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508: — the apical tuft (or ungual tuberosity/process) which covers a larger portion of the phalanx on the volar side than on the dorsal side. Two lateral ungual spines project proximally from the apical tuft. Near the base of the shaft are two lateral tubercles. Between these a V-shaped ridge extending proximally serves for the insertion of the
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500:(asymmetric towards the radial side), an ungual fossa, and a pair of unequal ungual spines (the ulnar being more prominent). This asymmetry is necessary to ensure that the thumb pulp is always facing the pulps of the other digits, an osteological configuration which provides the maximum contact surface with held objects.
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proximal. The distal phalanges, as compared with the distal phalanges of the finger, are smaller and are flattened from above downward; each presents a broad base for articulation with the corresponding bone of the second row, and an expanded distal extremity for the support of the nail and end of the toe.
434:. The intermediate phalanx is not only intermediate in location, but usually also in size. The thumb and large toe do not possess a middle phalanx. The distal phalanges are the bones at the tips of the fingers or toes. The proximal, intermediate, and distal phalanges articulate with one another through
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In the foot, the distal phalanges are flat on their dorsal surface. It is largest proximally and tapers to the distal end. The proximal part of the phalanx presents a broad base for articulation with the middle phalanx, and an expanded distal extremity for the support of the nail and end of the toe.
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have the largest. A study of the fingertip morphology of four small-bodied New World monkey species, indicated a correlation between increasing small-branch foraging and reduced flexor and extensor tubercles in distal phalanges and broadened distal parts of distal phalanges, coupled with expanded
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In the foot, the proximal phalanges have a body that is compressed from side to side, convex above, and concave below. The base is concave, and the head presents a trochlear surface for articulation with the second phalanx. The middle are remarkably small and short, but rather broader than the
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In non-human, living primates the apical tufts vary in size, but they are never larger than in humans. Enlarged apical tufts, to the extent they actually reflect expanded digital pulps, may have played a significant role in enhancing friction between the hand and held objects during
Neolithic
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In the hand, the distal phalanges are flat on their palmar surface, small, and with a roughened, elevated surface of horseshoe form on the palmar surface, supporting the finger pulp. The flat, wide expansions found at the tips of the distal phalanges are called apical tufts. They support the
912:(hoofed mammals) the forelimb is optimized for speed and endurance by a combination of length of stride and rapid step; the proximal forelimb segments are short with large muscles, while the distal segments are elongated with less musculature. In two of the major groups of ungulates,
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In the distal phalanges of the hand the centres for the bodies appear at the distal extremities of the phalanges, instead of at the middle of the bodies, as in the other phalanges. Moreover, of all the bones of the hand, the distal phalanges are the first to ossify.
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Morphological comparisons of pollical distal phalanges in
African apes, extant humans and selected hominins. Although with several morphological differences, all the features related to refined manipulation in modern humans are already present in the late Miocene
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The morphology of the distal phalanges of human thumbs closely reflects an adaptation for a refined precision grip with pad-to-pad contact. This has traditionally been associated with the advent of stone tool-making. However, the intrinsic hand proportions of
755:, the apical tufts were expanded and more robust than in modern and early upper Paleolithic humans. A proposal that Neanderthal distal phalanges was an adaptation to colder climate (than in Africa) is not supported by a recent comparison showing that in
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The phalanges are the bones that make up the fingers of the hand and the toes of the foot. There are 56 phalanges in the human body, with fourteen on each hand and foot. Three phalanges are present on each finger and toe, with the exception of the
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of the bones of the first row present oval, concave articular surfaces, broader from side to side than from front to back. The proximal extremity of each of the bones of the second and third rows presents a double concavity separated by a median
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The number of phalanges in animals is often expressed as a "phalangeal formula" that indicates the numbers of phalanges in digits, beginning from the innermost medial or proximal. For example, humans have a 2-3-3-3-3 formula for the
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spends its life hanging upside-down from branches, and has highly specialized third and fourth digits for the purpose. They have short and squat proximal phalanges with much longer terminal phalanges. They have
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are commonly known as the finger bones. The phalanges of the foot differ from the hand in that they are often shorter and more compressed, especially in the proximal phalanges, those closest to the torso.
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is flat on either side, concave on the palmar surface, and convex on the dorsal surface. Its sides are marked with rough areas giving attachment to fibrous sheaths of flexor tendons. It tapers from above
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to develop this characteristic. The evolutionary process continued over time, and a very derived form of hyperphalangy, with six or more phalanges per digit, evolved convergently in
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482:(knuckles) separated by a shallow groove; the articular surface extends farther on the palmar than on the dorsal surface, a condition best marked in the bones of the first row.
