121:
religious groups, states etc.), in terms of domains like power, wealth, access to raw materials and markets, cultural or religious values, honor, dignity, or recognition. In conflicts one has to distinguish between (overt) positions (e.g., "we don't negotiate with X") and underlying interests (e.g., power, spheres of influence and wealth) as well as between current triggers (e.g., violence at a political protest) and systematic, enduring, structural causes (e.g., deprivation of a group's political participation or access to professional employment). Although conflicts are inevitable and can lead to positive change when dealt with constructively, the escalation of conflicts and in particular the occurrence of violence are preventable. Psychological processes of information processing (attention, perception, memory, thinking, judgment), emotion, and motivation influence substantially how a conflict is handled, and in particular whether conflicts escalate to violent episodes. An important factor is the different points of view of the conflict parties, such as when behavior that is based on positive intentions is perceived by the opponent as aggressive and therefore contributes to escalation. Conflicts can easily escalate. A cycle of violence can arise in which both parties are involved, and original victims can become perpetrators, without realizing it ("victim myth").
428:). The UDHR consists of 30 articles with more than 100 individual rights, including civil and political rights (e.g., right to life, prohibition of torture, right to fair and public trial, right to asylum, freedom of speech, regular elections), but also social, economic, and cultural rights (including the right to work, rest, holidays with pay, protection from unemployment, the right to food, clothing, housing, medical care, and free primary education). Of particular importance in the UN's human rights concept is that all human rights are significant (indivisibility) and that they apply to all people (universality). Psychological research on human rights has mainly examined knowledge, attitudes, and readiness to act in support of human rights. Representative surveys in Germany show that the realization of human rights is considered to be very important, but at the same time knowledge of human rights is low and inaccurate. The results show a "halving" of human rights: Some civil rights are known, while economic and social rights are hardly considered human rights. Of importance in peace psychology are also analyses of whether human rights are used in the sense of peace or whether they are abused for the construction of enemy images or to prepare wars.
226:. Interactive problem solving is such an informal approach to bring members of the conflict parties together. These can include citizens who are well-respected from different areas of society, such as media, business, politics, education, or religion. A team of social scientists (e.g., psychologists) initiate and promote a problem-solving process with the elements of conflict diagnosis, generation of alternatives, and development of nonviolent solutions that results in outcomes that are satisfactory to all parties involved. There is the expectation or hope that the participants influence their governments and public opinion so that official negotiations can follow. Psychologically important components of the process are that the respective self and enemy images are corrected. Interactive problem solving was used in particular in the
214:
well aware of the conflict and its history, should have the confidence of both conflict parties, and need to be familiar with conflict analysis and communication strategies. Important strategies include establishing trust, working out the essential elements of conflict, and possibly dividing the problem so that at least partial solutions can be achieved and violence can be prevented or stopped. Problems arise when mediators are biased and have strong individual interests. Mediation success is more likely if the conflict is moderately intense, the power difference between the parties is low, and the mediators have high prestige (as a person or because of organizational affiliation).
315:(mainly of the civilian population, but also members of the military), cognitive and emotional damage, and the destruction of trustful social relationships. Wars often do not resolve the underlying problems; they often provoke new violence and wars. For example, in post-war societies an increased level of family and community violence can be observed. In addition, resources necessary to deal with civilian issues (e.g., education, health, social welfare) are lost. There is still little comprehensive and objective research on the consequences and costs of war.
149:
repeating, highlighting, and embellishing with detail information that functions to intensify the enemy image or threat perceptions, and (2) ignoring and devaluing information that may lead to de-escalation. In addition, negative behavior of the adversary may be provoked (e.g., by maneuvers at the state borders) or charges that the enemy engaged in heinous acts may be entirely invented (e.g., the
206:
Care is taken so that each step does not endanger the safety of one's own side. GRIT was designed to reverse the tension involved in the nuclear arms race by having each side engage in graduated and reciprocal inititiatives. While there is no firm evidence, it has been suggested that U.S. President
Kennedy and the Soviet leader Khrushchev based their negotiations after the
268:, where one conflict party is politically, economically, and/or militarily clearly superior, the stronger party may not be interested in a truly sustainable conflict resolution. Under asymmetric conditions, when the root causes of the conflict cannot be sufficiently addressed, structural violence persists. For such situations, approaches have been developed such as
246:, in contrast, has the objective of investigating and using the influence of the media as a means of encouraging the constructive, non-violent resolution of conflict. Key strategies include representing the conflicting parties as well as the conflict and its history appropriately, identifying propaganda, and articulating the suffering of the people.
