565:
581:
611:
20:
596:
414:(such as 'rock' and 'lock') produced by five speakers, and being asked to identify which word was which. Feedback was provided during training, and participants had to listen to the minimal pairs until the correct answer was given. Participants performed significantly better immediately after the 3-week training, and retained some improvements when retested after 3 months and after 6 months (although there was a decrease in recognition ability at the 6-month test). Reaction time decreased during the training period as the accuracy went up. Participants could "generalize" their learning somewhat: when tested they could distinguish between new /l/ and /r/ minimal pairs, but performed better when the pairs were said by one of the five speakers they had heard before rather than by a new speaker.
434:
argue that it is possible to train
Japanese adults to distinguish speech sounds they find difficult to differentiate at first. They found that speech training results in outcomes indicating a real change in the perception of the sounds as speech, rather than simply in auditory perception.
303:, they can determine they are producing the correct sound based on the tactile sensations of the speech articulators (i.e. tongue, alveolar ridge, etc.) coming into contact with each other without any auditory feedback or confirmation that they are indeed producing the sound correctly.
564:
325:
conducted a longitudinal study that examined the perception and production of
English /l/, /r/, and /w/ by adults and children who were native speakers of Japanese but living in the United States. Over time, the children improved more on English /r/ than English /l/.
266:
generally transferred to improved production. However, there may be little correlation between degrees of learning in perception and production after training in perception, due to the wide range of individual variation in learning strategies.
286:
may still learn to produce the difference, presumably through articulatory training in which they learn the correct places and manners of articulation required for the production of the two sounds. In this sense, they learn to produce
1006:
Guion, Susan; Flege, James Emil; Akahane-Yamada, Reiko; Pruitt, JC (2000), "An investigation of current models of second language speech perception: The case of
Japanese adults' perception of English consonants",
1265:
Miyawaki, Miyawaki; Strange, W.; Verbrugge, R.R.; Liberman, A.M; Jenkins, J.J.; Fujimura, O. (1975), "An effect of linguistic experience: the discrimination of and by native speakers of
Japanese and English",
610:
383:
of a native
Japanese speaker and a native English speaker. The results showed that the Japanese speaker had a hard time producing an English-like third formant, especially that which is required to produce an
580:
768:
Aoyama, Katsura; Flege, James Emil; Guion, Susan; Akahane-Yamada, Reiko; Yamada, Tsuneo (2004), "Perceived phonetic dissimilarity and L2 speech learning: the case of
Japanese /r/ and English /l/ and /r/",
1090:
Lively, Scott; Logan, John; Pisoni, David (1993), "Training
Japanese listeners to identify English /r/ and /l/: II. The role of phonetic environment and talker variability in new perceptual categories",
595:
1137:
Lively, Scott; Pisoni, D.B.; Yamada, R.A.; Tohkura, Y.I.; Yamada, T (1994), "Training
Japanese listeners to identify English /r/ and /l/: III. Long-term retention of new phonetic categories.",
108:
and on the alveolar lateral approximant , respectively. Japanese speakers who learn
English as a second language later than childhood often have difficulty in hearing and producing the
883:
Bradlow, A.; Pisoni, D; Yamada, R.A.; Tohkura, Y (1997), "Training
Japanese listeners to identify English /r/ and /l/: IV. Some effects of perceptual learning on speech production",
228:
just as well as native English speakers if the sounds were acoustically manipulated in a way that made them sound less like speech (by removal of all acoustic information except the
19:
1324:
Takagi, Naoyuki; Mann, Virginia (1995), "The limits of extended naturalistic exposure on the perceptual mastery of English /r/ and /l/ by adult Japanese learners of English",
410:
found that monolingual Japanese speakers in Japan could increase their ability to distinguish between /l/ and /r/ after a 3-week training period, which involved hearing
1477:
1043:
Hallé, Pierre A.; Best, Catherine T.; Levitt, Andrea (1999), "Phonetic vs. phonological influences on French listeners' perception of American English approximants",
942:
Flege, J.E.; Takagi, Naoyuki; Mann, Virginia (1996), "Lexical familiarity and English language experience affect Japanese adults' perception of /r/ and /l/",
1361:
Yamada, Reiko; Tohkura, Y. (1992), "The effects of experimental variables on the perception of American English /r/ and /l/ by Japanese listeners",
428:
in only a few phonetic environments improved more than subjects who were trained with a single talker using a wider range of phonetic environments.
