869:" moving randomly between the atoms. In metals, most of these are non-bonding electrons (or free electrons) as opposed to the bonding electrons typically found in covalently bonded or ionically bonded non-metallic (insulating) solids. In a metallic bond, any potential bonding electrons can easily be lost by the atoms in a crystalline structure. The effect of this delocalization is simply to exaggerate the effect of the "sea of electrons". As a result of these electrons, most of the incoming light in metals is reflected back, which is why we see a
1132:
1081:
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652:. Such substances may have a chemical composition which includes what are referred to as absorption centers. Most materials are composed of materials that are selective in their absorption of light frequencies. Thus they absorb only certain portions of the visible spectrum. The frequencies of the spectrum which are not absorbed are either reflected back or transmitted for our physical observation. In the visible portion of the spectrum, this is what gives rise to color.
1123:. This same phenomenon is seen as one of the limiting factors in the transparency of infrared missile domes. Further attenuation is caused by light absorbed by residual materials, such as metals or water ions, within the fiber core and inner cladding. Light leakage due to bending, splices, connectors, or other outside forces are other factors resulting in attenuation. At high optical powers, scattering can also be caused by nonlinear optical processes in the fiber.
491:
wave and the physical dimension of the scattering center. For example, since visible light has a wavelength scale on the order of a micrometer, scattering centers will have dimensions on a similar spatial scale. Primary scattering centers in polycrystalline materials include microstructural defects such as pores and grain boundaries. In addition to pores, most of the interfaces in a typical metal or ceramic object are in the form of
842:
natural frequencies of vibration, they will selectively absorb different frequencies (or portions of the spectrum) of infrared light. Reflection and transmission of light waves occur because the frequencies of the light waves do not match the natural resonant frequencies of vibration of the objects. When infrared light of these frequencies strikes an object, the energy is reflected or transmitted.
580:
286:
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131:, transmit much of the light that falls on them and reflect little of it; such materials are called optically transparent. Many liquids and aqueous solutions are highly transparent. Absence of structural defects (voids, cracks, etc.) and molecular structure of most liquids are mostly responsible for excellent optical transmission.
546:
especially for high-shear conditions found in high seismic and wind exposures. If the expected improvements in mechanical properties bear out, the traditional limits seen on glazing areas in today's building codes could quickly become outdated if the window area actually contributes to the shear resistance of the wall.
104:. In other words, a translucent material is made up of components with different indices of refraction. A transparent material is made up of components with a uniform index of refraction. Transparent materials appear clear, with the overall appearance of one color, or any combination leading up to a brilliant
1084:
Experimentally measured record low attenuation of silica core optical fiber. At 1,550 nm, wavelength attenuation components are determined as follows: Rayleigh scattering loss ~ 0.1200 dB/km, infrared absorption loss ~ 0.0150 dB/km, impurity absorption loss ~ 0.0047 dB/km, waveguide imperfection loss
490:
Optical transparency in polycrystalline materials is limited by the amount of light scattered by their microstructural features. Light scattering depends on the wavelength of the light. Limits to spatial scales of visibility (using white light) therefore arise, depending on the frequency of the light
506:
Computer modeling of light transmission through translucent ceramic alumina has shown that microscopic pores trapped near grain boundaries act as primary scattering centers. The volume fraction of porosity had to be reduced below 1% for high-quality optical transmission (99.99 percent of theoretical
746:
Most of the time, it is a combination of the above that happens to the light that hits an object. The states in different materials vary in the range of energy that they can absorb. Most glasses, for example, block ultraviolet (UV) light. What happens is the electrons in the glass absorb the energy
1041:
in a material. (Refractive index is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a given medium. The refractive index of vacuum is therefore 1.) The larger the refractive index, the more slowly light travels in that medium. Typical values for core and cladding of an optical
655:
Absorption centers are largely responsible for the appearance of specific wavelengths of visible light all around us. Moving from longer (0.7 micrometers) to shorter (0.4 micrometers) wavelengths: Red, orange, yellow, green, and blue (ROYGB) can all be identified by our senses in the appearance of
632:
When light strikes an object, it usually has not just a single frequency (or wavelength) but many. Objects have a tendency to selectively absorb, reflect, or transmit light of certain frequencies. That is, one object might reflect green light while absorbing all other frequencies of visible light.