137:(e.g., aggressive, immoral, but also inferior), (2) a one-sided blame for negative events, and (3) a different evaluation of similar actions of one's own side than the enemy ("double standard"; e.g., build-up of arms on one’s own side is self-defense, on the enemy's it is aggression). These constructions can cause
64:(civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights); this should, among other purposes, ensure the satisfaction of basic human needs, such as positive personal and social identity, sense of control, security, (social) justice, well-being, a safe environment, and access to adequate food and shelter.
205:
seemed increasingly possible. The GRIT model, in contrast, aimed to de-escalate and create an atmosphere of mutual trust. One party publicly announces and performs a verifiable, concrete step to reduce tension, and asks or invites the other side to do something similar (developing a spiral of trust).
253:
and peaceful demonstrations of the population toward peaceful and socially just ends can have an influence on the decisions of those in power – particularly in democracies. Citizens' commitment depends, among other factors, on the existence of opportunities in society, individual value orientations
213:
When conflicted parties are engaged in long-lasting, severe conflicts, it can be difficult to have constructive bilateral negotiations. In this case, a third party (e.g., a social scientist or reputed politician) can serve as a mediator in order to facilitate conflict management. Mediators must be
120:
exists when the expectations, interests, needs, or actions of at least two parties to the conflict are perceived by at least one of the parties to be incompatible. Peace psychology is mainly concerned with conflicts between social groups (intergroup conflicts, such as between ethnic groups, clans,
415:
is of high importance. Human rights are inalienable rights that apply to all human beings, without distinction as to sex, color, ethnicity, language, religion, political opinion, or social origin (prohibition of discrimination). The UN Human Rights
Charter contains the essential documents of the
136:
promulgated by the media, political elite, educational systems, socialization, cultural symbols and other means. Enemy images may have a kernel of truth, but overstate the negative sides of the opponent. The core features of a strong enemy image include: (1) a negative evaluation of the opponent
261:). Conditions associated with the improvement of intergroup relations when groups come in contact with one another include: The actors involved have similar social status; there are common goals that can be achieved through cooperation; and the contacts are supported by authorities in society.
355:
The following cultural characteristics are obstacles to the development of sustainable peace: the view of one's own group (ethnicity, religion, nation, etc.) to be superior and more valuable and others as inferior and of little value (or in the extreme case: no value); the development of enemy
148:
includes methods of generating or strengthening war support among the civilian population and the military. These methods include disinformation using the media (war propaganda), but also sabotage, displacement, murder, and terror. War propaganda consists of two complementary strategies: (1)
290:
behavior directed against injustice; it involves publicly explicating one's own intentions, committing to communicate with the other side, and the willingness to endure negative consequences of one's own actions. Methods of nonviolent resistance range from protests (e.g., demonstrations) to
141:
of the opponent, so that moral standards no longer apply. In extreme cases, it may seem acceptable, even desirable, for the opponent to suffer and be killed. The construction of the enemy image has the central function of justifying armament, violence, and war. In addition, it enhances the
327:
reached, to prevent the risk of a renewed escalation, physical and economic reconstruction as well as socio-political and psychosocial interventions are required. These interventions aim to cure psychosocial wounds of war, build trust, develop a common
310:
Peace psychology examines war and violence between groups also with the aim of illustrating the psychological and social costs of war and violence and to document the human suffering caused. The psychological consequences include, in particular,
408:, and respect for all people or for humanity as a whole; critical proximity to one's own group that – in addition to positive identification – also integrates own weaknesses, mistakes, and committed wrongdoings in the collective self-concept.
