3743:
3727:
3723:
3706:
3699:
3682:
3678:
3669:
3665:
3654:
3646:
3645:
3641:
3632:
3630:
3625:
3624:
3620:
3611:
3609:
3604:
3603:
3599:
3573:
3572:
3568:
3532:
3531:
3527:
3500:Physical Review
3493:
3492:
3488:
3444:
3443:
3439:
3425:
3424:
3420:
3394:
3393:
3389:
3359:
3358:
3354:
3337:
3325:
3313:
3312:
3308:
3300:
3296:
3286:
3285:
3281:
3276:
3272:
3238:
3237:
3233:
3205:
3192:
3177:
3161:
3145:
3119:
3105:
3102:
3095:
3090:
3086:
3081:
3077:
3072:
3068:
3063:
3059:
3017:
3016:
3012:
3002:
3000:
2990:
2989:
2980:
2938:
2937:
2933:
2912:(8): 983â1000.
2897:
2896:
2892:
2885:
2872:
2871:
2867:
2848:
2844:
2808:
2807:
2803:
2788:
2767:
2766:
2762:
2732:
2731:
2727:
2679:
2678:
2671:
2623:
2622:
2618:
2611:
2594:
2593:
2584:
2557:Physical Review
2554:
2553:
2549:
2542:
2525:
2524:
2520:
2513:
2505:. p. 241.
2496:
2495:
2491:
2463:Physical Review
2459:
2458:
2454:
2422:
2421:
2417:
2410:
2393:
2392:
2388:
2379:
2378:
2374:
2365:
2364:
2360:
2351:
2350:
2346:
2337:
2336:
2332:
2323:
2322:
2318:
2288:Physical Review
2276:
2275:
2271:
2243:Physical Review
2231:
2230:
2223:
2187:
2186:
2179:
2170:
2168:
2160:
2159:
2155:
2148:
2131:
2130:
2126:
2117:
2115:
2107:
2106:
2102:
2091:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2031:
1987:Pair production
1931:
1875:
1865:
1823:
1822:
1810:pair production
1805:
1797:
1778:
1753:
1736:
1694:
1635:
1623:Main articles:
1621:
1613:Image dissector
1598:
1579:Photomultiplier
1573:
1571:Photomultiplier
1567:
1562:
1498:Planck constant
1458:
1230:
1225:
1190:
1162:
1157:
1156:
1135:
1130:
1129:
1119:universal curve
1103:selection rules
1090:
1064:
1042:
1037:
1036:
1015:
1010:
1009:
986:
985:
978:
942:
935:
931:
908:
903:
902:
881:
876:
875:
854:
843:
842:
811:
804:
800:
784:
779:
778:
754:
739:
738:
719:
718:
699:
698:
675:
674:
634:
629:
628:
607:
602:
601:
579:
578:
575:Planck constant
555:
554:
535:
534:
512:
511:
492:
443:
436:
429:
418:
403:
384:
365:
321:
270:
254:photoconductive
232:requires a few
211:Albert Einstein
133:
122:
116:
113:
70:
68:
62:
58:primary sources
46:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6543:
6541:
6533:
6532:
6527:
6525:Photochemistry
6522:
6517:
6512:
6510:Heinrich Hertz
6507:
6502:
6497:
6487:
6486:
6480:
6479:
6477:
6476:
6463:
6460:
6459:
6457:
6456:
6451:
6446:
6441:
6436:
6431:
6426:
6421:
6416:
6411:
6406:
6401:
6396:
6391:
6386:
6380:
6378:
6374:
6373:
6371:
6370:
6364:
6358:
6352:
6346:
6340:
6334:
6328:
6322:
6316:
6310:
6304:
6298:
6291:
6289:
6283:
6282:
6280:
6279:
6272:
6265:
6258:
6251:
6244:
6237:
6230:
6222:
6220:
6214:
6213:
6211:
6210:
6205:
6200:
6195:
6190:
6185:
6180:
6174:
6172:
6168:
6167:
6165:
6164:
6156:
6148:
6147:(2008 TV film)
6140:
6132:
6124:
6116:
6112:Young Einstein
6108:
6104:Insignificance
6100:
6092:
6084:
6075:
6073:
6065:
6064:
6062:
6061:
6055:
6052:Why Socialism?