498:
In the formation of polycrystalline materials (metals and ceramics) the size of the crystalline grains is determined largely by the size of the crystalline particles present in the raw material during formation (or pressing) of the object. Moreover, the size of the grain boundaries scales directly
461:
boundaries of an organic material), and by its surface, if it is rough. Diffuse reflection is typically characterized by omni-directional reflection angles. Most of the objects visible to the naked eye are identified via diffuse reflection. Another term commonly used for this type of reflection is
644:
Some materials allow much of the light that falls on them to be transmitted through the material without being reflected. Materials that allow the transmission of light waves through them are called optically transparent. Chemically pure (undoped) window glass and clean river or spring water are
841:
When a light wave of a given frequency strikes a material with particles having the same or (resonant) vibrational frequencies, those particles will absorb the energy of the light wave and transform it into thermal energy of vibrational motion. Since different atoms and molecules have different
545:
The development of transparent panel products will have other potential advanced applications including high strength, impact-resistant materials that can be used for domestic windows and skylights. Perhaps more important is that walls and other applications will have improved overall strength,
1187:
in shallower water, where the light is brighter and predators can see better. For example, a cod can see prey that are 98 percent transparent in optimal lighting in shallow water. Therefore, sufficient transparency for camouflage is more easily achieved in deeper waters. For the same reason,
688:
In electronic absorption, the frequency of the incoming light wave is at or near the energy levels of the electrons within the atoms that compose the substance. In this case, the electrons will absorb the energy of the light wave and increase their energy state, often moving outward from the
912:
transmission. The ability of liquids to "heal" internal defects via viscous flow is one of the reasons why some fibrous materials (e.g., paper or fabric) increase their apparent transparency when wetted. The liquid fills up numerous voids making the material more structurally homogeneous.
911:
Most liquids and aqueous solutions are highly transparent. For example, water, cooking oil, rubbing alcohol, air, and natural gas are all clear. Absence of structural defects (voids, cracks, etc.) and molecular structure of most liquids are chiefly responsible for their excellent optical
791:
633:
Another object might selectively transmit blue light while absorbing all other frequencies of visible light. The manner in which visible light interacts with an object is dependent upon the frequency of the light, the nature of the atoms in the object, and often, the nature of the
529:
have created interest in their applications for high energy lasers, transparent armor windows, nose cones for heat seeking missiles, radiation detectors for non-destructive testing, high energy physics, space exploration, security and medical imaging applications. Large
495:, which separate tiny regions of crystalline order. When the size of the scattering center (or grain boundary) is reduced below the size of the wavelength of the light being scattered, the scattering no longer occurs to any significant extent.
465:
Light scattering in liquids and solids depends on the wavelength of the light being scattered. Limits to spatial scales of visibility (using white light) therefore arise, depending on the frequency of the light wave and the physical
845:
If the object is transparent, then the light waves are passed on to neighboring atoms through the bulk of the material and re-emitted on the opposite side of the object. Such frequencies of light waves are said to be transmitted.
100:) allows light to pass through but does not necessarily (again, on the macroscopic scale) follow Snell's law; the photons can be scattered at either of the two interfaces, or internally, where there is a change in the index of
997:
Optically transparent materials focus on the response of a material to incoming light waves of a range of wavelengths. Guided light wave transmission via frequency selective waveguides involves the emerging field of
1100:, is the reduction in intensity of the light beam (or signal) with respect to distance traveled through a transmission medium. It is an important factor limiting the transmission of a signal across large distances.
766:. The photon is destroyed in the process and the absorbed radiant energy is transformed to electric potential energy. Several things can happen, then, to the absorbed energy: It may be re-emitted by the electron as
561:
is fully transparent from 3–5 micrometers, but lacks sufficient strength, hardness, and thermal shock resistance for high-performance aerospace applications. A combination of these two materials in the form of the
1049:, is used in optical fibers to confine light in the core. Light travels along the fiber bouncing back and forth off of the boundary. Because the light must strike the boundary with an angle greater than the
892:, and the bonding electrons reflect only a small fraction of the incident wave. The remaining frequencies (or wavelengths) are free to propagate (or be transmitted). This class of materials includes all
903:
If a dielectric material does not include light-absorbent additive molecules (pigments, dyes, colorants), it is usually transparent to the spectrum of visible light. Color centers (or dye molecules, or
507:
density). This goal has been readily accomplished and amply demonstrated in laboratories and research facilities worldwide using the emerging chemical processing methods encompassed by the methods of
854:
An object may be not transparent either because it reflects the incoming light or because it absorbs the incoming light. Almost all solids reflect a part and absorb a part of the incoming light.
441:- Generally, when light strikes the surface of a (non-metallic and non-glassy) solid material, it bounces off in all directions due to multiple reflections by the microscopic irregularities
362:. For example, in most glasses, electrons have no available energy levels above them in the range of that associated with visible light, or if they do, the transition to them would violate
397:, the most critical factor is the length scale of any or all of these structural features relative to the wavelength of the light being scattered. Primary material considerations include:
908:") in a dielectric absorb a portion of the incoming light. The remaining frequencies (or wavelengths) are free to be reflected or transmitted. This is how colored glass is produced.