387:
Among factors conducive to the development of sustainable peace are: the fundamental belief that conflicts are frequent, but that they can be solved without violence and for the benefit of the various conflict parties; the concept of
347:
Also, irrespective of any specific conflict and violence, peace psychological research looks at the psychosocial conditions that hamper or promote sustainable peace. The basic aim is to transform cultures of violence into cultures of
380:, and an education system that promotes these ideologies; power differentials that are defended or increased by the powerful and that create unequal conditions in areas such as wealth, health, education, and political participation (
55:
extended conceptualization of peace, according to which peace is not merely the absence of personal (direct) violence and war (= negative peace), but also the absence of structural (indirect) and cultural violence (=
46:
Peace psychological activities are based on psychological models (theories) and methods; they are usually normatively bound in their means and objectives by working towards the ideal of sustainable peace using
43:. Peace psychology can be characterized by four interconnected pillars: (1) research, (2) education, (3) practice, and (4) advocacy. The first pillar, research, is documented most extensively in this article.
257:
Contacts between opposing groups (e.g., on the level of municipalities, associations, universities, trade unions) can contribute to building positive relationships and the reduction of prejudice (see
421:
92:. In each case, different levels of analysis and explanation are relevant: from the level of individuals to groups, social organizations and institutions, states and state systems (e.g., the
1859:
1908:
576:, in Kalayjian, A., & Paloutzian, R.F. (Eds.). Peace psychology book series. Forgiveness and reconciliation: Psychological pathways to conflict transformation and peace building.
1918:
1311:
1893:
425:
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in the East-West conflict, in which the former superpowers, USA and USSR, constantly increased the quantity and quality of their arms so that the destruction of humankind by a
1747:
448:
Peace psychology practice refers, for example, to trauma therapeutic work, the implementation of trainings in nonviolent conflict resolution, and activities in such roles as
105:
1833:
440:
at various levels, from primary school to secondary and tertiary education (e.g., in the form of peace psychology courses at universities) to vocational training.
1762:
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Psychologists for Social
Responsibility (2004). Enemy images: A resource material for reducing enmity. Washington, DC: Psychologists for Social Responsibility.
1966:
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Christie, D. J., Wagner, R. V., & Winter, D. D. (2001). Introduction to peace psychology. In D. J. Christie, R. V. Wagner, & D. D. Winter (Eds.),
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1903:
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2006:
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169:(e.g., measures of tension reduction and trust build such as Charles E. Osgood's "Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension Reduction" ,
1981:
1533:
1447:
801:
Tzeng, O., Landis, D., & Tzeng, D. Y. (2012). Charles E. Osgood's continuing contributions to intercultural communication and far beyond!.
1634:
1201:
417:
1986:
1839:
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2055:
2016:
1996:
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1478:
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254:(e.g., valuing non-violence, social justice), the presence of role models, and the perceived probability of success of one's actions.
