552:, which alleged the Professional and Administrative Careers Examination (PACE) was racially discriminatory as a result of the lower average scores and pass rates achieved by Black and Hispanic test takers. As a result of this settlement agreement, PACE, the main entry-level test for candidates seeking positions in the federal government’s executive branch, was scrapped. It has not been replaced by a similar general exam, although attempts at replacement exams have been made. The system which replaced the general PACE exam has been criticized as instituting a system of racial quotas, although changes to the settlement agreement under the
366:
40:
247:
1999:
444:
from dismissal. The Senate approved
Pendleton's bill, 38–5, and the House soon concurred by a vote of 155–47. Nearly all congressional opposition to the Pendleton bill came from Democrats, though a majority of Democrats in each chamber of Congress voted for the bill. A mere seven U.S. representatives constituted the Republican opposition towards the Pendleton Act:
348:
The
Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act provided for selection of some government employees by competitive exams rather than ties to politicians, and made it illegal to fire or demote some government officials for political reasons. The act initially applied only to ten percent of federal jobs, but it
443:
of
Congress. The election results were seen as a public mandate for civil service reform, but many Republicans also wanted to pass a bill so that they could craft the legislation before losing control of Congress, allowing the party to take credit for the bill and to protect Republican officeholders
328:, all Conkling supporters, obstinately refused to obey the president's order. In September 1877, Hayes demanded the three men's resignations, which they refused to give. Hayes was obliged to wait until July 1878 when, during a Congressional recess, he sacked Arthur and Cornell and replaced them with
286:
introduced the first major civil service reform bill, calling for the use of competitive exams to determine political appointments. Sumner's bill failed to pass
Congress, and in subsequent years several other civil service reform bills were defeated even as the public became increasingly concerned
506:
expanded the number of federal positions subject to the merit system from 16,000 to 27,000. Partly due to
Cleveland's efforts, between 1885 and 1897, the percentage of federal employees protected by the Pendleton Act would rise from twelve percent to approximately forty percent. Under subsequent
356:
to oversee civil service examinations and outlawed the use of "assessments," fees that political appointees were expected to pay to their respective political parties as the price for their appointments. These assessments had made up a majority of political contributions in the era following
198:
The
Pendleton Civil Service Act provided for the selection of some government employees by competitive exams, rather than ties to politicians or political affiliation. It also made it illegal to fire or demote these government officials for political reasons and created the
332:. Despite opposition from Conkling, both of Hayes's nominees were confirmed by the Senate, giving Hayes his most significant civil service reform victory. For the remainder of his term, Hayes pressed Congress to enact permanent reform legislation and restore the dormant
415:, who believed that he had not received an appointment by Garfield because of his own affiliation with the Stalwarts. Garfield died on September 19, 1881, and was succeeded by Vice President Arthur. Many worried about how Arthur would act as president; the
179:, a political patronage practice in which officeholders awarded their allies with government jobs in return for financial and political support. Proponents of the spoils system were successful at blocking meaningful civil service reform until the
266:. In return for appointments, these appointees were charged with raising campaign funds and bolstering the popularity of the president and the party in their communities. The success of the spoils system helped ensure the dominance of both the
278:
in the period after the Civil War. Patronage became a key issue in elections, as many partisans in both major parties were more concerned about control over political appointments than they were about policy issues.
432:, Arthur requested civil service reform legislation, and Pendleton again introduced his bill, which again did not pass. Democrats, campaigning on the reform issue, won control of the House of Representatives in the
2044:
556:
removed explicit quotas, and these changes "raised serious questions about the ability of the government to recruit a quality workforce while reducing adverse impact", according to
Professor Carolyn Ban.
310:, the advocacy of civil service reform was recognized by blacks as an effort that would stifle their economic mobility and prevent "the whole colored population" from holding public office.