1104:
in fiber optics usually use units of dB/km through the medium due to the very high quality of transparency of modern optical transmission media. The medium is usually a fiber of
499:
with particle size. Thus, a reduction of the original particle size well below the wavelength of visible light (about 1/15 of the light wavelength, or roughly 600/15 = 40
161:
while reflecting others. The frequencies of the spectrum which are not absorbed are either reflected or transmitted for our physical observation. This is what gives rise to
742:
A molecule cannot absorb the energy of the photon and the photon continues on its path. This results in transmission (provided no other absorption mechanisms are active).
542:, and allow relatively large doping levels or optimized custom-designed doping profiles. This makes ceramic laser elements particularly important for high-energy lasers.
112:. Other categories of visual appearance, related to the perception of regular or diffuse reflection and transmission of light, have been organized under the concept of
1014:
between competing wavelengths or frequencies. This resonant mode of energy and data transmission via electromagnetic (light) wave propagation is relatively lossless.
123:
of the light and the nature of the material. Photons interact with an object by some combination of reflection, absorption and transmission. Some materials, such as
597:
303:
2302:
1175:, but it also makes them large for their muscle mass, so they cannot swim fast, making this form of camouflage a costly trade-off with mobility. Gelatinous
1568:
549:
Currently available infrared transparent materials typically exhibit a trade-off between optical performance, mechanical strength and price. For example,
1705:
1787:
1854:
1777:
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166:
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806:. Thermal energy manifests itself as energy of motion. Thus, heat is motion at the atomic and molecular levels. The primary mode of motion in
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of the photons in the UV range while ignoring the weaker energy of photons in the visible light spectrum. But there are also existing special
656:
color by the selective absorption of specific light wave frequencies (or wavelengths). Mechanisms of selective light wave absorption include:
1683:
1627:
Smith, R.G. (1972). "Optical power handling capacity of low loss optical fibers as determined by stimulated Raman and
Brillouin scattering".
1179:
animals are between 50 and 90 percent transparent. A transparency of 50 percent is enough to make an animal invisible to a predator such as
1812:
1797:
366:, meaning there is no appreciable absorption in pure (undoped) glasses, making them ideal transparent materials for windows in buildings.
1584:
Archibald, P.S. & Bennett, H.E. (1978). Benton, Stephen A. & Knight, Geoffery (eds.). "Scattering from infrared missile domes".
1192:
of the South
American rain forest, which have translucent skin and pale greenish limbs. Several Central American species of clearwing (
1057:
of the fiber. The size of this acceptance cone is a function of the refractive index difference between the fiber's core and cladding.
1045:
When light traveling in a dense medium hits a boundary at a steep angle, the light will be completely reflected. This effect, called
1356:
770:(in this case, the overall effect is in fact a scattering of light), dissipated to the rest of the material (i.e., transformed into
619:
325:
195:
Comparisons of 1. opacity, 2. translucency, and 3. transparency; behind each panel (from top to bottom: grey, red, white) is a star.
2327:
2123:
1817:
2423:
2403:
601:
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about some mean or average (vertical) position. Atomic and molecular vibrational frequencies may average on the order of 10
708:). Recall that all light waves are electromagnetic in origin. Thus they are affected strongly when coming into contact with
1053:, only light that enters the fiber within a certain range of angles will be propagated. This range of angles is called the
822:
within a crystalline structure, surrounded by its nearest neighbors. This vibration in two dimensions is equivalent to the
700:
The atoms that bind together to make the molecules of any particular substance contain a number of electrons (given by the
2239:
1011:
73:
31:
2413:
2072:
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elements made from transparent ceramics can be produced at a relatively low cost. These components are free of internal
1847:
119:
When light encounters a material, it can interact with it in several different ways. These interactions depend on the
116:
in an order system with three variables, including transparency, translucency and opacity among the involved aspects.
401:
Crystalline structure: whether the atoms or molecules exhibit the 'long-range order' evidenced in crystalline solids.
557:) is very strong, but it is expensive and lacks full transparency throughout the 3–5 micrometer mid-infrared range.
462:"light scattering". Light scattering from the surfaces of objects is our primary mechanism of physical observation.
2408:
1146:
590:
296:
165:. The attenuation of light of all frequencies and wavelengths is due to the combined mechanisms of absorption and
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At the atomic or molecular level, physical absorption in the infrared portion of the spectrum depends on the
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2234:
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of the core must be greater than that of the cladding. The refractive index is the parameter reflecting the
1030:
877:
862:
411:
386:
1080:
923:
for incoming light will be due primarily to any effects of anharmonicity within the ordered lattice. Light
470:(or spatial scale) of the scattering center. Visible light has a wavelength scale on the order of a half a
1840:
1782:
2176:
1984:
1069:
1065:
960:
474:. Scattering centers (or particles) as small as one micrometer have been observed directly in the light
271:'darkened'. The current spelling (rare before the 19th century) has been influenced by the French form.