1844:
1508:
1166:
1046:
Stellmacher, J., & Sommer, G. (2012). Human rights and human rights violations, psychological aspects of. In D. Christie (Ed.),
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1923:
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1296:
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724:
Tropp, L. R. (2012). Understanding and responding to intergroup conflict: Toward an integrated analysis. In L. R. Tropp (Ed.),
994:
116:
Peace psychology focuses on the psychological aspects of the formation, escalation, reduction, and resolution of conflicts. A
1871:
1211:
1161:
827:
Kelman, H. C. (2002). Interactive problem solving: Informal mediation by the scholar-practitioner. In J. Bercovitch (Ed.),
80:
peace) oriented. Regardless of its analytical or normative orientation, peace psychological research mainly deals with the
2011:
1886:
547:
https://web.archive.org/web/20140625170938/http://academic.marion.ohio-state.edu/dchristie/Peace%20Psychology%20Book.html
1617:
1538:
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365:
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1961:
1785:
1503:
1186:
843:
d' Estrée, T. P. (2012). Addressing intractable conflict through interactive problem-solving. In L. R. Tropp (Ed.),
161:
Different peace psychological strategies for non-violent conflict resolution are discussed (conflict de-escalation,
2029:
1876:
1854:
1553:
1513:
1231:
1151:
1928:
1881:
1849:
1543:
1488:
1804:
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1607:
1587:
1570:
1226:
1473:
1797:
1483:
1286:
1216:
479:
1774:
1768:
1597:
1498:
1181:
1117:
300:
750:
Bar-Tal, D. & Hammack, P. L. (2012). Conflict, delegitimization, and violence. In L. R. Tropp (Ed.),
1742:
1592:
1357:
283:
273:
269:
145:
129:
1612:
1523:
312:
265:
207:
456:. Of particular importance is the cooperation between research and practice, such as in the form of
1971:
1945:
1685:
1670:
1665:
1655:
1622:
1412:
1407:
1345:
457:
381:
333:
277:
162:
150:
764:
1731:
1705:
1660:
1493:
1452:
1372:
258:
117:
32:
775:
1991:
1377:
1156:
1133:
1110:
329:
250:
222:
In severe, long-lasting conflicts, it may be advisable to intervene at a level below official
574:
Art and
Meaning: ARTiculation as a Modality in Processing Forgiveness and Peace Consciousness
2001:
1725:
1680:
1558:
1352:
1335:
1251:
1246:
1191:
931:
474:
369:
341:
292:
243:
186:
181:(interactive problem-solving workshops), and strategies at the level of peace and conflict
1261:
1059:
1006:
Transforming societies after political violence: Truth, reconciliation, and mental health.
437:
360:
of others, legitimization of violence and damage; underlying beliefs (ideologies) such as
82:
psychological aspects of the formation, escalation, reduction, and resolution of conflicts
60:). The ideal of peace can also be conceptualized as the comprehensive implementation of
1976:
1810:
1629:
1392:
1362:
1266:
1256:
1241:
1196:
1137:
357:
296:
231:
138:
101:
93:
57:
24:
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Media are often involved in the formation of enemy images and escalation of conflict.
2044:
1757:
1695:
1675:
1602:
1577:
1382:
976:
Macnair, R. M. (2012). Traumatic stress, perpetration-induced. In D. Christie (Ed.),
361:
52:
1710:
1548:
1402:
1340:
1306:
1276:
1062:
453:
412:
324:
170:
61:
598:
Peace psychology in the
Balkans: Dealing with a violent past while building peace.
411:
In the transformation of cultures of violence into cultures of peace the focus on
908:
Wagner, U., & Hewstone, M. (2012). Intergroup contact. In L. R. Tropp (Ed.),
1720:
1457:
1422:
1387:
1367:
1281:
674:
608:
373:
337:
202:
125:
963:
Bläsi, B. (2004). Gewaltfreier
Widerstand. In G. Sommer & A. Fuchs (Eds.),
1752:
1564:
1442:
1427:
1417:
1236:
1102:
869:
Boehnke, K., & Shani, M. (2012). Activism, antiwar. In D. Christie (Ed.),
505:
Intergroup conflicts and their resolution: A social psychological perspective.
405:
377:
287:
133:
48:
20:
1690:
1176:
449:
223:
198:
174:
654:
165:, conflict transformation). One can distinguish between strategies on the
1779:
1432:
647:
393:
389:
36:
1097:
936:
923:
832:
567:
Garden of Peace: Responding to the challenge of a civilization of peace.
1033:
Fuchs, A. (2004). Kultur und Krieg In G. Sommer & A. Fuchs (Eds.),
829:
Studies in international mediation: Essays in honor of
Jeffrey Z. Rubin
634:
401:
397:
86:
psychosocial conditions conducive or detrimental to a sustainable peace
1092:
536:
124:
Conflicts can be intensified specifically through the construction of
1700:
1650:
1397:
1327:
543:
Peace, conflict, and violence: Peace psychology for the 21st century.
436:
Peace psychological findings are used in the content and practice of
295:. Particularly well known are the actions, speeches, and writings of
713:
Peace, conflict, and violence: Peace psychology for the 21st century
498:
Intractable conflicts: Socio-psychological foundations and dynamics.