6048:
6040:
6032:
6024:
6016:
6009:
5999:
5997:
5991:
5990:
5988:
5987:
5982:
5977:
5972:
5967:
5962:
5957:
5952:
5947:
5942:
5937:
5932:
5927:
5922:
5917:
5912:
5907:
5902:
5897:
5892:
5890:Einstein solid
5887:
5882:
5877:
5872:
5867:
5866:
5865:
5860:
5849:
5847:
5843:
5842:
5837:
5835:
5834:
5827:
5820:
5812:
5803:
5802:
5799:
5798:
5796:
5795:
5790:
5789:
5788:
5777:
5775:
5771:
5770:
5768:
5767:
5762:
5757:
5752:
5747:
5742:
5737:
5732:
5727:
5722:
5717:
5711:
5709:
5703:
5702:
5700:
5699:
5694:
5689:
5684:
5679:
5674:
5669:
5664:
5658:
5656:
5652:
5651:
5649:
5648:
5643:
5638:
5633:
5628:
5623:
5622:
5621:
5616:
5611:
5601:
5596:
5591:
5586:
5581:
5580:
5579:
5574:
5564:
5559:
5554:
5549:
5543:
5541:
5534:
5530:
5529:
5527:
5526:
5521:
5516:
5511:
5506:
5501:
5496:
5491:
5486:
5481:
5475:
5473:
5469:
5468:
5466:
5465:
5460:
5455:
5450:
5445:
5440:
5434:
5432:
5428:
5427:
5425:
5424:
5419:
5414:
5409:
5404:
5399:
5394:
5389:
5384:
5379:
5373:
5371:
5367:
5366:
5361:
5359:
5358:
5351:
5344:
5336:
5327:
5326:
5324:
5323:
5311:
5298:
5295:
5294:
5291:
5290:
5288:
5287:
5282:
5277:
5272:
5267:
5262:
5257:
5255:Solar Frontier
5252:
5247:
5242:
5237:
5232:
5230:Hanwha Q CELLS
5227:
5221:
5219:
5215:
5214:
5212:
5211:
5205:
5203:
5196:
5190:
5189:
5186:
5185:
5183:
5182:
5177:
5175:United Kingdom
5172:
5167:
5162:
5157:
5152:
5147:
5142:
5137:
5132:
5127:
5122:
5117:
5112:
5110:Czech Republic
5107:
5102:
5097:
5092:
5087:
5082:
5076:
5074:
5068:
5067:
5065:
5064:
5059:
5054:
5049:
5043:
5041:
5037:
5036:
5034:
5033:
5028:
5022:
5020:
5011:
5003:
5002:
4999:
4998:
4996:
4995:
4990:
4985:
4980:
4975:
4970:
4965:
4960:
4955:
4950:
4945:
4940:
4935:
4929:
4927:
4923:
4922:
4920:
4919:
4913:
4911:
4907:
4906:
4904:
4903:
4898:
4896:Qinetiq Zephyr
4893:
4888:
4883:
4878:
4873:
4867:
4865:
4861:
4860:
4858:
4857:
4852:
4847:
4842:
4837:
4832:
4826:
4824:
4823:Land transport
4820:
4819:
4817:
4816:
4811:
4806:
4801:
4796:
4791:
4788:
4783:
4778:
4773:
4768:
4763:
4758:
4753:
4750:
4748:Solar backpack
4745:
4740:
4735:
4730:
4724:
4722:
4715:
4711:
4710:
4707:
4706:
4704:
4703:
4698:
4693:
4688:
4683:
4678:
4673:
4668:
4662:
4660:
4656:
4655:
4653:
4652:
4650:Synchronverter
4647:
4642:
4640:Solar shingles
4637:
4632:
4627:
4622:
4617:
4612:
4610:Solar inverter
4607:
4602:
4597:
4591:
4589:
4585:
4584:
4582:
4581:
4576:
4571:
4566:
4561:
4556:
4551:
4546:
4541:
4536:
4531:
4526:
4520:
4518:
4509:
4501:
4500:
4497:
4496:
4494:
4493:
4488:
4482:
4480:
4476:
4475:
4473:
4472:
4467:
4462:
4457:
4452:
4447:
4442:
4436:
4434:
4430:
4429:
4427:
4426:
4421:
4416:
4411:
4406:
4401:
4396:
4391:
4386:
4381:
4380:
4379:
4369:
4367:Solar constant
4364:
4359:
4354:
4348:
4346:
4339:
4335:
4334:
4329:
4327:
4326:
4319:
4312:
4304:
4298:
4297:
4277:
4268:
4259:
4242:
4241:
4235:
4230:
4221:
4212:
4196:
4183:
4174:
4165:
4156:
4147:
4146:External links
4144:
4142:
4141:
4134:
4110:
4087:
4080:
4056:
4038:
3985:
3944:
3921:
3909:
3897:
3879:
3872:
3854:
3803:
3782:
3762:
3741:
3721:
3697:
3676:
3670:Einstein, A. "
3663:
3639:
3618:
3597:
3566:
3525:
3486:
3437:
3418:
3387:
3352:
3323:
3306:
3294:
3279:
3270:
3251:(8): 459â516.