1898:
580:
for policy-making positions, which was criticized by
Professor Donald Kettl as violating the spirit of the Pendleton Act. Shortly after taking office in January 2021, President
203:
to enforce the merit system. The act initially only applied to about ten percent of federal employees, but it now covers most federal employees. As a result of the court case
2034:
428:
and undertook a major public campaign for reform, arguing that the spoils system had played a major role in the assassination of
Garfield. In President Arthur's first
2059:
1702:
291:
established a special cabinet committee charged with drawing up new rules for federal appointments. Hayes's efforts for reform brought him into conflict with the
1848:
1764:
1249:
530:
526:
518:
state. The law also caused major changes in campaign finance, as the parties were forced to look for new sources of campaign funds, such as wealthy donors.
2054:
2029:
1732:
262:, presidents had increasingly made political appointments on the basis of political support rather than on the basis of merit, in a practice known as the
2049:
1805:
400:
1815:
1753:
169:
1040:
388:
Commission, which Hayes had assigned to investigate the Port of New York. It also expanded similar civil service reforms attempted by
President
1863:
353:
333:
200:
439:
The party's disastrous performance in the 1882 elections helped convince many Republicans to support the civil service reform during the 1882
1519:
1495:
1448:
1407:
1378:
1357:
1334:
1315:
1231:
486:
To the surprise of his critics, Arthur acted quickly to appoint the members of the newly created Civil Service Commission, naming reformers
421:, which had supported Arthur earlier in his career, wrote "Arthur is about the last man who would be considered eligible for the position."
425:
1810:
1767:
577:
408:
180:
498:
as commissioners. The commission issued its first rules in May 1883; by 1884, half of all postal officials and three-quarters of the
424:
Garfield's assassination by a deranged office seeker amplified the public demand for reform. Civil service reformers established the
1843:
1800:
1675:
1637:
1592:
1574:
534:
317:
303:
that forbade federal office holders from being required to make campaign contributions or otherwise taking part in party politics.
1458:
Paul, Ezra (Winter 1998). "Congressional Relations and Public Relations in the Administration of Rutherford B. Hayes (1877–81)".
522:
275:
267:
106:
1835:
1725:
300:
79:
71:
2039:
1756:
2024:
1058:
525:
as a major update to the Pendleton Act. The Civil Service Commission was abolished and its functions were replaced by the
514:
argues that the Pendleton Act was instrumental in the creation of a professional civil service and the rise of the modern
499:
433:
541:
for top managers within the civil service system, and established the right of civil servants to unionize and arbitrate.
259:
1914:
553:
365:
161:
59:
1177:
1158:
2002:
1948:
1718:
1100:
711:
Foner, Eric (1988). Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877, p. 507. New York: Harper & Row.
545:
337:
1893:
1888:
1580:
381:
157:
39:
538:
370:
380:
of Ohio introduced legislation to require the selection of civil servants based on merit as determined by an
1873:
777:
1936:
1820:
605:
600:
569:
549:
227:
204:
1878:
1825:
1611:
1265:"Strengthening State Capacity: Civil Service Reform and Public Sector Performance during the Gilded Age"
487:
215:
1585:
The Republic for Which It Stands: The United States During Reconstruction and the Gilded Age: 1865–1896
457:
292:
235:
1195:
Ban, Carolyn; Ingraham, Patricia W. (1988). "Retaining Quality Federal Employees: Life after PACE".
1989:
1954:
491:
377:
288:
211:
102:
246:
1984:
1853:
1792:
1786:
1696:
1554:
1546:
1529:
Theriault, Sean M. (February 2003). "Patronage, the Pendleton Act, and the Power of the People".
1467:
1212:
1139:
429:
329:
271:
219:
384:, but the measure failed to pass. Pendleton's bill was largely based on reforms proposed by the
1969:
1741:
1671:
1659:
1633:
1588:
1570:
1515:
1505:
1491:
1444:
1422:
1403:
1374:
1353:
1330:
1311:
1284:
449:
445:
440:
404:
396:
385:
321:
251:
231:
207:, most federal government employees are no longer hired by means of competitive examinations.