1079:(Peace Psychology Division der American Psychological Association)
541:
Christie, D. J., Wagner, R. V., & Winter, D. D. (Eds.) (2001).
1437:
605:
Krieg und
Frieden: Handbuch der Konflikt- und Friedenspsychologie.
349:
157:
Conflict reduction and resolution (peace psychological strategies)
28:
1076:
1035:
Krieg und
Frieden: Handbuch der Konflikt- und Friedenspsychologie
965:
Krieg und Frieden: Handbuch der Konflikt- und Friedenspsychologie
922:
Paluck, Elizabeth Levy; Green, Seth Ariel; Green, Donald (2018).
777:
Krieg und Frieden: Handbuch der Konflikt- und Friedenspsychologie
1088:
International Network of Psychologists for Social Responsibility
97:
1106:
765:
http://www.psysr.org/about/pubs_resources/Enemyimagesmanual.pdf
1020:
De Rivera, J. (2012). Culture of peace. In D. Christie (Ed.),
991:
Shock and awe hits home: U.S. health costs of the war in Iraq.
422:
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
40:
197:
Osgood's GRIT model was designed as a counter-concept to the
615:
Overcoming evil: Genocide, violent conflict, and terrorism.
596:
Simić, O., Volčič, Z., & Philpot, C. R. (Eds.) (2012).
460:, to contribute to the continuous improvement of practice.
72:
Peace psychological research can be analytically (research
1087:
856:
Kempf, W. (2012). Peace journalism. In D. Christie (Ed.),
685:
Galtung, J. (1969). Violence, peace, and peace research.
558:
Deutsch, M., Coleman, P. T., & Marcus, E. C. (2007).
1082:
560:
The handbook of conflict resolution: Theory and practice
510:
Blumberg, H. H., Hare, A. P., & Costin, A. (2006).
1077:
Society for the Study of Peace, Conflict, and Violence
993:
Washington, DC: Physicians for Social Responsibility.
276:, which originated in Latin America and is related to
897:
When groups meet: The dynamics of intergroup contact.
739:
Constructive conflicts: From escalation to resolution
51:
means. Violence and peace can be defined in terms of
1050:(Vol. 2, pp. 514-518). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.
803:
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 36
569:
Journal of Applied Arts & Health, 7(2), 275-288.
426:
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
1954:
1819:
1748:
Non Violent Resistance (psychological intervention)
1643:
1466:
1320:
1144:
814:Hardy, S. (2012). Mediation. In D. Christie (Ed.),
106:
Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe
1312:Women's International League for Peace and Freedom
952:Psychology of liberation: Theory and applications.
589:Montiel, C. J., & Noor, N. M. (Eds.) (2009).
551:Coleman, P. T., & Deutsch, M. (Eds.) (2012).
531:Christie, D. J., & Pim, J. E. (Eds.) (2012).
1063:http://peacepsychology.org/peace-course-syllabi/
741:(3rd ed.). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
715:(pp. 1-13). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
517:Bretherton, D., & Balvin, N. (Eds.) (2012).
912:(pp. 193-209). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
847:(pp. 229-251). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
648:Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology
512:Peace psychology: A comprehensive introduction.
950:Montero, M., & Sonn, C. C. (Eds.) (2009).
553:Psychological components of sustainable peace.
100:), and collective security systems (e.g., the
1763:Refusal to serve in the Israel Defense Forces
1118:
895:Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2011).
831:(pp. 167-193). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
754:(pp. 29-52). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
675:http://www.peacepsych.org/peace-resources.htm
609:http://archiv.ub.uni-marburg.de/es/2013/0003/
578:New York: Springer Science + Business Media.
291:non-cooperation (e.g., strikes, boycotts) to
27:that deals with the psychological aspects of
8:
1016:
1014:
728:(pp. 3-10). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
535:Honolulu, HI: Center for Global Nonkilling.
319:Psychosocial conditions of sustainable peace
622:The Oxford handbook of intergroup conflict.