3231:
3229:
3228:
3203:
3197:(in Russian).
3190:
3181:Comptes Rendus
3175:
3165:Comptes Rendus
3159:
3149:Comptes Rendus
3143:
3118:(Reprinted in
3109:Comptes Rendus
3093:
3084:
3075:
3066:
3057:
3030:(2): 301â312.
3010:
2978:
2951:(7): 421â448.
2931:
2890:
2883:
2865:
2842:
2801:
2786:
2760:
2725:
2669:
2632:(2): 473â541.
2616:
2609:
2582:
2547:
2540:
2518:
2511:
2489:
2470:(2): 137â143.
2452:
2415:
2408:
2386:
2372:
2358:
2344:
2330:
2316:
2295:(3): 355â388.
2269:
2221:
2202:(5): 149â198.
2177:
2153:
2146:
2124:
2100:
2083:
2081:
2078:
2077:
2076:
2071:
2069:Photochemistry
2066:
2061:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2041:
2033:
2032:
2030:
2029:
2022:
2015:
2007:
2004:
2003:
1997:
1996:
1990:
1989:
1983:
1982:
1978:
1977:
1971:
1970:
1964:
1963:
1959:
1958:
1952:
1951:
1947:
1946:
1938:
1937:
1930:
1927:
1898:
1897:
1882:
1878:
1872:
1868:
1862:
1858:
1855:
1852:
1849:
1846:
1843:
1840:
1837:
1833:
1830:
1806:1.022 MeV
1777:
1774:
1752:
1749:
1735:
1732:
1693:
1690:
1620:
1617:
1597:
1594:
1569:Main article:
1566:
1563:
1561:
1558:
1457:
1454:
1441:Philipp Lenard
1404:Stoletov's law
1353:Heinrich Hertz
1229:
1226:
1224:
1221:
1216:one-step model
1212:
1211:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1186:
1183:
1180:
1177:
1174:
1169:
1165:
1142:
1138:
1122:
1114:
1089:
1086:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1060:
1057:
1054:
1049:
1045:
1022:
1018:
996:
993:
977:
974:
955:
949:
945:
941:
938:
934:
928:
925:
920:
915:
911:
888:
884:
861:
857:
853:
850:
828:
824:
818:
814:
810:
807:
803:
799:
796:
791:
787:
766:
761:
757:
752:
749:
746:
726:
706:
682:
662:
659:
656:
653:
649:
646:
641:
637:
614:
610:
589:
586:
562:
542:
522:
519:
491:
488:
441:
434:
427:
416:
401:
382:
372:monochromatize
363:
320:
317:
297:kinetic energy
289:Compton effect
278:binding energy
269:
266:
238:core electrons
203:kinetic energy
135:
134:
49:
47:
40:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6542:
6531:
6528:
6526:
6523:
6521:
6520:Photovoltaics
6518:
6516:
6513:
6511:
6508:
6506:
6503:
6501:
6498:
6496:
6493:
6492:
6490:
6475:
6474:
6465:
6464:
6461:
6455:
6452:
6450:
6447:
6445:
6442:
6440:
6437:
6435:
6432:
6430:
6427:
6425:
6422:
6420:
6417:
6415:
6412:
6410:
6407:
6405:
6402:
6400:
6397:
6395:
6392:
6390:
6387:
6385:
6382:
6381:
6379:
6375:
6368:
6365:
6362:
6359:
6356:
6353:
6350:
6347:
6344:
6341:
6338:
6335:
6332:
6331:Maja Einstein
6329:
6326:
6323:
6320:
6317:
6314:
6311:
6308:
6305:
6302:
6301:Elsa Einstein
6299:
6296:
6293:
6292:
6290:
6288:
6284:
6278:
6277:
6273:
6271:
6270:
6266:
6264:
6263:
6259:
6257:
6256:
6252:
6250:
6249:
6245:
6243:
6242:
6238:
6236:
6235:
6231:
6229:
6228:
6224:
6223:
6221:
6215:
6209:
6206:
6204:
6201:
6199:
6196:
6194:
6191:
6189:
6188:Kalinga Prize
6186:
6184:
6181:
6179:
6176:
6175:
6173:
6169:
6162:
6161:
6157:
6155:(2017 series)
6154:
6153:
6149:
6146:
6145:
6141:
6138:
6137:
6133:
6130:
6129:
6125:
6122:
6121:
6117:
6114:
6113:
6109:
6106:
6105:
6101:
6098:
6097:
6093:
6090:
6089:
6085:
6082:
6081:
6077:
6076:
6074:
6072:
6066:
6059:
6056:
6053:
6049:
6046:
6045:
6041:
6038:
6037:
6033:
6030:
6029:
6025:
6022:
6021:
6017:
6014:
6010:
6007:
6005:
6001:
6000:
5998:
5996:
5992:
5986:
5983:
5981:
5978:
5976:
5973:
5971:
5968:
5966:
5963:
5961:
5958:
5956:
5953:
5951:
5948:
5946:
5943:
5941:
5938:
5936:
5933:
5931:
5928:
5926:
5923:
5921:
5918:
5916:
5913:
5911:
5908:
5906:
5903:
5901:
5898:
5896:
5893:
5891:
5888:
5886:
5883:
5881:
5878:
5876:
5873:
5871:
5868:
5864:
5861:
5859:
5856:
5855:
5854:
5851:
5850:
5848:
5844:
5840:
5833:
5828:
5826:
5821:
5819:
5814:
5813:
5810:
5794:
5791:
5787:
5784:
5783:
5782:
5779:
5778:
5776:
5772:
5766:
5763:
5761:
5758:
5756:
5753:
5751:
5748:
5746:
5743:
5741:
5738:
5736:
5733:
5731:
5728:
5726:
5723:
5721:
5718:
5716:
5713:
5712:
5710:
5708:
5704:
5698:
5695:
5693:
5690:
5688:
5685:
5683:
5680:
5678:
5675:
5673:
5670:
5668:
5665:
5663:
5660:
5659:
5657:
5653:
5647:
5644:
5642:
5639:
5637:
5634:
5632:
5629:
5627:
5624:
5620:
5617:
5615:
5612:
5610:
5607:
5606:
5605:
5602:
5600:
5597:
5595:
5592:
5590:
5587:
5585:
5582:
5578:
5575:
5573:
5570:
5569:
5568:
5565:
5563:
5560:
5558:
5557:Tomosynthesis
5555:
5553:
5550:
5548:
5545:
5544:
5542:
5538:
5535:
5531:
5525:
5522:
5520:
5517:
5515:
5512:
5510:
5507:
5505:
5502:
5500:
5497:
5495:
5492:
5490:
5487:
5485:
5482:
5480:
5477:
5476:
5474:
5470:
5464:
5461:
5459:
5456:
5454:
5451:
5449:
5446:
5444:
5441:
5439:
5436:
5435:
5433:
5429:
5423:
5420:
5418:
5415:
5413:
5410:
5408:
5405:
5403:
5400:
5398:
5395:
5393:
5390:
5388:
5387:Moseley's law
5385:
5383:
5380:
5378:
5375:
5374:
5372:
5368:
5364:
5363:X-ray science
5357:
5352:
5350:
5345:
5343:
5338:
5337:
5334:
5322:
5321:
5312:
5310:
5309:
5300:
5299:
5296:
5286:
5283:
5281:
5278:
5276:
5273:
5271:
5268:
5266:
5263:
5261:
5258:
5256:
5253:
5251:
5248:
5246:
5243:
5241:
5238:
5236:
5233:
5231:
5228:
5226:
5223:
5222:
5220:
5216:
5210:
5207:
5206:
5204:
5200:
5197:
5195:
5191:
5181:
5178:
5176:
5173:
5171:
5168:
5166:
5163:
5161:
5158:
5156:
5153:
5151:
5148:
5146:
5143:
5141:
5138:
5136:
5133:
5131:
5128:
5126:
5123:
5121:
5118:
5116:
5113:
5111:
5108:
5106:
5103:
5101:
5098:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5088:
5086:
5083:
5081:
5078:
5077:
5075:
5073:
5069:
5063:
5060:
5058:
5055:
5053:
5050:
5048:
5045:
5044:
5042:
5038:
5032:
5029:
5027:
5024:
5023:
5021:
5019:
5015:
5012:
5010:
5004:
4994:
4991:
4989:
4986:
4984:
4981:
4979:
4976:
4974:
4971:
4969:
4966:
4964:
4961:
4959:
4956:
4954:
4951:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4939:
4936:
4934:
4931:
4930:
4928:
4924:
4918:
4915:
4914:
4912:
4908:
4902:
4899:
4897:
4894:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4884:
4882:
4879:
4877:
4874:
4872:
4869:
4868:
4866:
4864:Air transport
4862:
4856:
4853:
4851:
4848:
4846:
4843:
4841:
4840:Solar roadway
4838:
4836:
4833:
4831:
4830:Solar vehicle
4828:
4827:
4825:
4821:
4815:
4812:
4810:
4807:
4805:
4802:
4800:
4797:
4795:
4792:
4789:
4787:
4784:
4782:
4779:
4777:
4774:
4772:
4769:
4767:
4764:
4762:
4759:
4757:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
4744:
4743:Solar charger
4741:
4739:
4736:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4726:
4725:
4723:
4719:
4716:
4712:
4702:
4699:
4697:
4694:
4692:
4689:
4687:
4684:
4682:
4679:
4677:
4674:
4672:
4669:
4667:
4664:
4663:
4661:
4657:
4651:
4648:
4646:
4643:
4641:
4638:
4636:
4635:Solar tracker
4633:
4631:
4628:
4626:
4623:
4621:
4618:
4616:
4613:
4611:
4608:
4606:
4603:
4601:
4598:
4596:
4593:
4592:
4590:
4586:
4580:
4577:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4565:
4562:
4560:
4557:
4555:
4552:
4550:
4547:
4545:
4542:
4540:
4537:
4535:
4532:
4530:
4527:
4525:
4522:
4521:
4519:
4517:
4513:
4510:
4508:
4502:
4492:
4489:
4487:
4484:
4483:
4481:
4477:
4471:
4468:
4466:
4463:
4461:
4458:
4456:
4453:
4451:
4448:
4446:
4443:
4441:
4438:
4437:
4435:
4431:
4425:
4422:
4420:
4417:
4415:
4412:
4410:
4407:
4405:
4402:
4400:
4397:
4395:
4392:
4390:
4387:
4385:
4382:
4378:
4375:
4374:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4352:Photovoltaics
4350:
4349:
4347:
4343:
4340:
4336:
4332:
4331:Photovoltaics
4325:
4320:
4318:
4313:
4311:
4306:
4305:
4302:
4295:
4291:
4290:
4286:
4283:
4278:
4275:
4274:
4269:
4266:
4265:
4260:
4257:
4256:
4251:
4250:
4249:
4248:
4247:
4240:
4236:
4234:
4231:
4228:
4227:
4222:
4219:
4218:
4213:
4210:
4209:
4205:
4202:
4197:
4194:
4190:
4189:
4184:
4181:
4180:
4175:
4172:
4171:
4166:
4163:
4162:
4157:
4154:
4150:
4149:
4145:
4137:
4135:0-471-49545-X
4131:
4127:
4123:
4122:
4114:
4111:
4106:
4102:
4098:
4091:
4088:
4083:
4081:0-89874-414-8
4077:
4073:
4069:
4068:
4060:
4057:
4053:. 2009-09-17.
4052:
4048:
4042:
4039:
4034:
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4020:
4016:
4012:
4008:
4004:
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3880:
3875:
3869:
3865:
3858:
3855:
3850:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3834:
3830:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3814:
3807:
3804:
3800:
3799:0-85296-914-7
3796:
3792:
3786:
3783:
3780:
3776:
3772:
3766:
3763:
3759:
3758:0-471-71702-9
3755:
3751:
3745:
3742:
3739:
3738:0-679-45443-8
3735:
3731:
3725:
3722:
3718:
3717:0-8053-8685-8
3714:
3710:
3704:
3702:
3698:
3694:
3693:0-471-71702-9
3690:
3686:
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3667:
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3649:
3643:
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3460:
3457:(2008): 582.
3456:
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2927:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2906:
2901:
2894:
2891:
2886:
2880:
2876:
2869:
2866:
2862:
2861:0-385-04693-6
2858:
2855:, Doubleday,
2854:
2853:
2846:
2843:
2837:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2805:
2802:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2771:
2764:
2761:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2729:
2726:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
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2691:
2688:(2): 025006.