192:
188:
184:
165:
140:
299:
of New York. With Congress unwilling to take action on civil service reform, Hayes issued an
1976:
1538:
1479:
1434:
1276:
1204:
1131:
573:
511:
510:
Although state patronage systems and numerous federal positions were unaffected by the law,
503:
481:
465:
325:
1122:
Knudsen, Steven; Jakus, Larry; Metz, Maida (1979). "The civil service reform act of 1978".
836:
834:
1264:
565:
495:
472:. Arthur signed the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act into law on January 16, 1883.
412:
389:
296:
223:
214:, an Ohio Democratic U.S. senator who defended slavery in the 1850s and led the anti-war "
1615:
624:
1868:
1664:
1625:
1395:
687:
685:
588:
461:
417:
313:
283:
395:
Hayes did not seek a second term as president, and was succeeded by fellow Republican
2018:
1558:
1509:
1484:
1438:
1368:
1346:
1143:
469:
453:
263:
176:
1003:
TO PASS S. 133, A BILL REGULATING AND IMPROVING THE U. S. CIVIL SERVICE. (J.P. 163).
349:
allowed the president to expand the number of federal employees covered by the act.
187:
in 1881. The 47th Congress passed the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act during its
1942:
1109:
1002:
561:
130:
120:
1542:
1686:
1930:
1883:
515:
1630:
Outlawing the Spoils: A History of the Civil Service Reform Movement, 1865-1883
1135:
307:
1288:
507:
legislation, about 90% of federal employees are covered by the merit system.
17:
581:
1308:
Dark Horse: The Surprise Election and Political Murder of James A. Garfield
793:
791:
1646:
Shipley, Max L. “The Background and Legal Aspects of the Pendleton Plan.”
1617:
Fighting the Spoilsmen: Reminiscences of The Civil Service Reform Movement
1280:
226:. The passage of the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act with the aid of "
1471:
172:
should be awarded on the basis of merit instead of political patronage.
1550:
1426:
970:
968:
83:
1216:
168:
on January 16, 1883. The act mandates that most positions within the
1710:
1041:"Pendleton Act inaugurates U.S. civil service system, Jan. 16, 1883"
1688:
Bibliography of Civil Service Reform and Related Subjects (2nd ed.)
1208:
502:
jobs were to be awarded by merit. During his first term, President
1685:
Women's Auxiliary to the Civil Service Reform Association (1907).
1651:
364:
245:
295:, or pro-spoils, branch of the Republican party, led by Senator
287:
about public corruption. After taking office in 1877, President
110:
1714:
1329:. Newtown, Connecticut: American Political Biography Press.
2045:
United States federal government administration legislation
1370:
The Presidencies of James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur
1232:"'Stunning' Executive Order Would Politicize Civil Service"
859:
857:
625:
George Hunt Pendleton (July 19, 1825 – November 24, 1889)
1419:
Chester A. Arthur, A Quarter-Century of Machine Politics
234:
Democrats to curtail patronage, which had been used by "
195:, himself a former spoilsman, signed the bill into law.
1065:. Washington, DC: Government Executive Media Group LLC.
587:
A 2024 study found that the legislation increased U.S.
1899:
List of federal judges appointed by Chester A. Arthur
1250:"Executive Order on Protecting the Federal Workforce"
1059:"The Battle for the Public Service Is Just Beginning"
175:
By the late 1820s, American politics operated on the
1923:
1907:
1834:
1778:
89:
70:
65:
54:
46:
1663:
1483:
1345:
1101:
1099:United States. Civil Service Reform Act of 1978.
1402:. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas.
1373:. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas.
623:Searles, Harry; Mangus, Mike (April 9, 2012).
1726:
1486:Gentleman Boss: The Life of Chester A. Arthur
1052:
1050:
8:
32:
1733:
1719:
1711:
1701:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1666:History of the United States Civil Service
1352:. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press.