798:
The primary physical mechanism for storing mechanical energy of motion in condensed matter is through
191:
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503:) eliminates much of the light scattering, resulting in a translucent or even transparent material.
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668:). These transitions are typically in the ultraviolet (UV) and/or visible portions of the spectrum.
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Griffin, A. (1968). "Brillouin Light
Scattering from Crystals in the Hydrodynamic Region".
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Khrapko, R.; Logunov, S. L.; Li, M.; Matthews, H. B.; Tandon, P.; Zhou, C. (2024-04-15).
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Thomas, S. M. (October 21, 1999). "What determines whether a substance is transparent?".
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or quartz that are UV-permeable and thus allow a high transmission of ultraviolet light.
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animals that float near the surface are highly transparent, giving them almost perfect
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Organic materials: Scattering centers include fiber and cell structures and boundaries.
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transparency in air is even harder to achieve, but a partial example is found in the
1159:. However, transparency is difficult for bodies made of materials that have different
648:
Materials that do not allow the transmission of any light wave frequencies are called
2397:
2191:
2148:
2054:
2029:
1924:
1613:
1400:
1310:
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are used as components in integrated optical circuits (e.g., combined with lasers or
993:
rod, illustrating the total internal reflection of light in a multimode optical fiber
990:
972:
701:
661:
539:
135:
1732:, Landau, L. D., Lifshits. E.M. and Pitaevskii, L.P., (Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1984)
404:
Glassy structure: Scattering centers include fluctuations in density or composition.
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2312:
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1959:
1934:
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1802:
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With regard to the absorption of light, primary material considerations include:
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Thus, when a material is illuminated, individual photons of light can make the
518:
37:
2377:
2342:
2211:
1979:
1974:
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1189:
1183:
at a depth of 650 metres (2,130 ft); better transparency is required for
1156:
1112:
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885:
881:
522:
Translucency of a material being used to highlight the structure of a mushroom
475:
471:
173:
120:
101:
1551:
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1197:
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27:
Property of an object or substance to transmit light with minimal scattering
1656:
1021:
dielectric waveguide that transmits light along its axis by the process of
977:
679:. These transitions are typically in the infrared portion of the spectrum.
427:
2362:
2133:
1909:
1904:
1648:
1176:
1172:
1168:
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A molecule absorbs the photon, which results in reflection or scattering.
665:
634:
550:
410:: Scattering centers include internal surfaces such as grain boundaries,
105:
80:(one in which the dimensions are much larger than the wavelengths of the
17:
2082:
1832:
1205:
1058:
713:
604: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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508:
351:
310: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
176:
for animals able to achieve it. This is easier in dimly-lit or turbid
1605:
2158:
1964:
1526:"Quasi Single-Mode Fiber With Record-Low Attenuation of 0.1400 dB/km"
1201:
948:
905:
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355:
346:
and visible (UV-Vis) portions of the spectrum depends on whether the
81:
49:
1328:
Mandelstam, L.I. (1926). "Light
Scattering by Inhomogeneous Media".
1119:, due to structural disorder and compositional fluctuations of the
385:. Nitrogen and oxygen are not greenhouse gases because there is no
2077:
2044:
1994:
1878:
1863:
1564:
I. P. Kaminow, T. Li (2002), Optical fiber telecommunications IV,
1171:
is acellular and highly transparent. This conveniently makes them
1130:
984:
976:
897:
858:
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A molecule absorbs the photon, some of the energy may be lost via
531:
517:
458:
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190:
162:
128:
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36:
815:
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have gelatinous bodies, composed mainly of water; their thick
1152:
716:(individual packets of light energy) come in contact with the
573:
279:
177:
150:
centers. Many substances are selective in their absorption of
1068:, LEDs) or as the transmission medium in local and long-haul
350:
are spaced (or "quantized") such that electrons can absorb a
1478:. Clarendon Press, Oxford (1936) Dover Publications (1958).
1387:
Yamashita, I.; et al. (2008). "Transparent
Ceramics".
1002:
and the ability of certain glassy compositions to act as a
861:, it encounters atoms that are tightly packed in a regular
205:
late Middle
English: from Old French, from medieval Latin
774:), or the electron can be freed from the atom (as in the
108:
of every color. The opposite property of translucency is
1698:"Green-boned glass frogs, monkey frogs, toothless toads"
1204:
also have wings which are mostly transparent, a form of
1670:
1668:
1666:
1108:
that confines the incident light beam to the inside.
1033:
layer. To confine the optical signal in the core, the
981:
Propagation of light through a multimode optical fiber
720:
of an atom, one of several things can and will occur:
1736:
Laser Light
Scattering: Basic Principles and Practice
1374:
Absorption and scattering of light by small particles
1111:
In optical fibers, the main source of attenuation is
1461:
2293:
2225:
2157:
2091:
2053:
1897:
1871:
232:late 16th century (in the Latin sense): from Latin
44:are created using optically transparent materials.