295:
in much the same way a deaf person would. Although they have only a single acoustic image corresponding to a single phoneme intermediary between
1229:
McClelland, J.L.; Fiez, J.A.; McCandliss, B.D. (2002), "Teaching the /r/-/l/ Discrimination to Japanese Adults: Behavioral and Neural Aspects",
193:
reports that native speakers of Japanese who have learned English as adults have difficulty perceiving the acoustic differences between English
1288:
Takagi, Naoyuki (1995), "Signal detection modeling of Japanese learners' /r/-/l/ labeling behavior in a one-interval identification task",
646:
185:
as somewhat like the compressed-lip velar approximant and other studies have shown speakers to hear it more as an ill-formed Japanese
1064:
789:
Best, Catherine; Strange, W. (1992), "Effects of phonological and phonetic factors on cross-language perception of approximants",
1183:
Logan, John; Lively, Scott; Pisoni, David (1991), "Training Japanese listeners to identify English /r/ and /l/: a first report",
53:
35:
1457:
252:. Those that occurred in initial consonant clusters or between vowels were the most difficult to distinguish accurately.
1462:
125:
79:
1447:
1391:
Zawadzki, P.A.; Kuehn, D.P. (1980), "A cineradiographic study of static and dynamic aspects of American English /r/",
450:
found that even Japanese speakers who have lived 12 or more years in the United States have more trouble identifying
236:
found that speakers' ability to distinguish between the two sounds depended on where the sound occurred. Word-final
1467:
1442:
641:
1437:
202:
105:
142:
of American English (the dialect Japanese speakers are typically exposed to) is most commonly a postalveolar
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at the end of a syllable is realized either as a vowel or as nothing and therefore is distinguished from
311:
There is some indication that Japanese speakers tend to improve more on the perception and production of
651:
154:
1472:
1297:
1192:
1146:
1100:
1016:
951:
892:
856:
396:
There have been a number of experiments in training Japanese subjects to improve their perception of
333:
found that Japanese speakers who received training in distinguishing English sounds improved more on
263:
1452:
1416:
1341:
1254:
978:
Goto, Hiromu (1971), "Auditory perception by normal Japanese adults of the sounds "l" and "r""",
836:
808:
129:
438:
However, it is not clear whether adult learners can ever fully overcome their difficulties with
929:
Delattre, P.; Freeman, D.C. (1968), "A dialect study of American R's by x-ray motion picture",
1408:
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61:
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as well as some raising of the tongue dorsum (velarization), especially when syllable-final.
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also found that subjects who were trained by listening to multiple speakers' production of
23:
A restaurant sign in Japan showing confusion associated with /r/ and /l/ sounds in English
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Boyce, S.; Espy-Wilson, C. (1997), "Coarticulatory stability in American English /r/",
162:
1242:
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782:
1431:
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991:
201:, even if the speakers are comfortable with conversational English, have lived in an
75:
1420:
1258:
812:
411:
135:
1065:"An acoustical analysis of a Japanese speaker's production of English /r/ and /l/"
146:
205:
for extended periods, and can articulate the two sounds when speaking English.