1159:"U.S. Set to Replace a Civil Service Test"
340:to Congress in 1880 to appeal for reform.
2035:Civil service reform in the United States
1310:. New York, New York: Avalon Publishing.
1806:1880 United States presidential election
1157:Rosenbaum, David E. (January 10, 1981).
875:
1816:Chester Alan Arthur State Historic Site
1400:Rutherford Hayes: Warrior and President
616:
403:on a ticket with former Port Collector
369:Chester A. Arthur in 1881, portrait by
2060:History of racism in the United States
1864:United States Civil Service Commission
1694:
974:
915:
887:
840:
797:
748:
736:
720:
691:
354:United States Civil Service Commission
334:United States Civil Service Commission
201:United States Civil Service Commission
31:
1348:The Presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes
1087:
990:
959:
931:
848:
825:
724:
699:
652:
640:
210:The namesake of the Pendleton Act is
7:
1648:Mississippi Valley Historical Review
1567:The Presidencies of Grover Cleveland
1075:
978:
947:
943:
919:
903:
891:
863:
844:
813:
801:
426:National Civil Service Reform League
230:" Republicans furthered the aims of
1811:1880 Republican National Convention
1768:Vice President of the United States
1178:"Let Me Call You Quota, Sweetheart"
752:
695:
676:
578:United States federal civil service
2055:Assassination of James A. Garfield
2030:Civil service in the United States
1859:Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act
1230:Wagner, Erich (October 22, 2020).
1106:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
1057:Kettl, Donald F. (June 21, 2021).
1039:Glass, Andrew (January 16, 2018).
407:. In 1881, President Garfield was
154:Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act
33:Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act
25:
1889:Indian Appropriations Act of 1885
1844:Inauguration of Chester A. Arthur
1801:Collector of the Port of New York
1443:. New York: Henry Holt & Co.
584:rescinded Executive Order 13957.
535:Federal Labor Relations Authority
318:Collector of the Port of New York
164:and signed into law by President
1998:
1997:
1620:. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons.
1327:Rutherford Hayes and his America
1017:
764:
664:
523:Civil Service Reform Act of 1978
320:, and his partisan subordinates
254:out of the New York Custom House
101:in the Senate as S. 133 by
38:
2050:Presidency of Chester A. Arthur
1757:President of the United States
1460:Presidential Studies Quarterly
1421:. New York: F. Ungar Pub. Co.
1391:. McGraw-Hill Education, 2019.
1263:Aneja, Abhay; Xu, Guo (2024).
1008:. Retrieved February 11, 2022.
531:Merit Systems Protection Board
527:Office of Personnel Management
482:Grover Cleveland § Reform
282:During the Civil War, Senator
27:1883 United States federal law
1:
1543:10.1111/1468-2508.t01-1-00003
1490:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
1306:Ackerman, Kenneth D. (2003).
631:. Retrieved January 27, 2022.
1387:Harrison, Brigid C., et al.
1367:Doenecke, Justus D. (1981).
1344:Davison, Kenneth E. (1972).
1197:Public Administration Review
554:Ronald Reagan administration
434:1882 congressional elections
376:In 1880, Democratic Senator
260:presidency of Andrew Jackson
1915:Statue of Chester A. Arthur
1587:. Oxford University Press.
1184:. New York: Commentary Inc.
1124:Public Personnel Management
546:Jimmy Carter administration
537:. The 1978 law created the
162:47th United States Congress
119:on December 27, 1882 (
60:47th United States Congress
2076:
1632:. University of Illinois.
1176:Berns, Walter (May 1981).
1136:10.1177/009102607900800306
1112:Approved October 13, 1978.
560:In October 2020 President
479:
430:annual address to Congress
401:1880 presidential election
1964:
1894:Bureau of Animal Industry
1748:
1514:. New York: Times Books.