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and its associated finger or toe. The proximal phalanges are those that are closest to the hand or foot. In the hand, the prominent, knobby ends of the phalanges are known as
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apical pads and developed epidermal ridges. This suggests that widened distal phalanges were developed in arboreal primates, rather than in quadrupedal terrestrial primates.
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944:. The arboreal specialization of these terminal phalanges makes it impossible for the sloth to walk on the ground where the animal has to drag its body with its claws.
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1677:"Review and experimental evaluation of the embryonic development and evolutionary history of flipper development and hyperphalangy in dolphins (Cetacea: Mammalia)"
1579:"Review and experimental evaluation of the embryonic development and evolutionary history of flipper development and hyperphalangy in dolphins (Cetacea: Mammalia)"
1488:"Review and experimental evaluation of the embryonic development and evolutionary history of flipper development and hyperphalangy in dolphins (Cetacea: Mammalia)"
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691:. In many species, they are the longest and thickest phalanx ("finger" bone). The middle phalanx also has a corresponding place in their limbs, whether they be
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The tufts support the fleshy volar pad (also known as the distal pulp) on the palmar (volar) surface of the finger, as well as the nail on the dorsal surface.
1776:
1719:
Gough-Palmer, Antony L.; Maclachlan, Jody; Routh, Andrew (March 2008). "Paws for
Thought: Comparative Radiologic Anatomy of the Mammalian Forelimb".
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744:(as found in ancestral species) — in contrast to the derived elongated hand pattern and poorly developed thumb musculature of other extant
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Hamrick, MW (Jun 1998). "Functional and adaptive significance of primate pads and claws: evidence from New World anthropoids".
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usually had the formula 2-3-4-4-5, and this pattern, with some modification, remained in many later reptiles and in the
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The distal phalanges are cone-shaped in most mammals, including most primates, but relatively wide and flat in humans.
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1411:"Early Origin for Human-Like Precision Grasping: A Comparative Study of Pollical Distal Phalanges in Fossil Hominins"
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Mittra, ES; Smith, HF; Lemelin, P; Jungers, WL (Dec 2007). "Comparative morphometrics of the primate apical tuft".
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The Netter
Collection of Medical Illustrations: Musculoskeletal System, Volume 6, Part II - Spine and Lower Limb
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Cooper, Lisa; Sears, Karen; Armfield, Brooke; Kala, Bhavneet; Hubler, Merla; Thewissen, J G M (2017-10-01).
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Cooper, Lisa; Sears, Karen; Armfield, Brooke; Kala, Bhavneet; Hubler, Merla; Thewissen, J G M (2017-10-01).
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and phalangeal bones — are elongated to the extent that they serve little use beyond locomotion. The
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1167:. Illustrations by Richard Mitchell and Paul Richardson. Philadelphia: Elsevier/Churchill Livingstone.
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White, Tim; Black, Michael; Folkens, Pieter (2011). "13 - Foot: Tarsals, Metatarsals, and
Phalanges".
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Whales exhibit hyperphalangy. Hyperphalangy is an increase in the number of phalanges beyond the
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in which soldiers stand side by side, several rows deep, like an arrangement of fingers or toes.
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In vertebrates, proximal phalanges have a similar placement in the corresponding limbs, be they
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Moulton, Lawrence
Stephen; Prasad, Seema; Lamb, Robert G.; Sirikonda, Siva P. (December 2012).
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and style of locomotion appear to play a role in apical tuft size. Suspensory primates and
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1087:"How many joints does the 5th toe have? A review of 606 patients of 655 foot radiographs"
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Almécija, Sergio; Moyà-Solà, Salvador; Alba, David M.; Strait, David S. (22 July 2010).
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Thumb and index finger of right hand during pad-to-pad precision grasping in ulnar view.
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mammal condition of three phalanges-per-digit. Hyperphalangy was present among extinct
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fingertip pads and nails. The phalanx of the thumb has a pronounced insertion for the
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37:"Phalange" redirects here. For the Spanish or general political movement, see
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Toe bones or phalanges of the foot. Note the big toe has no middle phalanx.
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Comparison of the phalanges of an orangutan, dog, pig, cow, tapir and horse
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10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199806)106:2<113::AID-AJPA2>3.0.CO;2-R
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fifth toes are often fused together (symphalangism). The phalanges of the
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Merrill's Atlas of
Radiographic Positioning and Procedures - 3-Volume Set
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Movement of the three finger phalanges; Distal, middle and proximal
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second and fifth metacarpals, and their palm extends to the distal
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People vary; sometimes the smallest toe also has none (not shown).