1762:, J.D.MacKenzie, Ed. (Butterworths, London, 1960)
1738:Chu, B., 2nd Edn. (Academic Press, New York 1992)
566:(YAG) is one of the top performers in the field.
72:to pass through the material without appreciable
935:of crystalline substances, which includes their
826:of a clock's pendulum. It swings back and forth
794:Normal modes of vibration in a crystalline solid
84:in question), the photons can be said to follow
1744:, W. Koechner (Springer-Verlag, New York, 1999)
1208:that provides some protection from predators.
2303:Conservation and restoration of glass objects
1848:
1476:Theory of the Properties of Metals and Alloys
762:of an atom transition to a higher electronic
8:
1115:from molecular level irregularities, called
1750:, J.C. Slater (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1939)
1163:from seawater. Some marine animals such as
1006:for a range of frequencies simultaneously (
342:At the electronic level, absorption in the
266:
251:
245:
239:
233:
224:
218:
212:
206:
1855:
1841:
1833:
1372:Bohren, C.F. & Huffmann, D.R. (1983).
814:. Any given atom will vibrate around some
1828:Thermal IR Radiation and Missile Guidance
1756:, F. Seitz, (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1940)
1541:
915:Light scattering in an ideal defect-free
888:. Thus, these materials do not have free
620:Learn how and when to remove this message
326:Learn how and when to remove this message
1135:Many animals of the open sea, like this
1079:
789:
172:Transparency can provide almost perfect
1444:Gunzler, H. & Gremlich, H. (2002).
1414:Simmons, J. & Potter, K.S. (2000).
1270:
1042:fiber are 1.48 and 1.46, respectively.
146:which includes what are referred to as
157:. They absorb certain portions of the
30:For other uses of "Transparency", see
1823:Brillouin scattering in optical fiber
1708:from the original on 11 November 2012
7:
1760:Modern Aspects of the Vitreous State
660:Electronic: Transitions in electron
602:adding citations to reliable sources
308:adding citations to reliable sources
1818:What makes glass transparent ?
1730:Electrodynamics of continuous media
1429:Uhlmann, D.R.; et al. (1991).
1349:Light scattering by small particles
1141:jellyfish, are largely transparent.
943:. For example, the seven different
919:(non-metallic) solid that provides
693:of the atom into an outer shell or
238:- 'shining through', from the verb
25:
1588:. Optics in Missile Engineering.
1530:IEEE Photonics Technology Letters
857:When light falls onto a block of
1748:Introduction to Chemical Physics
1446:IR Spectroscopy: An Introduction
1401:10.1111/j.1551-2916.2007.02202.x
884:materials) are held together by
578:
284:
211:- 'visible through', from Latin
180:than in good illumination. Many
2373:Radioactive waste vitrification
2328:Glass fiber reinforced concrete
1813:Properties of Optical Materials
589:needs additional citations for
295:needs additional citations for
989:A laser beam bouncing down an
684:UV-Vis: Electronic transitions
142:. Many such substances have a
1:
2419:Glass engineering and science
2240:Chemically strengthened glass
1742:Solid State Laser Engineering
1676:The Biology of the Deep Ocean
751:types, like special types of
570:Absorption of light in solids
32:Transparency (disambiguation)
2073:Glass-ceramic-to-metal seals
1297:Optical Properties of Solids
1678:. Oxford University Press.
1474:Mott, N.F. & Jones, H.
1431:Optical Properties of Glass
1347:van de Hulst, H.C. (1981).
2440:
1299:. Oxford University Press.
1147:List of camouflage methods
1144:
1025:. The fiber consists of a
970:
850:Transparency in insulators
712:electrons in matter. When
420:
29:
2104:Chemical vapor deposition
2025:Ultra low expansion glass
1915:Borophosphosilicate glass
1511:10.1103/RevModPhys.40.167
1076:Mechanisms of attenuation
1047:total internal reflection
1023:total internal reflection
786:Infrared: Bond stretching
2343:Glass-reinforced plastic
2005:Sodium hexametaphosphate
1543:10.1109/LPT.2024.3372786
1102:Attenuation coefficients
1008:multi-mode optical fiber
645:prime examples of this.
564:yttrium aluminium garnet
445:the material (e.g., the
414:, and microscopic pores.
412:crystallographic defects
188:are highly transparent.
2235:Anti-reflective coating
2109:Glass batch calculation
1990:Photochromic lens glass
1754:Modern Theory of Solids
1674:Herring, Peter (2002).