1417:Howe, George F. (1966) .
782:www.digitalhistory.uh.edu
570:Schedule F classification
352:The law also created the
270:in the period before the
158:United States federal law
129:on January 4, 1883 (
94:
37:
1670:. Row, Peterson and Co.
1325:Barnard, Harry (2005) .
1269:American Economic Review
539:Senior Executive Service
371:Ole Peter Hansen Balling
1874:Immigration Act of 1882
1650:24#3 1937, pp. 329–40.
1531:The Journal of Politics
548:settled the court case
306:According to historian
1937:Chester Alan Arthur II
1821:Chester A. Arthur Home
1612:Foulke, William Dudley
1565:Welch, Richard E. Jr.
1389:American Democracy Now
629:Ohio Civil War Central
606:Schedule F appointment
373:
336:, even using his last
255:
2040:Public administration
1990:Thomas A. Hendricks →
1879:Chinese Exclusion Act
1826:Albany Rural Cemetery
851:, pp. 52–53, 56.
655:, pp. 54–55, 60.
544:In January 1981, the
488:Dorman Bridgman Eaton
368:
249:
2025:1883 in American law
1985:← William A. Wheeler
1281:10.1257/aer.20230019
1236:Government Executive
1063:Government Executive
918:, pp. 320–324;
890:, pp. 244–248;
843:, pp. 320–324;
800:, pp. 325–327;
751:, pp. 382–384;
723:, pp. 353–355;
698:, pp. 164–165;
694:, pp. 322–325;
521:Congress passed the
458:William Robert Moore
1970:← James A. Garfield
1955:Mary Arthur McElroy
1511:Rutherford B. Hayes
1440:Chester Alan Arthur
1252:. January 22, 2021.
1090:, pp. 467–468.
1078:, pp. 108–111.
1020:, pp. 209–210.
981:, pp. 101–102.
946:, pp. 99–100;
878:, pp. 305–308.
866:, pp. 106–107.
816:, pp. 104–107.
804:, pp. 102–104.
739:, pp. 370–371.
727:, pp. 100–101.
601:Luévano v. Campbell
550:Luévano v. Campbell
492:John Milton Gregory
378:George H. Pendleton
361:Legislative history
330:recess appointments
289:Rutherford B. Hayes
222:opposing President
212:George H. Pendleton
205:Luévano v. Campbell
143:on January 16, 1883
103:George H. Pendleton
90:Legislative history
34:
1977:Grover Cleveland →
1854:Star Route scandal
1787:Lemmon v. New York
1660:Van Riper, Paul P.
1506:Trefousse, Hans L.
1163:The New York Times
847:, pp. 96–97;
679:, p. 164–165.
392:30 years earlier.
374:
272:American Civil War
256:
220:American Civil War
170:federal government
2012:
2011:
1742:Chester A. Arthur
1521:978-0-8050-6907-5
1497:978-0-394-46095-6
1480:Reeves, Thomas C.
1450:978-0-8050-6951-8
1435:Karabell, Zachary
1409:978-0-7006-0641-2
1380:978-0-7006-0208-7
1359:978-0-8371-6275-1
1336:978-0-945707-05-9
1317:978-0-7867-1396-7
993:, pp. 59–60.
962:, pp. 57–59.
922:, pp. 96–97.
906:, pp. 62–63.
894:, pp. 61–63.
778:"Digital History"
767:, pp. 73–74.
702:, pp. 95–96.
643:, pp. 54–55.
450:James S. Robinson
446:Benjamin F. Marsh
441:lame-duck session
405:Chester A. Arthur
397:James A. Garfield
322:Alonzo B. Cornell
252:Chester A. Arthur
232:white supremacist
193:Chester A. Arthur
189:lame duck session
185:James A. Garfield
166:Chester A. Arthur
150:
149:
141:Chester A. Arthur
117:Passed the Senate
73:Statutes at Large
16:(Redirected from
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2001:
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1275:(8): 2352–2387.