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have the smallest apical tufts, while terrestrial quadrupeds and
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and the resemblance between human hands and the short hands of
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1380:. Center for Academic Research & Training in Anthropogeny
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Drake, Richard L.; Vogl, Wayne; Tibbitts, Adam W. M. (2005).
300:, the thumbs and big toes have two phalanges while the other
807:-- but not other marine mammals, leaving whales as the only
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The phalanx ends in a crescent-shaped rough cap of bone
1620:"Perspectives on hyperphalangy: patterns and processes"
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harvnb error: no target: CITEREFShrewsburyJohnson1975 (
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Palastanga, Nigel; Field, Derek; Soames, Roger (2013).
672:, for example, the phalangeal formula is 0/2/7/7/3; in
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Rollins, Jeannean; Long, Bruce; Curtis, Tammy (2022).
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apes, suggest that human hand proportions are largely
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including humans have a 2-3-3-3-3 formula in both the
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Digital bone in the hands and feet of most vertebrates
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are smaller than the proximal, and each ends in two
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Each phalanx consists of a central part, called the
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Textbook of
Anatomy Upper Limb and Thorax; Volume 1
304:have three phalanges. The phalanges are classed as
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may be too technical for most readers to understand
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1282:Anatomy and Human Movement: Structure and Function
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920:ungulates, what remain of the "hands" — the
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406:A phalanx is named according to whether it is
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600:and these in primates are referred to as the
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1056:"Evaluation and management of toe fractures"
620:The term phalanx or phalanges refers to an
41:. For the Lebanese political movement, see
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1309:Iannotti, Joseph; Parker, Richard (2013).
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1544:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
1509:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
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1259:. Arcturus Publishing. pp. 192–193.
91:Learn how and when to remove this message
75:, without removing the technical details.
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516:. The flexor insertion is sided by two
418:. The proximal phalanges join with the
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1494:, doi: 10.1002/dvg.23076. October 2017
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73:make it understandable to non-experts
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1618:Fedak, Tim J; Hall, Brian K (2004).
997:Joints of the hand in an X-ray image
985:Unilateral extra phalangeal crease
440:interphalangeal joints of the foot
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656:. The phalangeal formula in the
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1757:MedTerms.com Medical Dictionary
436:interphalangeal joints of hand
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1468:Shrewsbury & Johnson 1975
320:The phalanges in a human hand
1436:10.1371/journal.pone.0011727
622:ancient Greek army formation
1165:Gray's Anatomy for Students
676:the formula is 1/10/7/2/1.
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1378:"Apical Phalangeal Tufts"
1349:Anatomy of the Human Body
1103:10.1016/j.fas.2012.04.003
1060:American Family Physician
766:Among non-human primates
432:metatarsophalangeal joint
428:metacarpophalangeal joint
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1317:Elsevier Health Sciences
1225:Elsevier Health Sciences
588:The distal phalanges of
178:Anatomical terms of bone
32:Phalanx (disambiguation)
1219:Singh, Vishram (2014).
454:, and two extremities.
1899:inferior nasal conchae
1091:Foot and Ankle Surgery
1021:anatomical terminology
942:interphalangeal joints
889:Terminal phalanx of a
854:Distal phalanges of a
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510:flexor pollicis longus
498:flexor pollicis longus
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1286:Butterworth-Heinemann
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2601:supracondylar ridges
1733:10.1148/rg.282075061
1345:Gray, Henry (1918).
1253:Gray, Henry (2008).
877:Three-fingered sloth
654:mammal-like reptiles
611:History of phalanges
468:proximal extremities
30:For other uses, see
2314:accessory navicular
1427:2010PLoSO...511727A
668:in the digits). In
426:of the foot at the
148:metatarsophalangeal
144:Metacarpophalangeal
2888:Vertebrate anatomy
2566:deltoid tuberosity
1624:Journal of Anatomy
1521:10.1002/ajpa.20687
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948:Additional images
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823:Other mammals
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789:plesiomorphic
782:
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742:plesiomorphic
739:
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734:australopiths
726:
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666:phalanx bones
663:
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628:Other animals
627:
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623:
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582:
572:
563:
559:
556:This section
554:
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410:, middle, or
409:
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287:
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280:
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242:
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185:
179:
175:
172:
171:pl. phalanges
167:
165:
161:
156:
153:
149:
145:
142:
140:Articulations
138:
133:
126:
121:
114:
109:
104:
95:
92:
84:
74:
70:
64:
61:This article
59:
50:
49:
44:
40:
33:
19:
2853:intermediate
2839:
2742:Carpal bones
2716:near wrist (
2707:radial notch
2693:near elbow (
2665:near wrist (
2654:near elbow (
2614:
2600:
2586:
2570:
2554:
2535:
2521:
2515:
2484:
2464:supraglenoid
2460:infraglenoid
2455:
2436:
2418:
2297:intermediate
2286:
2042:Appendicular
1823:Neurocranium
1724:
1720:
1684:
1680:
1670:
1627:
1623:
1613:
1586:
1582:
1572:
1547:
1543:
1537:
1512:
1508:
1492:ResearchGate
1491:
1482:
1463:
1418:
1414:
1389:
1382:. Retrieved
1348:
1311:
1304:
1281:
1275:
1255:
1220:
1214:
1190:
1183:
1164:
1158:
1134:
1127:
1094:
1090:
1080:
1063:
1059:
930:
907:
896:ground sloth
890:
797:ichthyosaurs
786:
768:phylogenesis
765:
763:toolmaking.