603:Sommer, G. & Fuchs, A. (Hrsg.) (2004).
420:(UDHR, 1948) and the Twin Covenants (1966,
1125:
1111:
1103:
910:The Oxford handbook of intergroup conflict
845:The Oxford handbook of intergroup conflict
752:The Oxford handbook of intergroup conflict
726:The Oxford handbook of intergroup conflict
655:Journal of Social and Political Psychology
470:International Society for Justice Research
1716:Global Day of Action on Military Spending
935:
792:Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
332:, recognize past wrongdoing, and achieve
323:Even when violence has been stopped or a
584:The psychology of peace: An introduction
90:psychosocial effects of war and violence
1083:Psychologists for Social Responsibility
698:Galtung, J. (1990). Cultural violence.
666:
586:(2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
545:Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
1448:Soviet influence on the peace movement
514:Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
500:Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
142:individual and collective self-image.
1635:World March for Peace and Nonviolence
924:"The contact hypothesis re-evaluated"
833:http://www.wcfia.harvard.edu/node/831
526:The encyclopedia of peace psychology.
418:Universal Declaration of Human Rights
7:
1792:Third Party Non-violent Intervention
392:with the features of human dignity,
342:Truth and Reconciliation Commissions
112:Formation and escalation of conflict
790:An alternative to war or surrender.
537:http://nonkilling.org/pdf/nkpsy.pdf
2017:Peacebuilding in Jammu and Kashmir
1914:Anti-war protests in Russia (2014)
1202:Greenham Common Women's Peace Camp
873:Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.</
340:. Examples are trauma therapy and
189:, contact between social groups).
14:
1509:International Day of Non-Violence
1167:Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions
1022:Encyclopedia of peace psychology.
978:Encyclopedia of peace psychology.
871:Encyclopidia of peace psychology.
858:Encyclopedia of peace psychology.
816:Encyclopedia of peace psychology.
1919:2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
1048:Encyclopedia of peace psychology
624:Oxford: Oxford University Press.
617:Oxford: Oxford University Press.
76:peace) or normatively (research
1292:Social Democratic Party (Japan)
1037:(pp. 383-396). Weinheim: Beltz.
967:(pp. 412-424). Weinheim: Beltz.
899:New York, NY: Psychology Press.
779:(pp. 317-329). Weinheim: Beltz.
1212:List of pacifist organisations
1093:Forum Friedenspsychologie e.V.
562:(2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
524:Christie, D. J. (Ed.) (2012).
519:Peace psychology in Australia.
1:
1024:Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.
980:Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.
860:Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.
818:Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.
700:Journal of Peace Research, 27
96:), military alliances (e.g.,
1618:World Peace Bell Association
1519:Dialogue Among Civilizations
1222:New Socialist Party of Japan
1207:Iraq War resisters in Canada
1172:Coalition of Women for Peace
886:Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
687:Journal of Peace Research, 6
635:Peace Psychology Book Series
528:Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
366:social dominance orientation
1786:The whole world is watching
1554:Peace & Love (festival)
1504:Imagine Piano Peace Project
620:Tropp, L. R. (Ed.) (2012).
507:New York: Psychology Press.
306:Effects of war and violence
2072:
2056:Peace and conflict studies
1909:2011 intervention in Libya
1529:List of places named Peace
1514:International Day of Peace
1232:Peace and conflict studies
1152:Anti-nuclear organizations
503:Bar-Tal, D. (Ed.) (2011).
2025:
1544:Nobel Peace Prize Concert
1539:Mother's Day Proclamation
1489:Dances of Universal Peace
1302:The Women's Peace Crusade
928:Behavioural Public Policy
591:Peace psychology in Asia.
230:by the U.S. psychologist
228:Israel-Palestine conflict
1805:Violence begets violence
1738:Non-aggression principle
1608:The Non-Violence Project
1588:Promoting Enduring Peace
1571:Promoting Enduring Peace
1227:Pacifist Socialist Party
884:The nature of prejudice.
572:Gal-Ed, H., Dr. (2009).
565:Gal-Ed, H., Dr. (2016).