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703:
689:
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668:
662:
656:
650:
644:
638:
632:
621:
574:excepted service
568:13957 created a
512:Zachary Karabell
504:Grover Cleveland
466:George W. Steele
357:Reconstruction.
326:George H. Sharpe
276:Republican Party
268:Democratic Party
127:Passed the House
78:ch. 27, 22
74:
42:
35:
21:
2075:
2074:
2070:
2069:
2068:
2066:
2065:
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2015:
2014:
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2008:
1960:
1919:
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1830:
1795:Central America
1774:
1763:
1752:
1744:
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1709:
1693:
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1626:Hoogenboom, Ari
1624:
1610:
1606:
1604:Further reading
1601:
1595:
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1416:
1410:
1396:Hoogenboom, Ari
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989:
985:
977:, p. 324;
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635:
622:
618:
614:
597:
566:Executive Order
500:Customs Service
496:Leroy D. Thoman
484:
478:
413:Charles Guiteau
390:Franklin Pierce
363:
346:
301:executive order
297:Roscoe Conkling
244:
238:" Republicans.
224:Abraham Lincoln
146:
137:Signed into law
72:
55:Enacted by
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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2071:
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2037:
2032:
2027:
2017:
2016:
2010:
2009:
2007:
2006:
1993:
1992:
1987:
1981:
1980:
1973:
1965:
1962:
1961:
1959:
1958:
1952:
1949:William Arthur
1946:
1940:
1934:
1927:
1925:
1921:
1920:
1918:
1917:
1911:
1909:
1905:
1904:
1902:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1881:
1876:
1871:
1869:Tariff of 1883
1866:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1849:Foreign policy
1846:
1840:
1838:
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1593:
1581:White, Richard
1577:
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1302:
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1297:
1295:
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1255:
1241:
1222:
1209:10.2307/976250
1203:(3): 708–718.
1187:
1168:
1149:
1130:(3): 170–181.
1114:
1092:
1080:
1068:
1046:
1031:
1022:
1010:
995:
983:
964:
952:
936:
924:
908:
896:
880:
868:
853:
830:
818:
806:
787:
769:
757:
755:, p. 456.
741:
729:
713:
704:
681:
669:
657:
645:
633:
615:
613:
610:
609:
608:
603:
596:
593:
589:state capacity
477:
474:
462:John R. Thomas
418:New York Times
399:, who won the
362:
359:
345:
342:
338:annual message
314:Chester Arthur
284:Charles Sumner
250:Hayes kicking
243:
240:
191:and President
160:passed by the
148:
147:
145:
144:
134:
124:
114:
95:
92:
91:
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68:
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56:
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26:
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14:
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2005:
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1995:
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1988:
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1983:
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1979:
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1974:
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1967:
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1007:
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996:
992:
987:
984:
980:
976:
971:
969:
965:
961:
956:
953:
949:
945:
940:
937:
934:, p. 56.
933:
928:
925:
921:
917:
912:
909:
905:
900:
897:
893:
889:
884:
881:
877:
876:Ackerman 2003
872:
869:
865:
860:
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
837:
835:
831:
828:, p. 52.
827:
822:
819:
815:
810:
807:
803:
799:
794:
792:
788:
783:
779:
773:
770:
766:
761:
758:
754:
750:
745:
742:
738:
733:
730:
726:
722:
717:
714:
708:
705:
701:
697:
693:
688:
686:
682:
678:
673:
670:
667:, p. 71.