1330:Zh. Russ. Fiz-Khim. Ova
1315:The Scattering of Light
1196:) butterflies and many
664:within the atom (e.g.,
387:molecular dipole moment
261:
1808:Transparent ALON Armor
1142:
1086:
1017:An optical fiber is a
994:
982:
795:
523:
435:
267:
252:
246:
240:
234:
225:
219:
213:
207:
196:
134:Materials that do not
45:
2424:Dimensionless numbers
2404:Transparent materials
2368:Prince Rupert's drops
2217:Transparent materials
2177:Gradient-index optics
1985:Phosphosilicate glass
1788:Infrared Spectroscopy
1317:. Academic, New York.
1145:Further information:
1134:
1083:
1070:optical communication
1066:light-emitting diodes
988:
980:
961:transparent materials
921:no scattering centers
793:
776:photoelectric effects
521:
431:General mechanism of
430:
194:
40:
2333:Glass ionomer cement
2207:Photosensitive glass
2134:Liquidus temperature
1955:Fluorosilicate glass
1798:Transparent Ceramics
1793:Brillouin Scattering
1704:. scienceblogs.com.
1649:10.1364/AO.11.002489
1219:Brillouin scattering
1010:) with little or no
890:conduction electrons
675:in atomic/molecular
598:improve this article
527:Transparent ceramics
486:Transparent ceramics
375:molecular vibrations
304:improve this article
259:late Middle English
144:chemical composition
2414:Physical properties
2353:Glass-to-metal seal
2275:Self-cleaning glass
2197:Optical lens design
1778:Properties of Light
1641:1972ApOpt..11.2489S
1598:1978SPIE..133...71A
1503:1968RvMP...40..167G
1459:Stuart, B. (2004).
1433:. Amer. Ceram. Soc.
1351:. New York: Dover.
1281:Scientific American
1117:Rayleigh scattering
1004:transmission medium
931:due to the typical
836:Terahertz radiation
395:scattering of light
393:With regard to the
74:scattering of light
2338:Glass microspheres
2260:Hydrogen darkening
2182:Hydrogen darkening
1930:Chalcogenide glass
1920:Borosilicate glass
1571:2013-05-27 at the
1376:. New York: Wiley.
1254:Transparent metals
1161:refractive indices
1143:
1087:
995:
983:
967:Optical waveguides
796:
753:borosilicate glass
710:negatively charged
524:
439:Diffuse reflection
436:
433:diffuse reflection
197:
46:
2409:Optical phenomena
2391:
2390:
2308:Glass-coated wire
2280:sol–gel technique
2265:Insulated glazing
2202:Photochromic lens
2187:Optical amplifier
2139:sol–gel technique
1803:Bulletproof Glass
1783:UV-Vis Absorption
1684:978-0-19-854956-7
1606:10.1117/12.956078
1418:. Academic Press.
1416:Optical Materials
1389:J. Am. Ceram. Soc
1229:Colloidal crystal
1098:transmission loss
959:) are all clear,
832:cycles per second
760:valence electrons
718:valence electrons
677:vibrational modes
630:
629:
622:
348:electron orbitals
336:
335:
328:
138:light are called
78:macroscopic scale
66:physical property
16:(Redirected from
2431:
2129:Ion implantation
1884:Glass transition
1857:
1850:
1843:
1834:
1718:
1717:
1715:
1713:
1702:Tetrapod zoology
1693:
1687:
1672:
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1363:
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1344:
1338:
1337:
1325:
1319:
1318:
1307:
1301:
1300:
1295:Fox, M. (2002).
1292:
1286:
1285:
1275:
1249:Photonic crystal
1239:Light scattering
1096:, also known as
1035:refractive index
1029:surrounded by a
867:sea of electrons
625:
618:
614:
611:
605:
582:
574:
493:grain boundaries
453:material or the
447:grain boundaries
423:Light scattering
358:) of a specific
331:
324:
320:
317:
311:
288:
280:
270:
264:
255:
249:
243:
237:
228:
222:
216:
210:
159:visible spectrum
48:In the field of
42:Dichroic filters
21:
2439:
2438:
2434:
2433:
2432:
2430:
2429:
2428:
2394:
2393:
2392:
2387:
2323:Glass electrode
2318:Glass databases
2295:
2289:
2227:
2221:
2153:
2087:
2063:Bioactive glass
2049:
2035:Vitreous enamel
2020:Thoriated glass
2015:Tellurite glass
2000:Soda–lime glass
1970:Gold ruby glass
1940:Cranberry glass
1893:
1867:
1861:
1769:
1726:
1724:Further reading
1721:
1711:
1709:
1695:
1694:
1690:
1673:
1664:
1635:(11): 2489–94.
1626:
1625:
1621:
1583:
1582:
1578:
1573:Wayback Machine
1563:
1559:
1523:
1522:
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1268:
1263:
1244:Pellicle mirror
1214:
1149:
1138:Aurelia labiata
1129:
1121:glass structure
1085:~ 0.0010 dB/km.