1337:
524:
259:
244:
with a preceding vowel were distinguished the best, followed by word-initial
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1250:
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999:
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is, and hence it is harder for Japanese speakers to distinguish Japanese
101:
41:
208:
Japanese speakers can, however, perceive the difference between English
1375:
1280:
636:
602:
229:
68:
1404:
1204:
840:
278:
reports that Japanese speakers who cannot hear the difference between
1309:
1158:
1112:
1028:
963:
904:
868:
832:
819:
Bloch, B. (1950), "Studies in colloquial Japanese IV: Phonemics",
587:
217:
138:, though there is some variation depending on phonetic context.
216:
when these sounds are not mentally processed as speech sounds.
466:
There are numerous minimal pairs of words distinguishing only
330:
322:
16:
Japanese-language speakers' perception of English consonants
375:
found differences between the second and third formants in
255:
751:
407:
233:
431:
523:
The Japanese adaptation of English words is largely
40:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
1072:Indiana University Linguistic Club Working Papers
417:
181:suggests that Japanese speakers perceive English
134:The Japanese liquid is most often realized as an
1356:, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press
700:
54:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters
724:
711:
692:
688:
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220:found that Japanese speakers could distinguish
258:provide evidence that there is a link between
696:
178:
8:
1290:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
1185:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
1139:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
1093:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
1009:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
944:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
885:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
849:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
475:
372:
174:
1063:Kuzniak, Kinnaird; Zapf, Jennifer (2004),
559:Gallery of English-language signs in Japan
447:
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1279:
1212:
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1120:
912:
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345:is perceived as more similar to Japanese
432:McClelland, Fiez & McCandliss (2002)
18:
1478:English as a second or foreign language
662:
574:confuses the words "frame" and "flame".
557:
728:
1354:An introduction to Japanese phonology
677:
673:
7:
739:
647:Non-native pronunciations of English
547:, for example, are distinguished as
275:
190:
44:. For the distinction between ,
262:and production to the extent that
14:
458:than native English speakers do.
418:Lively, Logan & Pisoni (1993)
151:secondary pharyngeal constriction
609:
594:
579:
563:
725:Flege, Takagi & Mann (1996)
36:International Phonetic Alphabet
712:Hallé, Best & Levitt (1999
701:Boyce & Espy-Wilson (1997)
689:Hallé, Best & Levitt (1999
670:Hallé, Best & Levitt (1999
1:
1243:10.1016/S0031-9384(02)00916-2
804:10.1016/S0095-4470(19)30637-0
783:10.1016/S0095-4470(03)00036-6
693:Delattre & Freeman (1968)
104:realizations centered on the
1363:Perception and Psychophysics
1268:Perception and Psychophysics
992:10.1016/0028-3932(71)90027-3
535:in the same environment. So
341:. They suggest that English
126:Pronunciation of English /r/
80:alveolar lateral approximant
697:Zawadzki & Kuehn (1980)
179:Yamada & Tohkura (1992)
1494:
642:Lallation (disambiguation)
161:involves contact with the
123:
1338:10.1017/S0142716400066005
1326:Applied Psycholinguistics
1231:Physiology & Behavior
478:used the following ones:
476:Kuzniak & Zapf (2004)
373:Kuzniak & Zapf (2004)
307:Variations in acquisition
175:Best & Strange (1992)
74:, realized usually as an
652:Rhotacism and lambdacism
448:Takagi & Mann (1995)
203:English-speaking country
106:postalveolar approximant
116:of English accurately.