666:
661:
658:
654:
649:
646:
642:
637:
634:
630:
626:
620:
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611:
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536:
532:
528:
524:
519:
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501:
497:
493:
489:
483:
475:
473:
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470:Orlando Hubbs
467:
463:
459:
455:
454:Robert Smalls
451:
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427:
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264:spoils system
261:
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208:
206:
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196:
194:
190:
186:
183:of President
182:
181:assassination
178:
177:spoils system
173:
171:
167:
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159:
155:
142:
139:by President
138:
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100:
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57:
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50:Pendleton Act
49:
45:
41:
36:
30:
19:
18:Pendleton Act
1996:
1975:
1968:
1943:Gavin Arthur
1908:Public image
1858:
1794:
1785:
1687:
1665:
1647:
1629:
1616:
1584:
1566:
1537:(1): 50–68.
1534:
1530:
1510:
1485:
1466:(1): 68–87.
1463:
1459:
1439:
1418:
1399:
1388:
1369:
1347:
1326:
1307:
1272:
1268:
1258:
1244:
1235:
1225:
1200:
1196:
1190:
1181:
1171:
1162:
1152:
1127:
1123:
1117:
1095:
1083:
1071:
1062:
1034:
1029:Welch, 59–61
1025:
1013:
1005:
998:
986:
955:
939:
927:
911:
899:
883:
871:
821:
809:
781:
772:
760:
744:
732:
716:
707:
672:
660:
648:
636:
628:
619:
586:
562:Donald Trump
559:
543:
520:
516:bureaucratic
509:
485:
438:
423:
416:
409:assassinated
394:
375:
351:
347:
312:
305:
281:
257:
209:
197:
174:
153:
151:
136:
126:
116:
98:
29:
1931:Nell Arthur
1884:Edmunds Act
1759:(1881–1885)
1691:. New York.
1299:Works cited
1043:. Politico.
1006:GovTrack.us
975:Reeves 1975
916:Reeves 1975
888:Reeves 1975
841:Reeves 1975
798:Reeves 1975
382:examination
216:Copperheads
2019:Categories
1945:(grandson)
1836:Presidency
1427:B00089DVIG
1182:Commentary
1088:White 2017
749:Hoogenboom
737:Hoogenboom
721:Hoogenboom
692:Hoogenboom
612:References
533:, and the
480:See also:
344:Provisions
308:Eric Foner
258:Since the
242:Background
228:Half-Breed
99:Introduced
1697:cite book
1559:153890814
1289:0002-8282
1144:168751164
991:Theriault
960:Theriault
932:Theriault
849:Theriault
826:Theriault
725:Trefousse
700:Trefousse
653:Theriault
641:Theriault
582:Joe Biden
476:Aftermath
218:" in the
66:Citations
47:Nicknames
2003:Category
1957:(sister)
1951:(father)
1662:(1958).
1628:(1961).
1614:(1919).
1583:(2017).
1508:(2002).
1482:(1975).
1472:27551831
1437:(2004).
1398:(1995).
1076:Karabell
979:Doenecke
948:Karabell
944:Doenecke
920:Doenecke
904:Karabell
892:Karabell
864:Karabell
845:Doenecke
814:Karabell
802:Doenecke
595:See also
293:Stalwart
274:and the
236:Stalwart
1569:(1988)
1551:3449855
1102:Pub. L.
753:Barnard
696:Davison
677:Davison
576:of the
572:in the
1933:(wife)
1924:Family
1770:(1881)
1674:
1652:online
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1110:95–454
1108:
529:, the
494:, and
468:, and
131:155-46
82:
1939:(son)
1555:S2CID
1547:JSTOR
1468:JSTOR
1213:JSTOR
1140:S2CID
156:is a
80:Stat.
1779:Life
1765:20th
1754:21st
1703:link
1672:ISBN
1634:ISBN
1589:ISBN
1571:ISBN
1516:ISBN
1492:ISBN
1445:ISBN
1423:ASIN
1404:ISBN
1375:ISBN
1354:ISBN
1331:ISBN
1312:ISBN
1285:ISSN
1018:Howe
765:Paul
665:Paul
324:and
152:The
121:39-5
58:the
1793:SS
1539:doi
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564:by
411:by
386:Jay
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107:D
105:(
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