1078:
1055:acceptance cone
975:
969:
958:
953:silicon dioxide
941:Bravais lattice
927:will be highly
873:metal surface.
852:
788:
780:Compton effects
734:phosphorescence
686:
641:of the object.
626:
615:
609:
606:
595:
583:
572:
488:
480:Brownian motion
451:polycrystalline
425:
383:selection rules
364:selection rules
332:
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315:
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289:
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202:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
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2287:
2285:Tempered glass
2282:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2257:
2255:DNA microarray
2252:
2250:Dealkalization
2247:
2242:
2237:
2231:
2229:
2223:
2222:
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2219:
2214:
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2163:
2161:
2155:
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2136:
2131:
2126:
2124:Glass modeling
2121:
2116:
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2101:
2095:
2093:
2089:
2088:
2086:
2085:
2080:
2075:
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2059:
2057:
2055:Glass-ceramics
2051:
2050:
2048:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1995:Silicate glass
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1866:science topics
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1815:
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1775:
1768:
1767:External links
1765:
1764:
1763:
1757:
1751:
1745:
1739:
1733:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1719:
1688:
1686:. pp. 190–191.
1662:
1619:
1576:
1566:Vol. 1, p. 223
1557:
1536:(8): 539–542.
1516:
1491:Rev. Mod. Phys
1481:
1466:
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1213:
1210:
1128:
1125:
1077:
1074:
1051:critical angle
1039:speed of light
971:Main article:
968:
965:
956:
937:symmetry group
851:
848:
810:substances is
804:thermal energy
787:
784:
768:radiant energy
744:
743:
740:
737:
706:periodic table
685:
682:
681:
680:
669:
628:
627:
586:
584:
577:
571:
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513:nanotechnology
511:chemistry and
487:
484:
421:Main article:
419:
418:
415:
408:Microstructure
405:
402:
391:
390:
379:chemical bonds
367:
334:
333:
292:
290:
283:
277:
274:
273:
272:
257:
250:- 'through' +
230:
223:- 'through' +
201:
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182:marine animals
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2198:
2195:
2193:
2192:Optical fiber
2190:
2188:
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2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2164:
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2150:
2149:Vitrification
2147:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
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2120:
2119:Glass melting
2117:
2115:
2114:Glass forming
2112:
2110:
2107:
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2033:
2031:
2030:Uranium glass
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2010:Soluble glass
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1925:Ceramic glaze
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1358:0-486-64228-3
1354:
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1234:Haze (optics)
1232:
1230:
1227:
1225:
1224:Clarity meter
1222:
1220:
1217:
1216:
1211:
1209:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
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1158:
1154:
1148:
1140:
1139:
1133:
1127:As camouflage
1126:
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1103:
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979:
974:
973:Optical fiber
966:
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950:
946:
942:
938:
934:
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839:
837:
833:
829:
828:symmetrically
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769:
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731:
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723:
722:
721:
719:
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707:
703:
702:atomic number
698:
696:
692:
683:
678:
674:
671:Vibrational:
670:
667:
663:
662:energy levels
659:
658:
657:
653:
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646:
642:
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636:
624:
621:
613:
603:
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592:
587:This section
585:
581:
576:
575:
569:
567:
565:
560:
556:
553:(crystalline
552:
547:
543:
541:
540:birefringence
538:or intrinsic
537:
533:
528:
520:
516:
514:
510:
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494:
485:
483:
481:
477:
473:
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424:
416:
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409:
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403:
400:
399:
398:
396:
388:
384:
380:
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373:of atomic or
372:
368:
365:
361:
357:
354:of light (or
353:
349:
345:
341:
340:
339:
330:
327:
319:
309:
305:
299:
298:
293:This section
291:
287:
282:
281:
275:
269:
265:, from Latin
263:
258:
254:
248:
242:
236:
231:
229:'be visible'.