2687:
2683:
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2665:
2661:
2657:
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2649:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2620:
2617:
2612:
2610:3-540-41802-4
2606:
2602:
2598:
2591:
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2578:
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2529:
2522:
2519:
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2508:
2504:
2500:
2493:
2490:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2464:
2456:
2453:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2427:
2419:
2416:
2411:
2409:0-07-024830-3
2405:
2401:
2397:
2390:
2387:
2382:
2376:
2373:
2368:
2362:
2359:
2354:
2348:
2345:
2340:
2334:
2331:
2326:
2320:
2317:
2311:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2289:
2284:
2282:
2273:
2270:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2244:
2239:
2237:
2228:
2226:
2222:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2196:
2191:
2184:
2182:
2178:
2167:
2163:
2157:
2154:
2149:
2147:0-03-030258-7
2143:
2139:
2135:
2128:
2125:
2114:
2110:
2104:
2101:
2096:
2095:
2088:
2085:
2079:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2049:Dember effect
2047:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2036:
2028:
2023:
2021:
2016:
2014:
2009:
2008:
2006:
2005:
2002:
1999:
1998:
1995:
1992:
1991:
1988:
1985:
1984:
1979:
1976:
1973:
1972:
1969:
1966:
1965:
1960:
1957:
1954:
1953:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1939:
1934:
1928:
1926:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1911:
1907:
1906:atomic number
1903:
1880:
1876:
1870:
1866:
1860:
1831:
1828:
1821:
1820:
1819:
1816:
1815:cross section
1811:
1803:
1791:
1787:
1786:cross section
1782:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1750:
1748:
1746:
1745:static charge
1741:
1733:
1731:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1698:semiconductor
1691:
1689:
1687:
1682:
1680:
1675:
1671:
1668:
1663:
1659:
1656:
1655:monochromatic
1647:
1643:
1639:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1618:
1616:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1596:Image sensors
1595:
1593:
1591:
1586:
1577:
1572:
1564:
1559:
1557:
1553:
1551:
1547:
1541:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1526:energy quanta
1523:
1519:
1514:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1455:
1453:
1451:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1433:
1431:
1427:
1426:Crookes tubes
1423:
1422:J. J. Thomson
1418:
1415:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1400:
1395:
1392:
1388:
1383:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1372:Augusto Righi
1369:
1364:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1345:
1340:
1336:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1264:Johann Elster
1261:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1246:photovoltaics
1243:
1239:
1235:
1227:
1222:
1220:
1217:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1184:
1181:
1178:
1175:
1172:
1167:
1163:
1140:
1136:
1127:
1123:
1120:
1115:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1099:
1098:
1096:
1087:
1085:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1058:
1055:
1052:
1047:
1043:
1020:
1016:
994:
991:
983:
975:
973:
971:
953:
947:
943:
939:
936:
932:
926:
923:
918:
913:
909:
886:
882:
859:
855:
851:
848:
839:
826:
822:
816:
812:
808:
805:
801:
797:
794:
785:
764:
759:
755:
750:
747:
744:
724:
696:
695:work function
680:
660:
657:
654:
651:
647:
644:
635:
608:
587:
584:
576:
560:
540:
520:
517:
509:
505:
496:
489:
487:
485:
480:
476:
471:
468:
462:
460:
456:
452:
447:
444:
440:
437: =
433:
426:
422:
415:
411:
407:
400:
394:
391:
386:
381:
377:
374:the light, a
373:
359:
355:
353:
350:
346:
342:
339:UV lamps and
338:
334:
330:
325:
318:
316:
314:
310:
305:
303:
298:
294:
290:
286:
281:
279:
275:
274:photon energy
267:
265:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
246:atomic number
243:
239:
235:
234:electron-volt
231:
226:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
187:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
157:
150:
146:
141:
131:
128:
120:
109:
106:
102:
99:
95:
92:
88:
85:
81:
78: â
77:
73:
72:Find sources:
66:
60:
59:
55:
50:This article
48:
44:
39:
38:
33:
19:
18:Photoelectric
6471:
6439:Einsteinhaus
6319:Pauline Koch
6297:(first wife)
6295:Mileva MariÄ
6274:
6267:
6260:
6253:
6246:
6239:
6232:
6225:
6158:
6150:
6142:
6134:
6126:
6118:
6110:
6102:
6094:
6086:
6078:
6042:
6034:
6026:
6018:
6003:
5879:
5655:Spectroscopy
5599:Ptychography
5533:Applications
5494:Auger effect
5483:
5397:Water window
5319:
5306:
5285:Yingli Solar
5265:Sungen Solar
5240:Motech Solar
5194:PV companies
5155:South Africa
4973:Solar Splash
4714:Applications
4645:Solar mirror
4505:Photovoltaic
4356:
4280:
4271:
4262:
4253:
4244:
4243:
4224:
4215:
4199:
4195:, Chapter 3.