32:phonetic transcriptions
1057:10.1006/jpho.1999.0097
1015:(5 Pt. 1): 2711–2724,
218:Miyawaki et al. (1975)
29:This article contains
24:
1099:(3 Pt 1): 1242–1255,
256:Bradlow et al. (1997)
155:retroflex approximant
124:Further information:
22:
1458:Language acquisition
1045:Journal of Phonetics
791:Journal of Phonetics
771:Journal of Phonetics
408:Lively et al. (1994)
323:Aoyama et al. (2004)
234:Lively et al. (1994)
120:Phonetic differences
78:and sometimes as an
1463:Language comparison
1302:1995ASAJ...97..563T
1197:1991ASAJ...89..874L
1151:1994ASAJ...96.2076L
1105:1993ASAJ...94.1242L
1021:2000ASAJ..107.2711G
956:1996ASAJ...99.1161F
897:1997ASAJ..101.2299B
861:1997ASAJ..101.3741B
752:Lively et al. (1994
474:. For their study,
392:Effects of training
331:Guion et al. (2000)
264:perceptual learning
153:or less commonly a
1448:Japanese phonology
1376:10.3758/BF03206698
1352:Vance, T. (1987),
1281:10.3758/BF03211209
586:At a gift shop in
527:, in that English
149:with simultaneous
130:Japanese phonology
76:apico-alveolar tap
25:
1468:Rhotic consonants
1443:Japanese language
1405:10.1159/000259995
1205:10.1121/1.1894649
632:English phonology
1485:
1438:English language
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1310:10.1121/1.413059
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1113:10.1121/1.408177
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1078:, archived from
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1002:
980:Neuropsychologia
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964:10.1121/1.414884
950:(2): 1161–1173,
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905:10.1121/1.418276
891:(4): 2299–2310,
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412:minimal pairs
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365:from English
357:from English
349:than English
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824:
820:
794:
790:
774:
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761:Bibliography
747:
735:
719:
707:
684:
678:Vance (1987)
674:Bloch (1950)
665:
601:At a bar in
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
522:
517:
512:
507:
502:
498:arrive/alive
497:
492:
487:
482:
465:
437:
430:
416:
406:
395:
371:
328:
321:
310:
274:
254:
230:F3 component
207:
172:
136:alveolar tap
133:
60:
48:and ⟨
30:
1473:Shibboleths
931:Linguistics
518:froze/flows
508:crime/climb
483:right/light
329:Similarly,
276:Goto (1971)
191:Goto (1971)
147:approximant
1432:Categories
740:Goto (1971
658:References
620:in Sapporo
570:A sign at
525:non-rhotic
513:bread/bled
271:Production
260:perception
169:Perception
1453:Phonology
1393:Phonetica
1346:141515188
618:Irish Pub
493:road/load
86:has two:
1421:46760239
1259:16651818
1251:12527015
1037:10830393
821:Language
813:18874416
626:See also
462:Examples
337:than on
102:phonetic
64:has one
62:Japanese
46:/ /
42:Help:IPA
1413:7443796
1385:1437471
1318:7860833
1298:Bibcode
1223:2016438
1214:3518834
1193:Bibcode
1177:7963022
1168:3518835
1147:Bibcode
1131:8408964
1122:3509365
1101:Bibcode
1017:Bibcode
1000:5149302
972:8609300
952:Bibcode
937:: 29–68
923:9104031
914:3507383
893:Bibcode
877:9193061
857:Bibcode
637:Engrish
603:Sapporo
488:red/led
144:central
95:lateral
84:English
69:phoneme
34:in the
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616:At an
553:sutĹŤru
88:rhotic
66:liquid
50:
1417:S2CID
1342:S2CID
1255:S2CID
1083:(PDF)
1068:(PDF)
837:JSTOR
809:S2CID
714::283)
588:Otaru
549:sutoa
545:stall
541:stole
537:store
315:than
38:(IPA)
1409:PMID
1381:PMID
1314:PMID
1247:PMID
1219:PMID
1173:PMID
1127:PMID
1033:PMID
996:PMID
968:PMID
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873:PMID
727:and
676:and
551:and
539:and
470:and
454:and
442:and
424:and
400:and
379:and
299:and
291:and
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248:and
240:and
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177:and
128:and
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93:and
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543:or
533:/l/
529:/r/
472:/l/
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343:/l/
339:/l/
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280:/r/
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238:/l/
232:).
226:/l/
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159:/l/
157:.
140:/r/
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98:/l/
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72:/r/
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56:.
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