227:
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209:
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149:
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137:
132:
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126:
122:
117:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
98:translucidity
95:
92:(also called
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
56:(also called
55:
51:
43:
39:
33:
19:
2358:Porous glass
2313:Safety glass
2270:Porous glass
2228:modification
2216:
2040:Wood's glass
1960:Fused quartz
1935:Cobalt glass
1889:Supercooling
1773:UV stability
1759:
1753:
1747:
1741:
1735:
1729:
1710:. Retrieved
1701:
1691:
1675:
1632:
1628:
1622:
1589:
1585:
1579:
1560:
1533:
1529:
1519:
1494:
1490:
1484:
1475:
1469:
1460:
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1430:
1424:
1415:
1409:
1392:
1388:
1382:
1373:
1367:
1348:
1342:
1333:
1329:
1323:
1314:
1305:
1296:
1290:
1279:
1273:
1185:invisibility
1150:
1136:
1110:
1106:silica glass
1097:
1094:fiber optics
1088:
1044:
1016:
1012:interference
1000:fiber optics
996:
925:transmission
920:
914:
910:
902:
875:
856:
853:
844:
840:
797:
764:energy level
757:
745:
730:fluorescence
726:luminescence
699:
687:
654:
647:
643:
631:
616:
607:
596:Please help
591:verification
588:
548:
544:
525:
505:
497:
489:
464:
442:
437:
432:
392:
337:
322:
313:
302:Please help
297:verification
294:
276:Introduction
171:
133:
118:
97:
94:translucence
93:
90:Translucency
89:
68:of allowing
61:
57:
54:transparency
53:
47:
2383:Glass fiber
2348:Glass cloth
2092:Preparation
2068:CorningWare
1950:Flint glass
1945:Crown glass
1898:Formulation
1712:14 February
1200:and allied
1198:dragonflies
1190:glass frogs
1090:Attenuation
1019:cylindrical
945:crystalline
929:directional
917:crystalline
886:ionic bonds
824:oscillation
818:or average
808:crystalline
371:frequencies
344:ultraviolet
256:'to shine'.
241:translucere
235:translucent
214:transparere
208:transparent
155:frequencies
152:white light
125:plate glass
86:Snell's law
62:diaphaneity
58:pellucidity
2398:Categories
2378:Windshield
2212:Refraction
2172:Dispersion
1980:Milk glass
1975:Lead glass
1696:Naish, D.
1497:(1): 167.
1395:(3): 813.
1311:Kerker, M.
1266:References
1177:planktonic
1157:camouflage
1113:scattering
1062:waveguides
933:anisotropy
882:dielectric
878:insulators
610:April 2021
501:nanometers
476:microscope
472:micrometer
316:April 2021
174:camouflage
167:scattering
148:absorption
127:and clean
121:wavelength
102:refraction
2245:Corrosion
2144:Viscosity
2099:Annealing
1629:Appl. Opt
1614:173179565
1552:1041-1135
1259:Turbidity
1194:ithomiine
1169:mesogloea
1165:jellyfish
1072:systems.
947:forms of
812:vibration
704:Z in the
673:Resonance
635:electrons
468:dimension
381:, and on
360:frequency
200:Etymology
186:jellyfish
64:) is the
2363:Pre-preg
2167:Achromat
1910:Bioglass
1905:AgInSbTe
1706:Archived
1657:20119362
1586:Opt. Eng
1569:Archived
1463:. Wiley.
1448:. Wiley.
1313:(1969).
1212:See also
1031:cladding
951:silica (
894:ceramics
820:position
666:pigments
551:sapphire
184:such as
178:seawater
136:transmit
106:spectrum
18:Pellucid
2294:Diverse
2226:Surface
2083:Zerodur
1637:Bibcode
1594:Bibcode
1592:: 647.
1499:Bibcode
1206:crypsis
1202:insects
1173:buoyant
1059:Optical
991:acrylic
906:dopants
898:glasses
865:and a "
863:lattice
714:photons
695:orbital
691:nucleus
637:in the
555:alumina
509:sol-gel
478:(e.g.,
352:quantum
244:, from
217:, from
110:opacity
82:photons
76:. On a
2296:topics
2159:Optics
1965:GeSbTe
1872:Basics
1682:
1655:
1612:
1550:
1355:
1336:: 381.
1153:marine
949:quartz
650:opaque
559:Yttria
536:stress
443:inside
356:photon
268:opacus
253:lucere
226:parere
140:opaque
50:optics
2078:Macor
2045:ZBLAN
1879:Glass
1864:Glass
1610:S2CID
1151:Many
955:, SiO
876:Most
871:shiny
859:metal
802:, or
749:glass
639:atoms
532:laser
459:fiber
449:of a
262:opake
247:trans
220:trans
163:color
129:water
114:cesia
70:light
1714:2013
1680:ISBN
1653:PMID
1548:ISSN
1353:ISBN
1027:core
939:and
896:and
880:(or
816:mean
800:heat
778:and
772:heat
732:and
455:cell
1645:doi
1602:doi
1538:doi
1507:doi
1397:doi
1181:cod
1092:in
838:).
782:).
600:by
482:).
457:or
377:or
306:by
96:or
60:or
2400::
1700:.
1665:^
1651:.
1643:.
1633:11
1631:.
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1600:.
1590:17
1546:.
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1532:.
1528:.
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1495:40
1493:.
1393:91
1391:.
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728:,
697:.
515:.
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52:,
1856:e
1849:t
1842:v
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1554:.
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1361:.
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957:2
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736:.
623:)
617:(
612:)
608:(
594:.
389:.
329:)
323:(
318:)
314:(
300:.
34:.
20:)
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