4186:
4177:
4168:
4159:
4120:
4113:
4096:
4090:
4066:
4059:
4050:
4041:
4001:(1): 59â66.
3998:
3994:
3988:
3961:
3957:
3947:
3930:
3924:
3912:
3900:
3891:
3882:
3863:
3857:
3816:
3812:
3806:
3790:
3785:
3770:
3765:
3749:
3744:
3729:
3724:
3708:
3684:
3679:
3666:
3658:
3642:
3631:. Retrieved
3621:
3610:. Retrieved
3600:
3583:
3579:
3569:
3542:
3538:
3528:
3503:
3502:. Series I.
3499:
3489:
3454:
3450:
3440:
3431:
3427:
3421:
3404:
3400:
3390:
3365:
3361:
3355:
3314:
3309:
3301:
3297:
3288:
3282:
3273:
3248:
3244:
3234:
3215:
3211:
3198:
3194:
3185:
3179:
3169:
3163:
3153:
3147:
3132:(160): 317.
3129:
3128:. Series 5.
3125:
3113:
3107:
3087:
3078:
3069:
3060:
3027:
3023:
3013:
3001:. Retrieved
2996:
2948:
2944:
2934:
2909:
2903:
2893:
2874:
2868:
2850:
2845:
2821:(173): 303.
2818:
2814:
2804:
2769:
2763:
2738:
2734:
2728:
2685:
2681:
2629:
2625:
2619:
2596:
2560:
2556:
2550:
2527:
2521:
2498:
2492:
2467:
2461:
2455:
2433:(1â5): 125.
2430:
2424:
2418:
2395:
2389:
2375:
2361:
2347:
2333:
2319:
2292:
2286:
2280:
2272:
2250:(1): 73â75.
2247:
2241:
2235:
2199:
2193:
2169:. Retrieved
2165:
2156:
2133:
2127:
2116:. Retrieved
2112:
2103:
2093:
2087:
2001:Photofission
1955:
1922:
1914:
1909:
1901:
1899:
1798:511 keV
1795:
1789:
1754:
1737:
1695:
1683:
1672:
1651:
1599:
1585:photocathode
1582:
1554:
1549:
1545:
1542:
1529:
1525:
1515:
1492:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1459:
1456:20th century
1450:Hertz effect
1449:
1434:
1430:cathode rays
1419:
1416:
1408:photocurrent
1396:
1387:Hertz effect
1386:
1384:
1380:electroscope
1365:
1350:
1344:electroscope
1262:
1231:
1228:19th century
1215:
1213:
1125:
1107:Auger effect
1094:
1091:
979:
840:
501:
475:polarization
472:
466:
463:
454:
448:
445:
438:
431:
424:
420:
413:
409:
405:
398:
395:
389:
387:
379:
369:
326:
322:
312:
308:
306:
282:
271:
256:effect, the
244:with a high
227:
188:
155:
153:
123:
114:
104:
97:
90:
83:
71:
51:
6444:Einsteinium
6217:Books about
6163:(2023 film)
6160:Oppenheimer
6139:(2003 play)
6131:(1994 film)
6123:(1993 play)
6115:(1988 film)
6107:(1985 film)
5950:EPR paradox
5448:Synchrotron
5280:Trina Solar
5225:First Solar
5165:Switzerland
5145:Netherlands
4983:Tour de Sol
4681:Fill factor
4620:Solar cable
4595:Solar panel
4516:Solar cells
4158:Nave, R., "
3506:(1): 1â22.
3368:: 299â322.
2400:McGraw-Hill
2113:xdb.lbl.gov
1504:. In 1914,
1412:solar cells
1268:Hans Geitel
1252:discovered
459:probability
376:vacuum tube
349:synchrotron
302:Fermi level
176:solid state
6489:Categories
6449:Max Talmey
6351:(grandson)
6309:(daughter)
6069:In popular
5707:Scattering
5572:Helical CT
5438:X-ray tube
5202:By country
5072:By country
5007:Generation
4917:Solar boat
4766:Solar Tuki
4752:Solar tree
4738:Solar lamp
4721:Appliances
4345:Technology
3633:2015-03-29
3612:2008-10-09
3545:(3): 553.
3407:(8): 240.