1899:Military action in Iran
1534:Monuments and memorials
1484:Concert Yutel for Peace
1287:React, Include, Recycle
1217:List of peace activists
1182:Conscientious objectors
1098:Psychologists for Peace
882:Allport, G. W. (1954).
582:MacNair, R. M. (2011).
480:List of peace activists
1820:Opposition to specific
1775:Swords to ploughshares
1769:Soldiers are murderers
1162:Anti-war organizations
788:Osgood, C. E. (1962).
737:Kriesberg, L. (2007).
533:Nonkilling Psychology.
301:Martin Luther King Jr.
1822:wars or their aspects
1743:Nonviolent resistance
1593:Show of Peace Concert
1358:Anti-nuclear movement
284:Nonviolent resistance
274:liberation psychology
270:nonviolent resistance
146:Psychological warfare
130:psychological warfare
84:(including war), the
1904:Sri Lankan Civil War
1798:Turn the other cheek
1613:University for Peace
1524:List of peace prizes
989:Kantner, E. (2007).
496:Bar-Tal, D. (2013).
266:asymmetric conflicts
208:Cuban Missile Crisis
179:unofficial diplomacy
1946:Nuclear disarmament
1929:in Russian Far East
1686:Department of Peace
1671:Counter-recruitment
1666:Conflict resolution
1656:Central Park be-ins
1644:Slogans and tactics
1623:Japanese Peace Bell
1413:Non-interventionism
1408:Modern-war pacifism
1346:Christian anarchism
1008:New York: Springer.
1004:Hamber, B. (2009).
954:New York: Springer.
937:10.1017/bpp.2018.25
600:New York: Springer.
593:New York: Springer.
555:New York: Springer.
521:New York: Springer.
491:Overview literature
458:evaluation research
382:structural violence
278:liberation theology
238:Civil society level
163:conflict resolution
2051:Applied psychology
1840:American Civil War
1732:Make love, not war
1706:Economic sanctions
1661:Civil disobedience
1494:Festival for Peace
1467:Media and cultural
1453:Testimony of peace
1373:Christian pacifism
613:Staub, E. (2013).
454:civil peace worker
286:refers to public,
259:contact hypothesis
2038:
2037:
1941:Military taxation
1811:War tax resisters
1378:Deterrence theory
1157:Anti-war movement
607:Weinheim: Beltz.
450:conflict mediator
330:collective memory
251:collective action
210:on this concept.
177:), approaches of
151:Nayirah testimony
19:is a subfield of
2063:
1865:list of protests
1726:Lesson of Munich
1681:Demilitarisation
1559:Peace journalism
1353:Anti-imperialism
1336:Anarcho-pacifism
1272:Peace psychology
1252:Peace conference
1247:Peace commission
1192:Culture of Peace
1127:
1120:
1113:
1104:
1065:
1057:
1051:
1044:
1038:
1031:
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1018:
1009:
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748:
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729:
722:
716:
709:
703:
696:
690:
683:
677:
671:
475:Moral psychology
404:, tolerance and
370:authoritarianism
293:civil resistance
244:Peace journalism
218:Unofficial level
187:peace journalism
17:Peace psychology
2071:
2070:
2066:
2065:
2064:
2062:
2061:
2060:
2041:
2040:
2039:
2034:
2021:
1950:
1894:Afghanistan War
1845:Second Boer War
1821:
1815:
1639:
1462:
1316:
1262:Peace education
1145:Peace advocates
1140:
1131:
1073:
1068:
1058:
1054:
1045:
1041:
1032:
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732:
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710:
706:
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631:
493:
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466:
446:
438:peace education
434:
321:
308:
240:
220:
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70:
53:Johan Galtung's
12:
11:
5:
2069:
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2020:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2007:United Kingdom
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1994:
1989:
1984:
1979:
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1698:
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1668:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1647:
1645:
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1638:
1637:
1632:
1630:Women in Black
1627:
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1600:
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1393:Green politics
1390:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1370:
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1363:Antimilitarism
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1289:
1284:
1279:
1274:
1269:
1267:Peace movement
1264:
1259:
1257:Peace congress
1254:
1249:
1244:
1242:Peace churches
1239:
1234:
1229:
1224:
1219:
1214:
1209:
1204:
1199:
1197:ECOPEACE Party
1194:
1189:
1187:Counterculture
1184:
1179:
1174:
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1164:
1159:
1154:
1148:
1146:
1142:
1141:
1138:peace movement
1132:
1130:
1129:
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1107:
1101:
1100:
1095:
1090:
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1072:
1071:External links
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477:
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465:
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445:
442:
433:
430:
358:dehumanization
334:reconciliation
320:
317:
313:traumatization
307:
304:
297:Mahatma Gandhi
239:
236:
234:and his team.