761:
753:Neanderthals
750:
730:
709:
678:
674:pilot whales
648:. Primitive
631:
619:
601:
587:
569:January 2014
566:
562:adding to it
557:
535:
527:
502:
494:
485:
475:
467:
459:
451:
449:
446:Bone anatomy
405:
384:
346:
240:
195:
193:
168:
106:Phalanx bone
87:
81:January 2014
78:
62:
2667:ulnar notch
2587:epicondyles
2423:subscapular
2282:metatarsals
2148:metacarpals
2118:lunate bone
1384:January 28,
801:plesiosaurs
524:Development
514:aponeurosis
424:metatarsals
420:metacarpals
379:of the foot
369:of the foot
359:of the foot
294:vertebrates
158:Identifiers
2883:Long bones
2877:Categories
2760:triquetral
2695:tuberosity
2660:tuberosity
2526:anatomical
2122:triquetral
1039:References
973:Phalanges.
961:Phalanges.
922:metacarpal
632:Most land
463:downwards.
396:fourth and
306:long bones
43:Phalangism
2840:Phalanges
2775:trapezoid
2770:trapezium
2699:olecranon
2627:olecranon
2577:capitulum
2536:tubercles
2456:tubercles
2309:accessory
2287:phalanges
2270:cuneiform
2265:navicular
2260:anklebone
2153:phalanges
2134:trapezoid
2130:trapezium
2001:vertebrae
1889:zygomatic
1831:occipital
1644:0021-8782
1111:1460-9584
938:vestigial
918:even-toed
910:ungulates
805:mosasaurs
783:Cetaceans
746:hominoids
662:cetaceans
616:Etymology
605:phalanges
590:ungulates
506:epiphysis
312:Structure
196:phalanges
39:Falangism
18:Phalanges
2848:proximal
2780:capitate
2765:pisiform
2750:scaphoid
2623:coronoid
2582:trochlea
2530:surgical
2493:inferior
2489:superior
2475:acromion
2378:clavicle
2292:proximal
2255:heelbone
2138:capitate
2126:pisiform
2114:scaphoid
2059:clavicle
2051:Shoulder
2011:thoracic
2006:cervical
1976:rib cage
1932:ossicles
1909:mandible
1894:palatine
1884:lacrimal
1851:sphenoid
1846:temporal
1836:parietal
1741:18349453
1703:29068152
1662:15032905
1605:29068152
1529:17657781
1455:20661444
1415:PLOS ONE
1119:23093121
1072:14705761
1015:See also
914:odd-toed
757:hominins
714:Primates
658:flippers
650:reptiles
541:Function
480:condyles
416:knuckles
408:proximal
298:primates
292:of most
2790:hamulus
2638:Forearm
2605:lateral
2591:lateral
2540:greater
2508:Humerus
2497:lateral
2437:notches
2411:Scapula
2364:of the
2250:tarsals
2217:patella
2189:ischium
2110:carpals
2082:humerus
2064:scapula
1971:sternum
1937:malleus
1879:maxilla
1856:ethmoid
1841:frontal
1795:in the
1681:Genesis
1653:1571266
1583:Genesis
1564:9637179
1446:2908684
1423:Bibcode
926:giraffe
738:Miocene
725:Orrorin
634:mammals
392:big toe
284:in the
279:digital
241:phalanx
169:phalanx
135:Details
67:Please
2858:distal
2785:hamate
2755:lunate
2647:Radius
2619:radial
2615:fossae
2609:medial
2595:medial
2544:lesser
2485:angles
2419:fossae
2302:distal
2275:cuboid
2222:fibula
2176:Pelvis
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