2695:2008.02378
2171:2024-07-08
2118:2020-06-20
2080:References
1740:spacecraft
1734:Spacecraft
1605:television
1489:Max Planck
1445:electrodes
1342:Gold leaf
1272:Heidelberg
412:potential
285:irradiated
260:, and the
87:newspapers
54:references
5080:Australia
5057:Solar Ark
4963:Solar Cup
4855:Sunmobile
4835:Solar car
4433:Materials
4276:". (Java)
3401:Le Radium
3341:cite book
3052:1521-3889
2973:0003-3804
2796:108793685
2720:221006368
2664:118433150
2656:0034-6861
1919:gamma-ray
1861:⋅
1829:σ
1769:Chang'e 3
1751:Moon dust
1550:intensity
1546:frequency
1530:intensity
1470:intensity
1420:In 1897,
1357:spark gap
1351:In 1887,
1296:magnesium
1280:potassium
1232:In 1839,
1188:−
1182:−
1179:ν
1062:−
1059:ν
995:ν
944:ν
940:−
937:ν
883:ν
856:ν
849:ν
813:ν
809:−
806:ν
756:ν
725:φ
705:Φ
655:−
652:ν
588:ν
541:ν
521:ν
502:In 1905,
451:radiation
343:sources,
225:in 1926.
207:frequency
199:intensity
160:electrons
145:electrons
117:July 2024
6473:Category
6399:Memorial
6345:(cousin)
6333:(sister)
6327:(father)
6321:(mother)
6219:Einstein
6054:" (1949)
6015:" (1905)
5443:Betatron
5308:Category
5270:Sunpower
5260:Solyndra
5235:JA Solar
5170:Thailand
5090:Bulgaria
4338:Concepts
4285:Archived
4204:Archived
4033:56226020
3849:23594185
3841:17801770
3382:27757381
3333:62183406
2601:Springer
2138:Saunders
1929:See also
1727:band gap
1714:phosphor
1681:source.
1370:, Hoor,
1312:platinum
1300:thallium
1276:rubidium
1258:selenium
504:Einstein
329:arc lamp
242:elements
166:such as
6377:Related
6071:culture
5846:Physics
5786:History
5540:Imaging
5320:Commons
5275:Suntech
5150:Romania
5120:Germany
5085:Belgium
5009:systems
4479:History
4246:Applets
4223:Go to "
4101:Bibcode
4003:Bibcode
3966:Bibcode
3821:Bibcode
3813:Science
3580:Physics
3547:Bibcode
3508:Bibcode
3481:4028617
3459:Bibcode
3253:Bibcode
3218:: 468.
3188:: 1241.
3156:: 1593.
3116:: 1149.
3032:Bibcode
2953:Bibcode
2914:Bibcode
2823:Bibcode
2743:Bibcode
2700:Bibcode
2565:Bibcode
2472:Bibcode
2435:Bibcode
2297:Bibcode
2252:Bibcode
2204:Bibcode
1904:is the
1493:packets
1332:mercury
1324:cadmium
1292:lithium
1223:History
1111:phonons
508:photons
410:cut off
219:photons
149:photons
101:scholar
6287:Family
6171:Prizes
6152:Genius
6060:(1955)
6047:(1938)
6039:(1934)
6031:(1922)
6023:(1916)
6008:(1905)
6006:papers
5774:Others
5735:GISAXS
5407:L-edge
5402:K-edge
5125:Greece
5115:France
5095:Canada
4507:system
4132:
4078:
4031:
3870:
3847:
3839:
3797:
3777:
3756:
3736:
3715:
3691:
3586:: 23.
3479:
3451:Nature
3434:: 417.
3380:
3331:
3321:
3201:: 159.
3050:
2971:
2881:
2859:
2815:Nature
2794:
2784:
2718:
2662:
2654:
2607:
2538:
2509:
2406:
2144:
1704:in an
1631:, and
1518:quanta
1462:energy
1361:quartz
1330:, and
1328:carbon
1308:copper
1306:; for
1288:sodium
673:Here,
347:, and
230:metals
215:a wave
195:energy
178:, and
103:
96:
89:
82:
74:
6394:House
6389:Brain
6339:(son)
6315:(son)
5995:Works
5765:EDXRD
5687:XANES
5682:EXAFS
5672:ARPES
5619:3DXRD
5377:X-ray
5250:Sharp
5160:Spain
5140:Japan
5135:Italy
5130:India
5105:China
5100:Chile
4029:S2CID
3845:S2CID
3655:(PDF)
3477:S2CID
3378:JSTOR
3186:CVIII
3172:: 91.
3003:2 May
2792:S2CID
2716:S2CID
2690:arXiv
2660:S2CID
2634:arXiv
1913:high-
1900:Here
1658:X-ray
1646:ARPES
1391:ozone
1284:alloy
108:JSTOR
94:books
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