232:Herbert Kelman
219:
216:
194:
193:Official level
191:
167:official level
158:
155:
139:dehumanization
113:
110:
102:United Nations
94:European Union
69:
66:
58:positive peace
25:peace research
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2068:
2057:
2054:
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2028:
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2018:
2015:
2013:
2012:United States
2010:
2008:
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1872:War on Terror
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1758:Peacebuilding
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1696:Draft evasion
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1676:De-escalation
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1578:Peace One Day
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1383:Direct action
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1342:
1341:Anarcho-punks
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1337:
1334:
1333:
1331:
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1326:
1325:
1323:
1319:
1313:
1310:
1308:
1307:War resisters
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702:(3), 291-305.
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689:(3), 167-191.
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362:ethnocentrism
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183:civil society
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38:
34:
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26:
22:
18:
1855:World War II
1711:Flower power
1563:
1403:Isolationism
1277:Peace treaty
1271:
1055:
1047:
1042:
1034:
1029:
1021:
1005:
1000:
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413:human rights
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354:
346:
325:Peace Treaty
322:
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282:
263:
256:
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212:
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182:
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171:negotiations
166:
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126:enemy images
123:
115:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
71:
62:human rights
45:
16:
15:
2002:Switzerland
1987:Netherlands
1860:Vietnam War
1850:World War I
1721:Human Be-In
1458:World peace
1423:Nonviolence
1388:Finvenkismo
1368:Appeasement
1282:Peaceworker
629:Book series
374:nationalism
338:forgiveness
203:nuclear war
2045:Categories
1967:Costa Rica
1753:Peace walk
1565:Peace News
1443:Satyagraha
1428:Pacificism
1418:Nonkilling
1332:Anarchism
1321:Ideologies
1237:Peace camp
805:, 832-842.
662:References
486:Literature
406:solidarity
378:militarism
288:nonviolent
134:propaganda
88:, and the
49:nonviolent
21:psychology
1955:Countries
1936:Landmines
1924:in Russia
1882:Criticism
1691:Desertion
1177:Code Pink
224:diplomacy
199:arms race
175:mediation
2030:Category
1887:Protests
1877:Iraq War
1780:Teach-in
1433:Pacifism
1134:Anti-war
930:: 1–30.
641:Journals
464:See also
444:Practice
394:pacifism
390:humanism
356:images,
118:conflict
104:and the
68:Research
37:violence
33:conflict
1972:Germany
1603:Symbols
1549:Museums
402:respect
398:empathy
336:and/or
185:(e.g.,
1977:Israel
1962:Canada
1701:Die-in
1651:Bed-in
1398:Hippie
1328:Ahimsa
132:, and
39:, and
1997:Sudan
1992:Spain
1982:Japan
1598:Songs
1583:Plays
1499:Films
1479:Books
1438:Peace
1297:Unity
350:peace
29:peace
1136:and
673:See
424:and
299:and
272:and
249:The
98:NATO
23:and
1474:Art
1060:See
932:doi
452:or
384:).
264:In
153:).
108:).
78:for
41:war
2047::
1834:US
1832:;
1830:UK
1013:^
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396:,
376:,
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364:,
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344:.
280:.
173:,
128:,
74:on
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1800:"
1796:"
1788:"
1784:"
1771:"
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1126:e
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940:.
934::
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